Mechanics lab.

First year students

Experiments’ sheet
First semester
Experiments:
1. Determination of the acceleration of gravity by using a simple pendulum.
2. Determination of the velocity of sound by means of a resonance tube closed at one end.
3. Experiments with a spiral spring.
4. Determination of the acceleration of gravity by a compound pendulum (bar pendulum).
5. Determination of the moment of inertia of a flywheel.
6. Determination of the Coefficient of Static and Kinetic Friction.

Note: Download source

https://academics.su.edu.krd/bestoon.mustafa/teaching
 Experiment one

Determination of the acceleration of gravity by means of a simple pendulum

Aim:
Earth gravitation ‘g’ is calculated.
Tools and equipments:
Metre scale. A meter rule, a stand, a metal bob, good quality string, Stop /watch
Procedure and data collection:
1. Tie the hook of the bob on one end of a thread (about 1 meter). Clamp the other end
firmly between the gaps of a split cork which is fixed to the clamp of the retort stand as shown
in the figure 1.
2. Measure the length 'l' from the middle of the bob to the lower edge of the split cork.
3. Move bob using the hand at a small angle and leave it. See that the bob returns over the
line without spinning.
4. The stop watch is started when the pendulum crosses the equilibrium position to any one
side. You can also start at the releasing point and take one complete cycle as one oscillation.
5. Just when the 20th oscillation is complete, record the time at once stop the stop watch.
6. Repeat step 5 for several length of the thread and record the data in the table 1.
7. Plot a graph between ‘l’ and T2
8. Use equation 1 to obtain the ‘g’ value.
9. Compare your result with theoretical value of ‘g’.

Figure 1. Experimental set-up

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 Table 1. Data collection
(T) Time of one oscillationT2 (sec2)
Length (m)(t) Time of 20 oscillation
(sec) (sec)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

𝑙 𝑙
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑥 2 …….equ.1-a, where 2 is equal to slope in figure 2. Hence, equation 1 can
𝑇 𝑇
be written as below:

𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑥𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ……equ.1-b

Figure 2. Graphical distribution

Common questions
1) What is the effect of mass on the period (for a given value of the length)?
2) What role, if any, does air resistance have on your results? Explain your
reasoning.
3) On the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is one-sixth that of earth. That is
g moon = g earth /6 = (9.8 m/s2 )/6 = 1.63 m/s2 .
check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTN0HFD7Utw

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 Experiment two

Determination of the speed of sound by means of a resonance tube closed at

one end
Aim:
Determination of the velocity of sound by means of a resonance tube closed at one end.

APPARATUS:

Resonance tube, assorted tuning forks, rubber bands, striking block, water.

PROCEDURE:

(1) Strike a tuning fork against a soft material such as a rubber block. Hold the vibrating fork
near the open end of the resonant tube and listen to the sound intensity as the water level is
raised or lowered. When a position of maximum sound intensity is found, record the position of
the water level (L) on the tube scale or with a meter stick (figure 1). The scale reads from zero
at the top, so this directly gives the length of the resonant air column. There may be 2, 3, or
more resonant lengths for each tuning fork. Find them all.

Figure 1. Experimental set-up

(2) Check the data for consistency. The spacing between the resonant lengths should be about
equal, and this spacing should be twice the length of the shortest tube length.

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(3) Repeat procedure (1) and (2) for a fork of different frequency.

(4) Record your data in table 1.

(5) Plot a graph between L (mean) and 1/f. Find the value of slope from it.

(6) Use equ. 1 to find out the experimental value of the speed of sound.

(7) Compare experimental results with theoretical results of equ.2

Note: Do not forget to measure the room temperature (T) and the diameter of the tube.

Table 1. Data collection

Frequency (f) [Hz] Length of air column (L) [m] 1/f

L1 L2 L (mean)
Try several frequencies

𝜆 𝑣
𝐿 + 𝜀 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐿 + 𝜀 =
2 2𝑓

𝑣 1
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐿 = 𝑥 − 𝜀 or
2 𝑓

𝒗 = 𝟐 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 …………… equ.1 (to measure the experimental value)

𝜀 = is the end correction of the tube and its experimental value is equal to the negative
intercept of the y-axis.

273+𝑇
𝑣 = 331 √ …… equ.2 (m/s) (to measure the theoretical value)
272

and 𝜀 = 2 𝑥 0.6 𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

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 Figure 2. Experimental evaluation

Questions:

1. What is the influence of temperature on the speed of sound?

2. How the speed of sound changes with variations of the tube diameter?
3. Explain the reputation of sound in only some specific length (L).
4. How does vibration cause sound production?
5. Explain figure 3 and 4.

THEORY:

(1) The frequency of sound in a medium is related to the wavelength by the formula v = fλ where
v is the speed of sound in the medium, f is the frequency of the sound, and λ (Greek letter
"lambda") represents the wavelength of the sound in the medium. This formula is used to
calculate the speed of sound in air from measurements of wavelength and frequency.

(2) The sound speed varies with temperature. At 0°C the speed in air is 331.4 m/sec, while at
20°C it is 344 m/sec. The speed is very nearly linearly dependent on temperature. Use this
information to write an equation for speed of sound as a function of temperature.

(3) RESONANCE. When a vibrating object sets up air vibrations in an enclosed space, the
sound vibrations in the air are very weak at some frequencies, and strong at other frequencies.
The frequencies at which the sound vibrations are strong are called resonant frequencies of the
system, and these are easily recognized by listening to the sound intensity. Altering the shape
or size of the enclosed volume will give a different set of resonant frequencies.

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Resonance occurs because the walls of the enclosure restrict the ways in which the air inside
can vibrate. Each of the ways it can vibrate is called a mode of vibration. The number of
different modes of any container is infinite, but there are not allowed modes for every
frequency.

When the air within an enclosure is set into periodic vibration, the values of many measurable
quantities change periodically with time. Such quantities as particle position, velocity, pressure,
density, and even temperature vary periodically. The average size of the variation of any one
quantity is different in different parts of the medium. There may be certain points in the medium
where a particular quantity is not varying at all. Such a region is called a node of that quantity.
A region where the variation of a quantity has a relative maximum is called an antinode of that
quantity.

In long tubes, there will always be a particle velocity node at a closed end, since the closure
prevents air motion. There will be a particle velocity antinode near an open end. In any tube,
the spacing between a node and the next closest antinode is always 1/4 of the wavelength of the
sound.

Figure 3. resonant wavelength of a tube of fixed length

Figure 4. Resonant tube length for constant wavelength

Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CM5IFM0N1bE
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 Experiment three

Experiments with a spiral spring

Aim
To verify the Hook’s law and gravity determination with vibration mode.

Apparatus
Spiral spring to which a light pointer is attached by plasticine at its lower end, rigid strand and
clamp, meter rule, scale-pan, weights and stop-watch.

Fig.1. Setup of experiment

Methods: Two experiments are carried out.

Experiment 1: To verify Hooke’s law and find the spring constant.
Procedure: The spring with scale pan attached is firmly clamped and the meter scale placed
vertically so that the pointer moves lightly over it. Loads are added to the scale pan and the
corresponding extensions of the spring are noted. The scale readings are also taken when
unloading the spring, and the mean extension thus obtained. Plot a graph between the load and
mean extension. Use equation (1) to determine slope 1 from figure 2.

F = -k ∆x [Hooke's law]
𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘∆x ∆x = = 𝑚𝑛 where 𝑛 = = spring constant, Also
𝑘 𝑘

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 ∆x
𝑛= …………….slope 1. In unit gm/cm
𝑚
Table 1. Data collection of exp. 1

Load [kg] Extension [cm] Mean extension Mean extension

Load increasing Load decreasing (∆x) [cm] (∆x) [m]

Fig. 2. Extension versus load

Experiment 2: To determine the declaration of gravity and the effective mass (m) of the spring.
Procedure: A load is added to the pan which is set in vertical vibration by giving it a small
additional displacement. The periodic time (T) is obtained by timing 20 vibrations. This is
repeated with different loads and a graph of (T2) against load is plotted (fig.3), from which g
and m are found.
Note: the mass of the scale pan should be included in the load.
Table 2. Data collection of exp.2
Load M [kg] (T) Time of one oscillation [sec] T2 [sec2]
Time of 20 oscillation [sec]

𝑀 𝑀 𝐴𝐶
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑛 , 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔 3, = =slope 2.
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝐵𝐶
Thus
4𝜋2 𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 1
𝑔= = 4𝜋 2 in m/s2
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 2

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Also, effective mass of the spring (m)=OD in kg,

Fig. 3. Mass versus time of oscillation

Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQCJeAqBumE

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 Experiment four

Determination of the acceleration of gravity by a compound pendulum (bar

pendulum)
OBJECT: To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity and radius of gyration using
bar pendulum.

Apparatus: Bar pendulum, stop watch and meter scale.

Formula:
A. The general formula of the time period for bar pendulum is given by following equation:
𝑘2
+𝑙 𝑙 +𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙 = 2𝜋 √ 2 1
𝑔 𝑔

𝒍𝟐 +𝒍𝟏 𝑳
𝒈 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐 …………. (1)
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐
Where 𝑙: distance between C.G. and suspension point, L: distance between suspension and
𝑘2
oscillation points, 𝐿 = 𝑙2 + 𝑙1 = 𝑙 + ( ), g: acceleration due to gravity, T: time period
𝑙

B. The time period is minimum when 𝑙 = ±k, in this situation the equation (1) becomes as:
2𝑘
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑜𝑟
𝑔
(𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒌)
𝒈= ……………….(2)
𝑻𝟐𝒎𝒊𝒏
where, k: radius of gyration, Tmin: minimum time period.
The value of ‘g’ can be calculated using equations (1) and (2).
The values of L, T, k and Tmin are obtained using graph between T and L for bar pendulum
which is shown in following figure.

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From Figures (1) and (2),
(a) L1=AC+CD, L2=EC+CB and L=(L1+L2)/2, T=time at C
(b) k =(PQ+QR)/2 and Tmin= time at Q

C. The radius of gyration can be obtained with following formula

𝒌 = √ 𝒍𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏
Where l1=(AC+CE)/2, l2=(BC+CD)/2

Procedure:
(1) Place the knife-edges at the first hole of the bar.
(2) Suspend the pendulum through rigid support with the knife-edge.
(3) Oscillate the pendulum for small amplitude (θ=3~40).
(4) Note the time taken for 20 oscillations and measure the distance of the hole from the C.G.
of the bar.
(5) Repeat the observations (2)-(4) for knife-edges at first half side holes of bar.
(6) Repeat the process (1)-(5) for the second half side of the bar.
(7) Plot the graph between T and L.

Observations:
1. Least count of the stop watch = ….. sec
2. Least count of the meter scale =…… cm
3. The acceleration due to gravity (g) = … m/s2 and Radius of gyration (k) =…cm

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 Table 1. Data collection
l (cm) t (time taken for 20 oscillations) T = t/20

For first half side of the bar

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
For second half side of the bar
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45

Calculation: From fig.2, find the following:

• L=(AD+EB)/2= ? T= ? sec
• k=PR/2= ? Tmin= ? sec
• l1=(AC+CE)/2=?
• l2=(BC+CD)/2 = ?
𝐿
• 𝑔1 = 4𝜋 2
𝑇2
(8𝜋2 𝑘)
• 𝑔2 = 2
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑔1 + 𝑔2
• 𝑔𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
2
Question:
What is the main difference between simple pendulum and compound pendulum?
Give examples of compound pendulum.
Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jac3A-ecs4c

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 Experiment five

Determination of the moment of inertia of a flywheel

Aim
To compare the theoretical and experimental value of moment of inertia for flywheel.
Equipments
1. vernier
2. Flywheel
3. string
4. meter ruler
5. Stop watch
6. slotted mass on hanger. Fig. 1

Procedure:
• To start with the experiment one end of the string is looped on the peg and a suitable weight is
placed in the weight hanger. The fly wheel is rotated ‘n’ times such that the string is wound over ‘n’ turns
on the axle without overlapping. The flywheel is held stationary at this position. The height ‘h’ from the
floor to the bottom of the weight hanger is measured. The flywheel is then released. The mass descends
down and the flywheel rotates. Start a stop watch just when the peg detaches the axle. Count the
number of rotations ‘N’ made by the wheel during the time interval between the peg gets detached from
the axle and when the wheel comes to rest. The time interval ‘t’ also is noted. The experiment is
repeated for same ‘n’ and same mass ‘m’. The average value of ‘N’ and ‘t’ are determined.
• Record the data in table 1.
• Measure the diameter (D)and radius (r) of the axle using vernier calipers (m).
• The angular velocity of the wheel (𝝎) and moment of inertia ‘I’ are calculated using equations
(1) and (2).
• The entire experiment is repeated for different values of ‘n’ and ‘m’ and the average value of I is
calculated.

Notes:
• Ensure that the length of the string is such that when the mass just touches the floor
the peg gets detached from the axle.

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• In certain wheels the peg is firmly attached to the axle. In such case, one end of the
string is loosely looped around the peg such that when the mass just touches the floor the
loop gets slipped off from the peg.
• ‘m’ is the sum of mass of weight hanger and the additional mass placed on it.

Table 1. Data collection

𝟒𝝅𝑵
𝝎= ……(1)
𝒕
𝑵𝒎 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑰 = 𝑵+𝒏 (( 𝝎𝟐 ) − 𝒓𝟐 ) ……..(2) kg.m2

Theory:
A flywheel is an inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs mechanical energy and serves
as a reservoir, storing energy during the period when the supply of energy is more than the
requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is more than the
supply. The main function of a fly wheel is to smoothen out variations in the speed of a shaft
caused by torque fluctuations. Many machines have load patterns that cause the torque to vary
over the cycle. Internal combustion engines with one or two cylinders, piston compressors,
punch presses, rock crushers etc. are the systems that have fly wheel.

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 Figure 2.
A flywheel is a massive wheel fitted with a strong axle projecting on either side of it. The
axle is mounted on ball bearings on two fixed supports as shown in fig.2. There is a small peg
inserted loosely in a hole on the axle. One end of a string is looped on the peg and the other end
carries a weight hanger. A pointer is arranged close to the rim of the flywheel. To do the
experiment, the length of the string is adjusted such that when the descending mass just touches
the floor, the peg must detach the axle. Now a line is drawn on the rim with a chalk just below
the pointer. The string is then attached to the peg and the wheel is rotated for a known number
of times ‘n’ such that the string is wound over ‘n’ turns on the axle without overlapping. Now
the mass m is at a height ‘h’ from the floor. The mass is then allowed to descend down. It exerts
a torque on the axle of the flywheel. Due to this torque the flywheel rotates with an angular
acceleration. Let 𝝎 be the angular velocity of the wheel when the peg just detaches the axle and
W be the work done against friction per one rotation, then by law of conservation of energy,

Let N be the number of rotations made by the wheel before it stops. Since the kinetic
energy of rotation of the flywheel is completely dissipated when it comes to rest, we can write,

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where, ‘r’ is the radius of the axle. To determine 𝝎 we assume that the angular retardation of
the flywheel is uniform after the mass gets detached from the axle. Then,

Notes:
• Connect this experiment with devices used in daily life.
• You may check the bellow link,
Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9agoJRCnu4w

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 Experiment six

Determination of the coefficient of static friction

Aim:
To determine the coefficient of static and kinetic friction.

Equipments:
1. Wooden, glass and Plexiglas slabs.
2. Wooden, glass and Plexiglas path.
3. Dynamometer.
4. Weights

Experimental Procedure
1. Set the equipments as shown in the figure below.
2. Calculate the normal force for each different mass combination with the equation N=mg
(g=9.81 m/s2).
3. Apply horizontal force with and without mass for static friction (i.e. the maximum applied
force without motion).
4. Record the maximum static friction force for the relative mass (which is equal to the applied
force).
5. Apply horizontal force with and without mass for kinetic friction (i.e. apply constant force
with constant motion).
6. Record the kinetic friction force for the relative mass (which is equal to the applied force).
7. Work out the coefficient of friction for all static and kinetic cases with the equation μ = f /
N.
8. Record the coefficients.
9. Plot the graphs of fapplied versus N and calculate the slope to find the average with graphical
method.

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 Table 1. Data collection
Surfaces Weight (N) Normal F-static µ µ average
Force (N) (N)

Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ON8h8Tg65Sc

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