SUMMARY

Table comparing the key characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria, Phylum Porifera, and Phylum
Platyhelminthes

Feature Phylum Cnidaria Phylum Porifera Phylum Platyhelminthes

Symmetry Radially symmetrical Radial symmetry or Bilaterally symmetrical

none

Tissue Layers Diploblastic (epidermis Multicellular; lack Triploblastic (ectoderm,

and gastrodermis true tissues and mesoderm, and endoderm)
derived from ectoderm organs (some cell
and endoderm, specialization)
respectively)

Body Cavity Gastrovascular cavity Water canal system Acoelomate (lack a true
(blind gut) (no true body cavity) coelom)

Digestive System Incomplete (mouth Filter feeding via Incomplete (mouth, pharynx,
leads to water currents; and a blind gut, often
gastrovascular cavity) intracellular branched); Absent in Cestoda
digestion (tapeworms)

Specialized Cells Cnidocytes with Choanocytes (collar Flame cells (protonephridia)

nematocysts (stinging cells for filter for excretion; Parenchyma
cells) feeding); (mesodermally derived
Pinacocytes; packing tissue); Sensory,
Amebocytes motor, and association
neurons

Support/Skeleton Some have Spicules (calcareous Primarily muscular;

exoskeletons (e.g., or siliceous) and/or Parenchyma also provides
corals) spongin fibers support
 Reproduction Asexual (budding, Asexual (buds, Asexual (fission in some
fission); Sexual gemmules); Sexual Turbellaria); Sexual (mostly
(gametes) (eggs and sperm, monoecious,
free-swimming cross-fertilization)
larvae)

Habitat Mostly aquatic, Mostly marine, all Marine, freshwater, and moist
primarily marine aquatic terrestrial

Other Notable May have polyp and Porous body with Many are parasitic; Syncytial
Features medusa body forms in ostia and oscula; tegument in parasitic classes
life cycle; Nerve net Sessile adults (Neodermata); Exhibit
cephalization (concentration of
sense organs at the anterior
end)

Excerpts from "Lec 6 Systematics.pdf":

This source, "Lec 6 Systematics," introduces the field of systematics, which is the scientific
study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships. It defines key
terms like taxonomy (the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms) and
classification (arranging organisms into groups based on evolutionary relationships). The
source emphasizes that human activity is reducing biodiversity and causing extinctions.

It discusses the binomial system of naming organisms (genus and specific epithet) and
the Linnaean hierarchical classification from domain to species. The history of
systematics is touched upon, noting the traditional division into Plantae and Animalia.

The source explains the concept of phylogeny, the evolutionary history of a group of
organisms, which modern taxonomy aims to reconstruct using shared characters. It
differentiates between homologous structures (derived from a recent common ancestor)
and homoplasy (similarity due to convergent evolution or reversal).

Key concepts in reconstructing evolutionary history, such as shared ancestral characters

(plesiomorphies) and shared derived characters (synapomorphies), are explained.
Shared derived characters are used to identify clades (monophyletic groups). The
challenges of choosing taxonomic criteria and the use of a combination of traits are
mentioned.

The source discusses molecular systematics, which uses the structure of macromolecules
like DNA and RNA to clarify evolutionary relationships and identify molecular homologies.
Cladograms, diagrams showing hypothetical evolutionary relationships, are introduced,
along with the concepts of monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups.

Different approaches to systematics are described, including the phenetic approach (based
on the number of shared characters) and cladistics (based on recent common ancestry and
shared derived characters). Outgroup analysis for constructing cladograms and the
principle of parsimony are explained. The use of maximum likelihood, a statistical
method for analyzing molecular data, is also mentioned. The three domains of life (Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya) are presented as the main branches of the tree of life, with a brief
mention of horizontal gene transfer and the "ring of life" hypothesis.

Excerpts from "Platyhelminthes.pdf":

This source focuses on the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. It describes their
general forms and functions, including the epidermis, muscles, excretion and
osmoregulation, nervous system, and reproduction.

The epidermis of most turbellarians is a ciliated cellular epidermis, while adult members of
the parasitic classes (Trematoda, Monogenea, and Cestoda) have a non-ciliated syncytial
tegument. The tegument, also called the neodermis, is a basis for uniting these parasitic
classes in the clade Neodermata.

Flatworms have a system of protonephridia with flame cells for excretion and
osmoregulation. Their nervous system typically consists of anterior ganglia and longitudinal
nerve cords. Turbellarians reproduce asexually by fission and sexually. Most flatworms
are monoecious (hermaphroditic) and practice cross-fertilization.

The source provides details on representative Platyhelminthes, including the classes

Trematoda (flukes), Monogenea (monogenetic flukes), and Cestoda (tapeworms).
Trematodes are parasitic flukes, often with complex life cycles involving multiple hosts,
including molluscs and vertebrates. Examples like Clonorchis sinensis (liver fluke) and
Paragonimus (lung fluke) are mentioned, as well as blood flukes (Schistosoma), which are
dioecious. Monogeneans are mostly external parasites of fish with direct life cycles.
Cestodes (tapeworms) are intestinal parasites lacking a digestive system, with a scolex for
attachment and a body divided into proglottids.

Excerpts from "Sponges.pdf":

This source introduces sponges (Phylum Porifera). It outlines the learning objectives,
including comparing choanoflagellates and multicellular animals, the role of sponges in
ecosystems, and the characteristics of the four sponge classes.

Sponges are mostly marine, filter-feeding aquatic organisms with radial symmetry or
none. Their body is characterized by canals and chambers that create water currents for
food and oxygen. The outer surface consists of pinacocytes, and the interior is lined with
choanocytes (flagellated collar cells). A gelatinous matrix called mesohyl contains various
amebocytes and skeletal elements.
The skeletal structure is made of fibrillar collagen and calcareous or siliceous crystalline
spicules, often combined with spongin (modified collagen). Sponges lack organs and true
tissues; digestion is intracellular, and excretion and respiration occur by diffusion. Reactions
to stimuli are apparently local, and a nervous system is probably absent, except for electrical
signals in syncytial glass sponges.

Excerpts from "Zoo Lec 8 Phylum Cnidaria.pdf":

This source provides an introduction to the Phylum Cnidaria. It lists learning objectives,
including describing cnidarian habitats, cnidocytes, and the roles of polyps and medusae
across different classes.

Cnidarians are named for their cnidocytes, specialized stinging cells. They have a blind
gut or gastrovascular cavity. The source describes the two basic body forms: polyps
(sessile, attached to a substratum) and medusae (free-swimming, bell-shaped). Polyps can
reproduce asexually, and colonies may exhibit polymorphism, with specialized polyps for
feeding (hydranths) and reproduction (gonangia). Medusae move by pulsations of their bell.

The source briefly mentions some cnidarian classes, including Scyphozoa (larger jellies)
and Cubozoa (box jellies with a reduced polyp stage).

Excerpts from "[book] Zoo Cnidarian.pdf":

This source offers a more detailed overview of cnidarians and ctenophores. It elaborates
on the characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria, noting they are mostly aquatic, with radial
symmetry, and diploblastic (having two tissue layers). A key feature is the presence of
cnidocytes with nematocysts, used for prey capture and defense.

The source further describes the polyp and medusa body forms and their functions. Many
cnidarians exhibit an alternation of generations between polyp and medusa stages,
although some have only one or the other. Polymorphism in colonial hydrozoans is
discussed in more detail.

The source surveys various classes of cnidarians, including Hydrozoa (hydroids,

siphonophores, some medusae), Scyphozoa (true jellyfish), Cubozoa (box jellies), and
Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals). Each class is characterized by variations in the dominant
body form, life cycle, and other features. Coral reefs and their ecological and economic
importance are highlighted.

The nervous system of cnidarians is described as a nerve net, and they possess sensory
structures like statocysts and ocelli in some groups. Reproduction is generally sexual and
asexual. The source also briefly introduces Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies), noting their
diploblastic nature, radial symmetry, and unique locomotory structures called comb rows.

Excerpts from "[book] Zoo Flatworm.pdf":

This source provides a comprehensive look at flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) and

related phyla. It begins with learning objectives covering various phyla, including
Xenacoelomorpha, Platyhelminthes, Gastrotricha, Gnathifera, and Mesozoa.
The placement of Platyhelminthes within the Lophotrochozoa, a subgroup of Protostomia,
is discussed. The source notes that while there isn't a single unique characteristic
(synapomorphy) for the entire phylum Platyhelminthes, recent molecular phylogenies
support its validity as a clade, with the syncytial tegument (neodermis) being a defining
feature for a large parasitic clade within it (Neodermata: Trematoda, Monogenea, Cestoda).

The source details the morphologies of flatworms within the classes Turbellaria (free-living
and some symbiotic/parasitic forms), Trematoda (digenetic flukes), Monogenea
(monogenetic flukes), and Cestoda (tapeworms), emphasizing adaptations to parasitism in
the latter three classes. It illustrates the impact of trematodes and cestodes on humans,
providing examples of diseases caused by liver flukes (Clonorchis sinensis), blood flukes
(Schistosoma spp.), and tapeworms (Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Diphyllobothrium
latum, Echinococcus granulosus).

The source also briefly describes other phyla: Xenacoelomorpha (simple worms),
Gastrotricha (tiny aquatic animals), the phyla within Gnathifera (characterized by cuticular
jaws), including Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, Rotifera, and Acanthocephala, and
Mesozoa (simple parasitic animals). Key features of rotifers, such as the corona and
mastax, are mentioned. The close relationship between Rotifera and Acanthocephala within
the clade Syndermata, based on features like a eutelic syncytial epidermis, is noted.

NOTES

Excerpts from "Lec 6 Systematics.pdf":

●​ Systematics is the scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary
relationships.
●​ Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms.
●​ Classification involves arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect
evolutionary relationships.
●​ Less than 10% of bacteria, 10% of fungi, 2% of nematodes, and 20% of insect species
have been identified.
●​ Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms and the ecosystems they are part of.
●​ Human activity is seriously reducing biodiversity, and species are becoming extinct
rapidly.
●​ Two justifications for scientific names and classifications are important.
●​ Carolus Linnaeus developed the binomial system of nomenclature (genus and specific
epithet).
●​ Linnaeus’ system uses a hierarchy of taxonomic levels.
●​ Systematics seeks to reconstruct phylogeny (evolutionary history) based on common
ancestry.
●​ Phylogeny is inferred from shared characters (structural, developmental, behavioral, and
molecular) and fossil evidence.
●​ Homologous characters are similarities due to shared ancestry, while homoplasy results
from convergent evolution or evolutionary reversals [No explicit mention of homology vs
homoplasy, but shared characters are mentioned as basis for phylogeny].
 ●​ Shared derived characters (synapomorphies) are novel traits that evolve when
populations diverge and are present in their descendants.
●​ Species that share derived characters form a clade (monophyletic group).
●​ A monophyletic group (clade) includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants.
●​ A paraphyletic group contains a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its
descendants.
●​ A polyphyletic group consists of several evolutionary lines that do not share the same
recent common ancestor.
●​ The phenetic approach (numerical taxonomy) is based on the number of shared
characters but does not distinguish between ancestral and derived characters.
●​ Cladistics (phylogenetic systematics) is based on recent common ancestry and shared
derived characters.
●​ Cladistics is expressed in cladograms.
●​ The evolutionary systematic approach uses phenotypic similarity and a combination of
shared ancestral and derived characters, recognizing both monophyletic and paraphyletic
taxa.
●​ Outgroup analysis estimates which attributes are shared derived characters.
●​ An outgroup is a taxon that branched off earlier than the group being studied (ingroup).
●​ The principle of parsimony is applied to cladogram construction.
●​ Maximum likelihood is a statistical method used for decision-making, especially in
analyzing molecular data.
●​ The three main branches of the tree of life are the three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukarya.

Excerpts from "Platyhelminthes.pdf":

●​ Most turbellarians have a ciliated cellular epidermis.

●​ Adult parasitic flatworms have a non-ciliated syncytial tegument.
●​ Syncytial means many nuclei are enclosed within a single cell membrane.
●​ The tegument (neodermis) is shared by Trematoda, Monogenea, and Cestoda, uniting
them in clade Neodermata.
●​ Flatworms have protonephridia with flame cells for excretion or osmoregulation.
●​ Most metabolic wastes are removed by diffusion across the body wall.
●​ Turbellarians have sensory, motor, and association neurons.
●​ Turbellarians reproduce asexually by fission and sexually.
●​ Turbellarians are often distinguished by the form of the gut and pharynx.
●​ Trematodes (flukes) are all parasites, mostly endoparasites of vertebrates.
●​ Trematodes typically have one or more suckers but lack the opisthaptor of
monogeneans.
●​ They have penetration glands, organs for adhesion (suckers, hooks), and increased
reproductive capacity.
●​ Some trematodes have second or third intermediate hosts.
●​ Digeneans (a subclass of Trematoda) have complex life cycles with a mollusc as the first
intermediate host and a vertebrate as the definitive host.
●​ Clonorchis sinensis is a liver fluke in humans common in eastern Asia.
●​ Paragonimus is a lung fluke found in various mammals, including humans.
●​ Schistosoma (blood flukes) are dioecious. S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S.
haematobium are important human parasites.
●​ Monogeneans are primarily parasites of gills and external surfaces of fishes, with direct
life cycles (single host, ciliated larva).
 ●​ Cestodes (tapeworms) are all parasites, lacking a digestive tract.
●​ Tapeworms have a scolex for attachment and a body divided into proglottids.

Excerpts from "Sponges.pdf":

●​ The source aims to compare colonial choanoflagellates and multicellular animals.

●​ It outlines the role of sponges in ecosystems and their contribution to human health.
●​ It explains the arrangement of choanocytes and other components across the four
sponge classes.
●​ It compares the organization and features of the four sponge classes.
●​ It contrasts the features of a placozoan with a typical diploblastic animal.
●​ Sponges belong to Phylum Porifera.
●​ Sponges are multicellular filter feeders with a porous body.
●​ They lack true tissues and organs.
●​ Water enters through pores (ostia) and exits through oscula.
●​ Choanocytes are flagellated collar cells that line internal chambers and capture food
particles.
●​ The body is supported by a skeleton of spicules (calcareous or siliceous) and/or spongin.
●​ Digestion is intracellular.
●​ Sponges play roles in marine ecosystems and have potential for pharmaceutical
compounds.
●​ The source discusses the origins of multicellularity and the relationship between sponges
and other animals.
●​ The basic sponge body plan involves a water canal system for filter feeding.

Excerpts from "Zoo Lec 8 Phylum Cnidaria.pdf":

●​ The source aims to describe the general habitat of cnidarians.

●​ It describes a cnidocyte and the functional components of polyps and medusae.
●​ It compares the roles of polyps and medusae across the six cnidarian classes.
●​ It describes the ctenophore body plan and locomotory structures.
●​ It compares diploblastic and triploblastic animals.
●​ Phylum Cnidaria is named from the Greek "knide" (nettle).
●​ Cnidarians possess cnidocytes, specialized stinging cells.
●​ They have two basic body forms: polyp (sessile) and medusa (free-swimming).
●​ The source mentions Scyphozoa (larger jellies) and Cubozoa (box jellies).

Excerpts from "[book] Zoo Cnidarian.pdf":

●​ Cnidarians and ctenophores are the focus of this chapter.

●​ Cnidarians are mostly aquatic, radially symmetrical, and diploblastic.
●​ A key feature is cnidocytes containing nematocysts used for prey capture.
●​ The two main body forms are the polyp (sessile, often colonial) and the medusa
(free-swimming).
●​ Many cnidarians exhibit an alternation of generations.
●​ Polymorphism occurs in colonial hydrozoans, with specialized zooids.
●​ The chapter covers classes Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, and Anthozoa (sea
anemones and corals).
●​ Coral reefs are ecologically important and economically valuable.
●​ Cnidarians have a nerve net.
 ●​ Some cnidarians have sensory structures like statocysts (balance) and ocelli (light
detection).
●​ Reproduction is generally both sexual and asexual.
●​ Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies) are also discussed, characterized by comb rows for
locomotion.
●​ Ctenophores are diploblastic and radially symmetrical.

Excerpts from "[book] Zoo Flatworm.pdf":

●​ The chapter discusses Phylum Xenacoelomorpha, Platyhelminthes, Gastrotricha,

Gnathifera, and Mesozoa.
●​ Platyhelminthes belongs to Lophotrochozoa, a subgroup of Protostomia.
●​ There isn't a single unique synapomorphy for all Platyhelminthes.
●​ The syncytial tegument (neodermis) is a key feature of the clade Neodermata
(Trematoda, Monogenea, Cestoda).
●​ Turbellaria includes free-living and some symbiotic/parasitic flatworms, often with a
ciliated epidermis and rhabdites.
●​ Trematoda (flukes) are parasitic with adaptations like suckers and penetration glands,
and complex life cycles affecting humans (e.g., liver flukes, blood flukes, lung flukes).
●​ Monogenea (monogenetic flukes) are mostly external parasites of fish with direct life
cycles.
●​ Cestoda (tapeworms) are intestinal parasites lacking a digestive system, relying on
absorption, with a scolex and proglottids, also impacting humans (e.g., beef, pork, fish
tapeworms).
●​ Xenacoelomorpha are simple worms with ciliated furrows and a blind gut.
●​ Gastrotricha are tiny aquatic animals with bristles and adhesive tubes.
●​ Gnathifera is a clade characterized by cuticular jaws, including Gnathostomulida,
Micrognathozoa, Rotifera, and Acanthocephala.
●​ Rotifera (rotifers) have a corona of cilia and a mastax with jaws (trophi). Some are
parthenogenetic.
●​ Acanthocephala are wormlike endoparasites with a proboscis bearing hooks. They are
closely related to rotifers within Syndermata, sharing a eutelic syncytial epidermis.
●​ Mesozoa are minute, simple, parasitic animals.