ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Review of electric and magnetic fields

Class #1
• Review of Electric and magnetic fields
• Concept of the Nabla operator 𝛁
• Gradient, Divergence and Curl Operations
• Divergence and curl of fields
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Concepts of Electric fields
Electric fields can be visualized through the electric flux lines
Electric field lines from positive and negative charges

• Electric charges can be isolated

• The potential at any point ‘x’ from the charge ‘Q’
𝑸 𝟏
• 𝑽𝒙 = ×
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒙

• The electric field due to a point charge

𝑸 𝟏
Images courtesy Hyperphysics, Wikipedia
• 𝑬𝒙 = ×
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒙𝟐

• The electric field in terms of the potential

𝒅𝑽𝒙
• 𝑬𝒙 = −
𝒅𝒙
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Concepts of Magnetic fields
Magnetic dipoles
• Magnetic mono poles do not exist
• Fields can be expressed in terms of the flux lines
• Flux lines are continuous from the north pole to the south pole

Magnetic field lines of a magnetic dipole

Images courtesy Hyperphysics, Wikipedia

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS - Importance!

Goes on…..
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Maxwell’s equations - Integral form & Differential form
Equations connecting the existing ideas of electric and
magnetic fields and their inter-related phenomena…………

𝝆
𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜺𝒐

𝛁. 𝑩 = 𝟎
𝝏𝑩
𝛁𝐱𝑬 = −
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑬
𝛁𝐱𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒋Ԧ + 𝝁𝒐 𝜺𝒐
𝝏𝒕

𝝏φ 𝝏𝑩.𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝝏𝑩 𝝏𝐄
Help note: = = , 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operations with Del or Nabla operator - 𝜵
The Nabla operator is a differential vector operator
𝝏 𝝏 ෡ 𝝏
➢ 𝜵 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ +𝒌 .…. Del operator
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
➢ 𝜵. 𝜵 = + = 𝛁𝟐 ….. Laplacian operator
+ 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛
Operations with the Nabla operator ( del operator)
➢ 𝜵 operates on a scalar to give a vector 𝝏𝑽𝒙 𝝏𝑽𝒚 𝝏𝑽
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝑽 = 𝛁𝑽 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ ෡ 𝒛
+𝒌
- Gradient of the scalar 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑽𝒙 𝝏𝑽𝒚 𝝏𝑽𝒛
➢ The dot product (.) of 𝛁 with a vector gives a scalar 𝑫𝒊𝒗 𝑽 = 𝛁. 𝑽 =
𝝏𝒙
+
𝝏𝒚
+
𝝏𝒛
- Divergence of the vector
𝒊Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒌
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
➢ The cross product (x) of 𝛁 with a vector gives a vector 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝑨 = 𝛁 × 𝑨 =
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
- Curl of the vector 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
An important vector identity

➢ 𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝐀 = 𝛁 𝛁. 𝐀 − 𝛁𝟐 𝐀 ….. An important vector identity

Also understand………………

𝛛𝐕𝐱 𝛛𝐕𝐲 𝛛𝐕𝐳

𝐃𝐢𝐯 𝐕 = 𝛁. 𝐕 = + +
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳

𝐢Ƹ 𝐣Ƹ መ
𝐤
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐥 𝐀 = 𝛁 × 𝐀 =
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝐀𝐱 𝐀𝐲 𝐀𝐳
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Maxwell’s equations in free space
Summarized by Maxwell (1860)………..
In free space (which does not have sources of charges and
currents)
𝛁. 𝑬 = 𝟎 (1)
𝜵. 𝑩 = 𝟎 (2)
𝝏𝑩
𝜵𝒙𝑬 = − (3)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑬
𝜵𝒙𝑩 = +𝝁𝒐 𝜺𝒐 (4)
𝝏𝒕
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electric and Magnetic waves: Pre-requisites

A general wave equation,

𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐀
𝛁𝟐 𝐀 = , with 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐯
𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

Laplacian operator
𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐
𝛁𝟐 = 𝛁. 𝛁 = + +
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝛛𝐲 𝟐 𝛛𝐳 𝟐

Vector identity
𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝐀 = 𝛁 𝛁. 𝐀 − 𝛁𝟐 𝐀
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic wave equations

Class #2
• Maxwell’s equations in differential form
• Maxwell’s equations in free space
• Ideas of electric and magnetic waves
• EM wave as coupled E and B waves
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Maxwell’s equations in free space
Summarized by Maxwell (1860)………..
In free space (which does not have sources of charges and
currents)
𝛁. 𝑬 = 𝟎 (1)
𝜵. 𝑩 = 𝟎 (2)
𝝏𝑩
𝜵𝒙𝑬 = − (3)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑬
𝜵𝒙𝑩 = +𝝁𝒐 𝜺𝒐 (4)
𝝏𝒕
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electric and Magnetic waves: Pre-requisites

A general wave equation,

𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐀
𝛁𝟐 𝐀 = , with 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐯
𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

Laplacian operator
𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐
𝛁𝟐 = 𝛁. 𝛁 = + +
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝛛𝐲 𝟐 𝛛𝐳 𝟐

Vector identity
𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝐀 = 𝛁 𝛁. 𝐀 − 𝛁𝟐 𝐀
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave equation for E vector: Electric waves in free space
Taking the curl of Maxwell’s equation 3
𝛛𝐁
𝛁× 𝛁×𝐄 =𝛁× −
𝛛𝐭
𝛛𝛁×𝐁
this reduces to, 𝛁(𝛁. 𝐄) − 𝛁𝟐 𝐄 = −
𝛛𝐭
For free space, 𝛁. 𝐄 = 𝟎 (Maxwell’s equation 1),
𝛛𝛁×𝐁
Thus, −𝛁𝟐 𝐄 = −
𝛛𝐭
Substituting for curl of B (Maxwell’s equation 4)
𝛛 𝟐𝐄
𝛁𝟐 𝐄 = 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨
𝛛𝐭 𝟐
𝟏
with 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨 = 𝟐 , wave equation for electric wave in free
𝐜
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐄
space, 𝛁𝟐 𝐄 =
𝐜 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave equation for B vector: Magnetic waves in free space
Taking the curl of Maxwell’s equation 4
𝛛𝐄
𝛁× 𝛁×𝐁 =𝛁× 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨
𝛛𝐭

𝟐 𝛛𝛁×𝐄
this reduces to, 𝛁(𝛁. 𝐁) − 𝛁 𝐁 = 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨
𝛛𝐭
[As per Vector identity 𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝐀 = 𝛁 𝛁. 𝐀 − 𝛁𝟐 𝐀 ]

𝛛𝐁
For free space, 𝛁. 𝐁 = 𝟎 and 𝛁𝐱𝐄 = − (Maxwell’s equation 3)
𝛛𝐭
𝛛𝟐 𝐁
Applying the above, 𝛁𝟐 𝐁 = 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝟐
𝛛𝐭
The general form of magnetic wave in free space at speed of light,
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐁 𝟏
𝛁𝟐 𝐁 = , with 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨 =
𝐜 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐜𝟐
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic wave equations

Maxwell’s Conclusion:

1. Both electric and magnetic waves propagate with

𝟏
speed of light 𝐜 =
𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨

2. Light waves (radiation) as electromagnetic waves

3. Light waves are transverse waves and
electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature
4. Electric and magnetic fields are mutually
perpendicular and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Propagation of a 1D transverse wave

𝑬𝒚 = 𝑬𝒐𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝒌𝒛 𝒐𝒓𝑬𝒐𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝒌𝒛

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space
Analysis: E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other
Consider a 1D electric wave 𝑬𝒙 associated with EM radiation
propagating in the Z direction as,
𝑬𝒙 = 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 ± 𝒌𝒛 𝒐𝒓𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 ± 𝒌𝒛

The electric field vector has only

x component and other two
components Ey and Ez are zero
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space

The associated magnetic component of the EM wave is evaluated as,

𝛛𝐁
Using Maxwell’s third equation, 𝛁𝐱𝐄 = −
𝛛𝐭

𝐢Ƹ 𝐣Ƹ መ
𝐤
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
Evaluating curl of the electric field 𝛁𝐱𝐄 =
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝐄𝐱 𝟎 𝟎
𝛛𝐄𝐱 መ ∗ 𝟎 = 𝐣Ƹ 𝛛
= 𝐢Ƹ × 𝟎 + 𝐣Ƹ ∗ +𝐤 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳
𝛛𝐳 𝛛𝐳
= 𝐣Ƹ ∗ 𝐤 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳)
Derivative of cos x is -sin x
𝛛𝐁 𝐣Ƹ ∗ −𝐤 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 (−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳 )
Thus, − = 𝐣Ƹ ∗ 𝐤 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳)
𝛛𝐭
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space
𝛛𝐁
Integrating − with respect to time gives magnetic component,
𝛛𝐭

𝟏 𝟏 𝛛𝐁
𝐁 = 𝐣Ƹ ∗ 𝛚 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳 = 𝐣.Ƹ 𝐄𝐱 ∗ −
𝛛𝐭
= 𝐣Ƹ ∗ 𝐤 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐳)
𝐜
𝐤

𝛚
(𝐜 = , is the velocity of the radiation) ∫ sin x dx = - cos x
𝐤
Thus,
Ƹ 𝒐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 ± 𝒌𝒛
𝑬𝒙 = 𝒊𝑬

𝟏
𝑩𝒚 = 𝒋Ƹ 𝛚 ∗ 𝑬𝒐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 ± 𝒌𝒛
𝐤
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space

Conclusion:
• Magnetic field (B) of the EM wave is Y component
• In phase with the E field variations
𝛚
• Phase velocity of the wave, 𝐜 =
𝐤
𝟏
• Magnitude of B wave is times the magnitude of the E wave
𝒄
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space

• EM waves have coupled E and B field components which are

mutually perpendicular
• Both E and B are perpendicular to the direction of propagation

Image courtesy:
ResearchGate
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Electromagnetic waves in free space

Practical Observation:

• Heat from the sun can travel to the earth and humans can
send any type of signal via radio waves !

• Electric and Magnetic Fields in "Free Space" - a region without

charges or currents (like air) - can travel with a single speed - c

• One of the greatest discovery, and one of the unique properties

that the universe exhibit!
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 2 . Conceptual Question
Using Maxwell’s equations in free space establish the wave
equation for transverse magnetic field.

Using Maxwell’s equations show that E(z) and B(y) are

orthogonal.

Give the expressions for E(x,t) and B(x,t) of EM waves along

with a list of important properties.

Give the two Maxwell’s equations of the induced electric

field and induced magnetic field in differential form.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Energy transported by EM waves

Class #3
• Energy in an electric field
• Energy in a magnetic field
• Energy transported by Electric and Magnetic waves
• Total Energy of the EM wave
• Poynting Vector and average energy transported
• Polarization of EM waves
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Energy in an electric field

𝟏
Energy per unit volume = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄 𝟐
𝟐

The energy per unit volume in an electric field is dependent

only on the strength of the field !

Help note: A capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Energy in a magnetic field

This energy stored per unit volume,

𝟏 𝐁𝟐
=
𝟐 𝛍𝟎

The energy per unit volume in a magnetic field is also

dependent only on the strength of the field !

Help note: An inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic field

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Energy of EM waves
Energy content of the electric component
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐱 = 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐨𝐱 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝐤𝐳)
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝐁𝐲
Energy content of the magnetic component =
𝟐 𝛍𝐨
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝐁𝐲
Total energy content of the EM wave = 𝛆 𝐄 +
𝟐 𝐨 𝐱 𝟐 𝛍𝐨

1 𝟏 𝐄𝐱 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟐 [Since, 𝐁𝒚 = 𝐄𝐱 ∗ and 𝐜 = 𝒐𝒓 𝝁𝒐 = ]
2 𝟐 𝐜 𝛍𝐨 𝐜 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝒄𝟐 𝜺𝒐

= 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐱 𝟐 , transported in the z-direction

Important: Classically the energy of waves is equivalent to
it’s intensity (square of the amplitude)!
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Average energy of EM waves
The average energy of the EM wave transmitted
𝐜𝛆𝐨
Energy transported in one cycle, Total energy/cycle = 𝐄𝐱 𝟐
𝐓
𝐜𝛆𝐨 𝐓 𝟐
< 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 > = න 𝐄𝐱 𝐝𝐭
𝐓 𝟎
𝐜𝛆𝐨 𝐓 𝟐
= න 𝐄𝐨𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛚𝐭 + 𝐤𝐳 𝐝𝐭 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐓 𝟎 [Since, 𝐁𝒚 = 𝐄𝐱 ∗ and 𝐜 = 𝒐𝒓 𝝁𝒐 = ]
𝐜 𝛍𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝒄𝟐 𝜺𝒐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝐁 𝐨𝐲 𝟏 𝐄𝐨𝐱 𝐁𝐨𝐲
= 𝛆𝐨 𝐜𝐄𝐨𝐱 = 𝐜 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝛍𝐨 𝟐 𝛍𝐨
Total energy contained in a box = 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐱 𝟐 ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒙 (𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒙 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝑨 𝒙 𝒄. 𝒅𝒕) = 𝐜 𝛆𝐨 𝐄𝐱 𝟐 𝒄. 𝒅𝒕
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Poynting vector
Ԧ describes the EM energy
Poynting vector (𝐒)
transported per unit time per unit volume
𝟏
𝐒Ԧ = 𝐄 × 𝐁 = 𝐜 𝟐 𝛆𝐨 𝐄 × 𝐁
𝛍𝐨
The average EM energy transported per unit volume per unit time is c 𝛆𝐨 𝐄2

Ԧ is the direction of
Direction of Poynting vector (𝐒)
propagation of EM waves
𝟏 𝟏
𝐜= 𝒐𝒓 𝝁𝒐 = 𝟐
Its time dependent (magnitude varies in time) 𝛍𝐨 𝛆 𝐨 𝒄 𝜺𝒐
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Polarization of electromagnetic waves

Natural light is generally unpolarized, all planes of propagation

being equally probable
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Polarization of electromagnetic waves

• A plane wave is called linearly polarized. The addition of a horizontally

and vertically linearly polarized waves of the same amplitude in the same
phase also result in a linearly polarized at a 45o angle
• If light is composed of two plane waves of equal amplitude but differing
in phase by 90°, then the light is said to be circularly polarized

• If two plane waves of differing amplitude are related in phase by 90°, or

if the relative phase is other than 90° then the light is said to be Visualization of Circular
elliptically polarized and Elliptical
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 3. Quiz …….
The concepts which apply to electromagnetic waves….
1. Energy of electric wave is proportional to the amplitude the wave
2. Energy of magnetic longitudinal wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude
3. Total energy of the EM wave is dependent only on the electric wave
4. Total energy of the EM wave cannot be indicated in terms of magnetic field
5. Average energy of EM wave is equal to the energy transported in one cycle
6. Direction of Poynting vector is along the amplitude variation of the electric
wave
7. A linearly polarized wave can only be a plane wave with restricted Y component
8. Two waves out of phase by 90o and unequal amplitude form a circularly
polarized wave
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 2 . Conceptual Question
Show that EM waves have coupled electric and magnetic
field components mutually perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of radiation.
Using Maxwell’s equations for EM waves in free space
estimate the energy carried by EM waves.
Starting from Maxwell’s equations, derive the equations of
wave propagation in free space.
Briefly explain the four Maxwell’s equations.

Briefly explain polarization mechanisms associated with E-

field vector.
A numerical to review the whole concept of EM waves
The electric field associated with an EM radiation (light) is given by,
𝑬 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝝅𝒙𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒛)
Evaluate
1. Speed of the Electric vector
2. Wavelength
3. Frequency
4. Period of the wave
5. Magnetic field associated with the wave
6. Direction of propagation of the magnetic transverse wave
7. Amplitude of the electric field vector
8. Amplitude and direction of the transverse magnetic wave
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Overview of failure of classical EM wave theory

EM Radiation (e.g. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,

ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma radiation) - Described as mutually
perpendicular sinusoidal electric and magnetic fields and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves

Classical wave theory - Assumed that energy content of the wave is

proportional to the square of the amplitude of the waves
(wavelength/frequency independence on energy!)

Wave theory successfully explains the phenomena of reflection,

refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization of light
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Overview of failure of classical EM wave theory

Classical wave theory could not explain many observed

phenomena

1. Photo-electric Effect
2. Spectrum of Hydrogen Emissions (Atomic Spectra)
3. Black-Body Radiation Spectrum
4. Compton Scattering

Resulted in the birth and rise of Quantum Mechanics!

Our focus: Black-Body Radiation and Compton Scattering

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation
Classically the interaction of radiation with matter (by absorption and
emission) gives the color of the material

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff found materials which absorb all incident rays
Such a material on heating would emit all wavelengths of radiation
absorbed
Black-body (not necessarily black!)

• Absorbs all radiations falling on it

• Emits all wavelengths (frequencies) as it absorbed
• Emissivity is unity
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation spectrum

Radiation depends only on the

temperature of the object, and not on
what it is made of (a metal block, a
ceramic vase, and a piece of charcoal, etc.
all emit the same blackbody spectrum if
their temperatures are the same.)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body model (Cavity oscillators)
▪ Practically modeled as a cavity - not allowing any incident radiation
to escape due to multiple reflections inside
▪ This cavity when heated, emit radiation of every possible
frequency and rate of emission increases with temperature

Multiple reflections of EM energy inside the

cavity

Image courtesy: https://chem.libretexts.org

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation spectrum

How to understand this spectrum?

Analysis by Rayleigh-Jeans
To study the energy density of radiation,
𝝆 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝑬 𝒅𝑵 , between 𝝂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝂 + 𝜹𝝂
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Classical estimation of energy density
Analysis by Rayleigh-Jeans
To understand the energy density of radiation - Assuming black-body
as cavity oscillators (trapped oscillations of EM energy)

The number of oscillators with

frequencies between 𝝂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝂 + 𝜹𝝂
𝟖𝝅 𝟐
is calculated as 𝒅𝑵 = 𝝂 𝒅𝝂
𝒄𝟑

Rayleigh and Jeans showed that the

number of modes was proportional to 𝝂𝟐
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Classical estimation of energy density

Rayleigh and Jeans considered the average energy of the

oscillators as per Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law
𝐚𝐬 𝑬 = 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
Thus, expression for the energy density (energy per unit
volume) of radiations with frequencies between 𝝂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝂 +
𝜹𝝂 as
𝟖𝝅 𝟐
𝝆 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝑬 𝒅𝑵 = 𝟑 𝝂 𝒅𝝂𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝒄
This is the Rayleigh Jeans law which is in contradiction with
the experimental observations
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Failure of Rayleigh-Jeans’ law
Treating EM waves as classical oscillators failed to explain the experimental
observations
(intensity of radiations were found decrease with increase in frequency -
termed as ultra-violet catastrophe)

Failure in high frequency region (shorter wavelength)

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Max Planck’s analysis – Quantum theory of radiation
Solution to the failure of classical approach!
Max Planck (quantum theory of radiation, 1900)

• This theory proposed that the energy of the oscillator model of a black body
(cavity oscillator) are restricted to multiples of a fundamental natural
frequency 𝝂 times a constant (𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔) ie.,𝑬 = 𝒏𝒉𝝂
• Thus black body radiations are from a collection of harmonic oscillators of
different frequencies and the energy of the radiations has to be packets
of 𝒉𝝂
• With this concept, the average energy of the oscillators were
𝒉𝝂
evaluated as, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗
𝒆 ൗ𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Max Planck’s analysis – Quantum theory of radiation

• Thus, the energy density of radiations

𝝆 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒙 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝟖𝝅 𝟐 𝒉𝝂 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝂𝟑 𝟏
𝑬 𝒅𝑵 = 𝟑 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 𝒉𝒗 = 𝟑 𝒉𝒗
𝒅𝝂
𝒄 𝒆 ൗ𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏 𝒄 𝒆 ൗ𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏
• Planck’s expression gives excellent co-relation with experimental results
• The foundation stone- for era of quantum physics!
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation : Summary of classical & quantum

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation : Summary of classical & quantum

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black-body radiation : Points of Relevance

The trademark of modern physics - Planck's constant, h = 6.63x10-34 Js

The failure of classical physics to explain blackbody radiation, the

photoelectric effect, and the atomic spectra demolished the
foundations of classical physics.

Planck's constant is very tiny, only about 6 x 10-34, so in our everyday

world, quantum effects makes difference in the 34th decimal place

Large objects obey Newton's laws (the average behavior of their

component atoms)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 4 . Quiz …

The black body radiation concepts which are correct …

1. Rayleigh and Jeans could explain the radiation curves for
the higher wavelengths and not the lower wave lengths
2. Classically the average energy of the oscillators cannot be
found
3. Max Planck suggested that the average energy of oscillators
have to evaluated using a summation of energies and
probabilities
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 4 . Numerical …
The frequency of harmonic oscillator at 50oc is 6.2x1012 per sec.
Estimate the average energy of the oscillator as per Planck's
idea of cavity oscillator, also compare the same with classical
average energy and average energy by R-J law.

1. Average energy of the oscillator as per Planck's

idea −34
𝒉𝝂
𝒉 = 6.63𝒙10
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗ൗ k = 1.38 x 10 -23
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 B
2. Average energy of the oscillator as per Classical analysis
𝑬 = 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
3. Partially successful classical analysis is R-J law
𝑬 = 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
Draw a plot of the black body spectrum, list the observations
and explain how a theoretical model could explain the same.

Explain the significance of Poynting vector for EM waves.

Explain the features of quantum theory of radiation.

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit I : Review of concepts leading to Quantum Mechanics

Week #2 Class #7
• Atomic Spectra
• Photo Electric effect
• Compton effect
• Compton shift
• Dual nature of radiation
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Atomic spectra

• Atoms of different elements have distinct spectra

• Atomic spectroscopy allows the identification of a sample's
elemental composition (An important tool for material
characterization)
• Atomic absorption lines are observed in the solar spectrum,
referred to as Fraunhofer lines
• Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered new elements
by observing their emission spectra
• The existence of discrete line - Emission spectra
• Absence of discrete lines -Absorption spectra
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Atomic spectra analysis – Classical
• Classical physics - orbiting electron is constantly changing
direction and emit electromagnetic radiation

• As a result, the electron should be continually losing energy!

• The electron should lose all of its energy and spiral down into
the proton In other words, atoms should not exist!

Hydrogen spectra

https://physics.weber.edu/carroll/honors/failures.htm
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Atomic spectra analysis – Quantum explanation
Based on Max Planck's idea that energy comes in quanta, energy
can be absorbed or emitted in terms of quanta
Particle-Particle interaction leading to absorption and emission
spectra of atoms!

The explanation of the line spectrum of atoms: in terms of

transition between quantized energy states of an atom
https://physics.weber.edu/carroll/honors/failures.htm
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Photoelectric effect
• Electron emission from metals under irradiation - Photo electric
effect
• Instantaneous emission of electrons with kinetic energy
dependent on wavelength of radiation
• Energy of photo electrons independent of intensity of radiation
• Failure of EM wave theory to explain observed results

https://notes.tyrocity.com/photoelectric-effect/
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Photoelectric effect – Quantum explanation
• Quantum phenomenon
• Einstein’s concepts of photons
• Low energy electron-photon interaction (Particle-Particle interaction!)
• Transfer of energy and momentum to the photo electron
• 𝒉𝝂 = 𝑾 + 𝑲𝑬𝒆
• Waves can have dual nature – depending on the nature of interaction
with matter !

Single photon-electron interaction

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Scattering of X-rays by target materials – Compton effect
• Scattering of X Rays by different target materials
Observation: Scattered X rays have a higher wavelength than the
incident X rays
• Wavelength of scattered X rays depend on the angle of scattering
• Scattering of EM waves with electrons do not explain the
observed change in wavelength-Classical explanation fails!

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton shift
Change in wavelength (Compton Shift) was calculated as
𝒉
𝝀𝒇 − 𝝀𝒊 = 𝜟𝝀 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒎𝒆 𝒄
• Compton shift 𝜟𝝀 is independent of the incident wavelength
• 𝜟𝝀 depends only on the scattering angle.
𝒉
• = 𝝀𝒄 is termed as the Compton wavelength
𝒎𝒆 𝒄
• For electrons, 𝝀𝒄 =2.42 x 10-12 m
𝒉
• Maximum value of Compton shift for the angle 180o is (2x )
𝒎𝒆 𝒄

For inner bound electrons do not knocked off from target atoms –
similar to collision of photon with a whole atom (change in
wavelength will be negligible – presence of incident wavelength)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton shift: Dependency on scattering angle
• Change in wavelength (Compton Shift)
𝒉
𝝀𝒇 − 𝝀𝒊 = 𝜟𝝀 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒎𝒆 𝒄

Energy lost by photon =

Energy gained by electron
hν−hν′= KE of electron

If instead of electron if the X-ray photon

interacts with proton?

Compton shift- Dependence on angle

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Relativistic concepts of momentum and energy

Pre-requisites to derive Compton shift

• Rest mass energy of a particle given by

E= moc2.

• the kinetic energy of a particle with momentum p is given

by pc (no specific knowledge on mass, e.g: photon)

• The total energy of the particle is given by

𝑬= 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒎𝒐 𝟐 𝒄𝟒
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton shift derivation: Conservation of momentum and energy
Momentum conservation along the incident direction
Pi + 0 = Pf cosθ + Pe cosφ
Momentum conservation in the perpendicular direction
0 = Pf sinθ - Pe sinφ
conservation of momentum

𝑃𝑖 + 0 = 𝑃𝑓 + 𝑃𝑒
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conservation of momentum in X ray scattering
• Momentum conservation along the incident direction -
𝒑𝒊 + 𝟎 = 𝒑𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒑𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓.
• Momentum conservation in a perpendicular direction -
𝟎 = 𝒑𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒑𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓
• Conservation of momentum before and after collision
𝒑𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒑𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒑𝒇 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 … 1.

Colliding photon and with weakly

bound electrons, the conservation of
energy for the photon-electron system
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton shift derivation: Conservation of energy
• Conservation of energy before and after collision 𝐸𝑖 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 𝐸𝑓 + 𝐸
𝒑𝒊 𝒄 + 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒑𝒇 𝒄 + 𝒑𝒆 𝟐 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒎𝒐 𝟐 𝒄𝟒

𝒑𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒑𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒑𝒇 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 + 𝟐𝒎𝒐 𝒄 𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒇 --- 2

• Comparing equations 1 & 2

𝒑𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒑𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒑𝒇 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 … 1. (From conservation of momentum)

𝒑𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒑𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒑𝒇 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 + 𝟐𝒎𝒐 𝒄 𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒇 --- 2 (From conservation of energy)

−𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 + 𝟐𝒎𝒐 𝒄 𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒇 = −𝟐𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 ---- 3.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton Shift derivation

𝒉 𝒉
• With 𝒑𝒊 = and 𝒑𝒇 = equation 3. simplifies to
𝝀𝒊 𝝀𝒇

𝒉
𝝀𝒇 − 𝝀𝒊 = 𝚫𝝀 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒎𝒆 𝒄
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Compton effect: Conclusion

• Compton Effect- proved the particle nature of EM radiation

• Interaction of radiation with matter at sub-atomic matter

requires radiation to be treated as particles - Photons

• Wave-Particle duality is a reality (radiation can behave like a

particle at times and show the normal wave characteristics at
other times)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 7 . Numericals
X-rays of wavelength 0.112 nm is scattered from a carbon target. Calculate the
wavelength of X-rays scattered at an angle 90o with respect to the original
direction. What is the energy lost by the X-ray photons? What is the energy gained
by the electrons? If the incident x-ray retraces back what will be the shift?
𝒉
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕, 𝜟𝝀 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒎𝒆 𝒄
𝑼𝒑𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝜟𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝑨𝒐
𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔, 𝝀′ = 𝝀 + 𝜟𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝑨𝒐

Energy lost by the X-ray photons = Energy gained by the electron

= Kinetic energy gained by the electron
𝒄 𝒄
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝑿 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐬 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝐡𝝂′ = 𝐡( ) − 𝒉( ) = Energy gained by the
𝝀 𝝀′
electron 1.77x10-15 – 1.74x10-15=3.14x10-17 J =196 eV
Here, θ = 180o maximum shift, head on collision
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
How Compton effect proves the particle nature of radiation.
Justify the non-suitability of visible photons in Compton
scattering.

EM wave theory cannot explain Compton effect. Justify.

In Compton scattering, why the incident wavelength is

detected after scattering?
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Dual nature of radiation
EM radiation

Wave nature Particle nature

Successfully explains Successfully explains

✓ Reflection ✓ Black body radiation spectra particle-particle

✓ Refraction ✓ Atomic spectra interaction
✓ Interference ✓ Photoelectric effect
✓ Diffraction ✓ Compton effect
✓ Polarization

Energy α intensity (square of Amplitude) Energy is quantized in terms of hν

Wavelength and frequency – no effect on energy Wavelength and frequency - effect on energy

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION!

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Young’s double slit experiment

• Young’s double slit experiment on interference and

diffraction of radiations
• Characteristic wave experiment

Well defined experiment to

demonstrate wave nature of
light (EM radiation)

Image courtesy: hyperphysics

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
de Broglie hypothesis

Based on the analysis of dual nature of radiation,

de Broglie hypothesis

• Moving matter (form of energy) should also exhibit wave

characteristics
𝒉
• Wavelength of this associated waves, 𝝀 = (p = mv,
𝒑
momentum of the particle)
• Wavelengths of macro particles are extremely small to be
measured
• Wavelengths of moving sub atomic particles are in the
measurable range (𝝀 ~𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎𝒎) – relevance to microscopic
scale
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Dual nature of matter – Experimental verification
Experimental verification of de Broglie’s hypothesis
Davisson and Germer’s experiment (electron scattering by Ni
crystals)
𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
de Broglie wavelength 𝝀 = = =
𝒑 𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽

Electron diffraction confirmed at particular settings (54 V,

angle of scattering 50o)
Satisfied Bragg’s law 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒅 sin 𝜽, by ‘electron waves’!
Conclusion: Dual nature of matter - matter and matter waves!
Image courtesy:
hyperphysics
Davisson-Germer experiment
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Double slit experiment with electrons
• Diffraction is characteristic wave phenomenon
• Double slit experiment with a particle (single electrons or photons –
one at a time) show wave nature – Particle diffraction!
• Building up of the diffraction pattern of electrons scattered from a
crystal surface

Image courtesy:
hyperphysics
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Concept of matter waves
• Need a mathematical concept to describe matter waves
• Any representative wave should be able to give information about
the position and momentum of the system
• Simple sine or cosine waves fall short (Momentum can be inferred
from wavelengths 𝒑 = 𝒉/𝝀 but Position is not well defined)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 9 . Numericals…
Find the de Broglie wavelength of electrons moving with a speed of 107
m/s (Ans: 7.28 x 10-11 m)
𝒉
𝒅𝑬 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝝀 =
𝒑
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒌′ 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒕𝒚
An alpha particle is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 kV. Find its
de Broglie wavelength.
𝒉 𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝝀 = = = =
𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝑲𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽 𝟑
𝟐𝒎 𝑲𝑩 𝑻
𝟐
𝒉 𝒎 = 𝟒 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟒 𝒎𝒏 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈
𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽 𝒒 = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 = 𝟑. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 𝝀 = 3.21 x 10-13 m
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 9 . Numericals…
Compare the momenta and energy of an electron and photon whose de Broglie
wavelength is 650nm (Ans: Ratio of momenta =1; ratio of energy of electron to
𝒉
energy of photon = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )
𝟐𝒎𝝀𝒄
𝒑𝟐
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 =
𝟐𝒎
𝒉
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝒑 =
𝝀
𝒉𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒑𝟐 = , 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = =
𝝀𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝟐𝒎𝝀𝟐

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅! = 𝒉𝝂 =

𝒉𝒄 𝒄
, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝝂 =
𝝀 𝝀
𝒉𝟐
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝟐𝒎𝝀𝟐 𝒉
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = = 𝒉𝒄 =
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝟐𝒎𝝀𝒄
𝝀
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 9 . Numericals…
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of electrons and protons if their kinetic energies are
i) 1% and ii) 5% of their rest mass energies.
(Rest mass energy of electron = 8.19x 10-14 J; rest mass energy of protons = 1.503 x 10-10J)

𝒉
𝒅𝑬 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝝀 =
𝒑
𝒉 𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝝀 = = = =
𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝑲𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽 𝟑
𝟐𝒎 𝑲𝑩 𝑻
𝟐

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎, 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝒎 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏, 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈

Electron 1% , 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎 Proton 1% , 𝝀 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔 𝒎

Electron 5% , 𝝀 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎 Proton 5%, 𝝀 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒎
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 9 . Numericals…

An electron and a photon have a wavelength of 2.0 Ao. Calculate their

momenta and total energies. (Eelectron=8.2x10-14 Ephoton =10x10-16J,
Pelectron=Pphoton=3.32x10-24)

𝒉
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝒑 =
𝝀

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝑬

𝒑𝟐
= 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒄𝟐 +
𝟐𝒎
𝒉𝒄
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 =
𝝀
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 9 . Numericals…

What is the wavelength of an hydrogen atom moving with a mean

velocity corresponding to the average kinetic energy of hydrogen atoms
𝒉
under thermal equilibrium at 293K? ( 𝝀 = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎 )
𝟑𝒎𝒌𝑻
Mass of hydrogen atom = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚,

𝒉 𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= = = =
𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝑲𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽 𝟑
𝟐𝒎 𝑲𝑩 𝑻
𝟐
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
What is dual nature of light and matter? Explain using
‘single’ photon double slit experiment.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit I : Review of concepts leading to Quantum Mechanics

DUALITY OF
RADIATION & MATTER

PARTICLE
WAVE NATURE
NATURE

MATTER WAVES PHOTON

EM WAVES E = hν MATTER
(e.g. Davison-
E & B waves Germer expt: (BlackBodyRadiation (Mass)
(e.g: Reflection, electron diffraction, , Compton effect, (elephant, electron,
interference, etc.) double slit expt) Photoelectric effect, cricket ball)
atomic spectra)

How to represent?
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Concept of matter waves - superposition of waves

• Wave packets describe matter waves - with a defined wavelength and an

amplitude maximum (for both momentum and position) unlike sine or
cos waves
• How to represent a wave packet: Superposition of two waves
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave packets as matter waves - Mathematical analysis
Two sinusoidal waves:
Wave 1: y1 (frequency ω and propagation constant k)
Wave 2: y2 (frequency 𝝎 + 𝜟𝝎 and propagation constant k+ Δk)
𝒚𝟏 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝒌𝒙)
𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧{ 𝝎 + 𝜟𝝎 𝒕 + 𝒌 + 𝜟𝒌 𝒙}
𝜟𝒘𝒕 + 𝜟𝒌𝒙
Superposition gives a wave packet 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒕 + 𝒌𝒙 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬{ 𝟐
}
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave packets as matter waves – Detailed mathematical analysis
Two sinusoidal waves:
𝒚𝟏 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 ± 𝒌𝒙) 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧{ 𝝎 + 𝜟𝝎 𝒕 ± 𝒌 + 𝜟𝒌 𝒙} 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒂−𝒃 𝒂+𝒃
𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒃 = 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝑺𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐

𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙 − (𝝎 + ∆𝝎)𝒕 − (𝒌 + ∆𝒌)𝒙 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙 + (𝝎 + ∆𝝎)𝒕 − (𝒌 + ∆𝒌)𝒙

= 𝟐𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
∆𝝎)𝒕 + (∆𝒌)𝒙 𝟐𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐𝒌𝒙 + (∆𝝎)𝒕 − (∆𝒌)𝒙
= 𝟐𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − . 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐, 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
∆𝝎)𝒕 + (∆𝒌)𝒙
= 𝟐𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒄𝒐𝒔 − 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 , 𝑨𝒔𝒍𝒐 (𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∆𝝎)𝒕 ≈ 𝟐𝝎𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝒌𝒙 − ∆𝒌 𝒙 ≈ 𝟐𝒌𝒙
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave packets as Matter waves
• k defines λ - which defines momentum
𝟐𝝅 𝒉
(𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝒌 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆 − 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒆′ 𝒔𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔, 𝒑 = 𝝀)
𝝀
• Spread around the central maximum can be the approximate position of
the particle
(fulfill both the requirements – position and momentum)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Phase and group velocities: Velocities associated with matter waves
𝜟𝒘𝒕+𝜟𝒌𝒙
Wave packet, 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐𝑨𝐜𝐨𝐬 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒕 + 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
The phase velocity of the wave packet is the velocity of a representative point on
𝝎
the wave packet, 𝒗𝒑 =
𝒌
The group velocity of the wave packet is the velocity of common velocity of the
𝒅𝝎
superposed wave group, 𝒗𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌

𝒅𝝎
𝒗𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌

𝝎
𝒗𝒑 =
𝒌
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Relation between phase and group velocity
Group velocity,
𝒅𝝎 𝒅 𝒅𝒗𝒑
𝒗𝒈 = = 𝒗𝒑 . 𝒌 = 𝒗𝒑 + 𝒌
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒌

𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝝀
Here, = .
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝝀 𝒅𝒌
𝒅𝝀 𝟐𝝅 2𝜋 2𝜋
And = − 𝟐 (since, 𝑘 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜆= )
𝒅𝒌 𝒌 𝜆 𝑘
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒗𝒑
Hence, 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑𝒉 − = 𝒗𝒑𝒉 −𝝀
𝒌 𝒅𝝀 𝒅𝝀

Conclusion: Vg is dependent on Vp and also on the phase velocity change

with wavelength
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Phase and group velocity relation
Group velocity = Phase velocity! Is it possible?
In a non-dispersive medium (where velocity of the waves independent of the
𝒅𝒗𝒑
wavelength), Vg = Vp (𝝀 =0, since phase velocity does not change with 𝝀)
𝒅𝝀
In a dispersive medium (where the velocity of the waves depends on the
wavelength) Vg can be </> Vp
Interesting relations of Group velocity & Phase velocity – Case 1
Vg - half the phase velocity (case of Vg < Vp) 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 /𝟐
𝒅𝒗𝒑
Group velocity of a wave packet is given by 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 − 𝝀
𝒅𝝀
𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒗𝒑
𝑨𝒔 𝒗𝒈 = , 𝒘𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝝀 =
𝟐 𝒅𝝀 𝟐
𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝟏 𝒅𝝀
Thus, = This on integration yields 𝒍𝒏 𝒗𝒑 ∞ 𝒍𝒏 𝝀 or
𝒗𝒑 𝟐 𝝀
𝒗𝒑 ∞ 𝝀
This implies that the phase velocity is proportional to the square root of the
wavelength
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Phase and group velocity relation
Interesting relations of Group velocity & Phase velocity – Case 2

Vg - twice the phase velocity (case of Vg > Vp) 𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐𝒗𝒑

𝒅𝒗𝒑
Group velocity of a wave packet is given by 𝒗 𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 − 𝝀
𝒅𝝀
𝒅𝒗𝒑 𝒅𝝀
= −
𝒗𝒑 𝝀
𝟏
This on integration yields 𝒍𝒏 𝒗𝒑 ∞ 𝒍𝒏 or 𝒗𝒑 ∞ 𝝀−𝟏
𝝀
This implies that the phase velocity is inversely proportional to the
wavelength
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Relation between group and particle velocities
𝒅𝝎
Group velocity, 𝒗𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌
𝑬
The angular frequency 𝝎 = where E is the energy of the wave and
ℏ
𝒅𝑬
hence 𝒅𝝎 =
ℏ
𝒑 𝒅𝒑
The wave vector 𝒌 = where p is the momentum and hence 𝒅𝒌 =
ℏ ℏ
𝒉
(Propagation constant is transformed to momentum, 𝒑 = ℏ𝒌 & ℏ= 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒌′ 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕)
𝟐𝝅
𝒅𝑬
𝒅𝝎 ℏ 𝒅𝑬
Therefore the group velocity 𝒗𝒈 = = 𝒅𝒑 = As group velocity is the
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒑
ℏ
𝒑𝟐 velocity of the wave
Since 𝑬 = 𝟐𝒎 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 ,
packet representing a
𝒑𝟐
𝒅𝑬 𝒅( ) 𝟏 𝒅𝒑𝟐 𝒑 particle, group velocity
𝟐𝒎
Group velocity 𝒗𝒈 = = = = = 𝒗 where v is the should be the same as
𝒅𝒑 𝒅𝒑 𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒑 𝒎
particle velocity!
particle velocity, vparticle
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Group and particle velocities
As group velocity is the velocity of the wave packet representing a
particle, group velocity should be the same as particle velocity!

𝒅𝝎
Group velocity, 𝒗𝒈 = = 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒅𝒌
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Quiz …

The concepts which true of matter waves ….

1. Wave packet is a cosine wave
2. The outline connecting the peaks of the wave packet is a
low frequency wave
3. Wave packets are longitudinal
4. In a non dispersive medium the group velocity is equal to
the phase velocity
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Numericals

3. A wave packet is represented as, 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟎𝒕 − 𝟒𝟎𝒙 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎. 𝟑𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒙

Find the phase and group velocities

𝝎
𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒑 =
𝒌
𝒅𝝎
𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌

𝑯𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝝎 = 𝟑𝟎, 𝒌 = 𝟒𝟎, ∆𝝎 = 𝟎. 𝟑, ∆𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
Discuss double slit experiment to show that photons or
electrons can behave as waves.

Is an electron a particle or wave? Why is wave nature more

apparent in microscopic observations?
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit I : Review of concepts leading to Quantum Mechanics

Week #2 Class #8
• Analysis of wave packet
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Two fundamental ideas which
• Applications of Uncertainty Principle cannot be violated in any theory
of quantum systems -----
1) Electron’s non-existence inside nucleus De Broglie hypothesis
and
2) Gamma Ray microscope
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
principle
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heisenberg’s analysis of wave packets
• Wave packets describe matter waves
• Wave packets have inherent components of uncertainties
• Spread in the estimation of position (say, along x axis, ∆𝒙) and
propagation constant (∆𝒌) of the wave is intrinsically related

• Product of the deviations,

Moving
particle
∆𝒙. ∆𝒌 ≥ 𝟏/𝟐
• Standard form of the
uncertainty principle,
𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥ ℏ/𝟐 ≥
𝟒𝝅
(propagation constant in terms of momentum,
𝒑 = ℏ𝒌, thus ∆𝒑 = ∆ℏ𝒌 = ℏ∆𝒌 )
Image courtesy:
𝒉 𝟐𝝅
ibphysics.org
(ℏ = 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒌′ 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 & 𝒌 = )
𝟐𝝅 𝝀
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
1. Position momentum uncertainty:
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined simultaneously
with unlimited precision
𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥ ℏ/𝟐 ≥ , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, ∆𝒙 ∆𝒑 - uncertainty in the position & momentum
𝟒𝝅

(determined simultaneously)
Uncertainty relation is valid for any conjugate pairs
2. Energy Time uncertainty:
The energy and life time of a particle in a state cannot be determined simultaneously
𝒉
with unlimited precision, ∆𝑬. ∆𝒕 ≥ ℏ/𝟐 ≥
𝟒𝝅

∆𝑬 & ∆𝒕 - the uncertainty in energy and life time of the particle

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

3. Uncertainty relation for circular motion:

The angular position and angular momentum of a particle in a
circular motion cannot be determined simultaneously with
unlimited precision
𝒉
∆𝜽. ∆𝑳 ≥ ℏ/𝟐 ≥
𝟒𝝅
∆𝜽 is the uncertainty in the angular position
∆L is the uncertainty in the angular momentum
(determined simultaneously)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Applications of uncertainty principle: 1Non-existence of electrons inside nuclei
Electrons cannot exist inside nucleus, but in 𝜷 decay an electron is
emitted from the nucleus with energies of the order of 8 MeV!
Why?
Assuming electron to be inside the nucleus (confined to nuclear
diameter), estimate the energy of the electron using uncertainty principle
Then, uncertainty in the position
∆𝒙 ≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝒎 (≈ nuclear diameter)

Image courtesy:
wikipedia
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Non-existence of electrons inside nuclei
Corresponding uncertainty in the momentum of the electron using
uncertainty relation ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥ ℏ/𝟐
ℏ
∆𝒑 = = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏 (minimum possible as ∆𝒙 ≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝒎 ≈ nuclear
𝟐.∆𝒙
diameter, 𝒙 )
Hence the momentum of the electron p cannot be lesser than ∆𝒑, (p ≈ ∆𝒑 )
Kinetic energy of the electron,
𝟐 Thus, energy of the electron should
𝒑𝟐 ∆𝒑𝟐
𝟏 ℏ be quite high to be an integral
𝑬= = = ≈ 𝟗𝟔 𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝟐𝒎 𝟐𝒎 𝟐𝒎 𝟐. ∆𝒙 member of the nuclei!

✓ The actual energies of electron emitted

by radioactive nuclei are very less
compared to the above estimate

✓ Conclude that the electron cannot be a

permanent part of the nuclei, thus
illustrating the power of the uncertainty
principle www.assignmentpoint.com
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Applications of uncertainty principle: 2. Gamma ray microscope:- A thought experiment!
Experiment to “measure” the position of an electron

• to “observe” electron (wavelength to be

comparable to size of electron - so gamma
rays of wavelength ≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎
• Resolution of the microscope comparable to
𝝀
the position uncertainty 𝜟𝒙 ≈
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Resolution of the microscope: Minimum distance at
which two distinct points of a specimen can still be seen

High energy 𝜸-rays impart momentum to

Image courtesy:
the electrons (following the principles of
wikipedia Compton Effect)
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Gamma ray microscope – A thought experiment!
𝒉
Momentum gained by the electron in the x direction, 𝒑𝒙 ≈ ± 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝝀
𝒉
Momentum uncertainty, ∆𝒑𝒙 ≈ 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 (cannot be greater than Px)
𝝀

• Product of the uncertainties

𝝀 𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒑𝒙 ≈ ∗ 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ≈ 𝟐𝒉
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝝀
𝒉
• Greater than !
x component of momentum, 𝟒𝝅
𝒉 • Conforms to the uncertainty principle
𝒑𝒙 ≈ ± 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝝀
Conclusion:
Simultaneous determination of the
position and momentum results in an
inherent uncertainty
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Quiz …

The concepts which true of the uncertainty principle ….

1. Uncertainty principle is based on the measurement
accuracies of equipments used
2. The position of a particle cannot be determined accurately
3. The momentum of a particle always has an uncertainty
which is related to the uncertainty in the position of the
particle
4. Electrons cannot be confined to a nucleus as it is
energetically not feasible
5. Electrons cannot be confined to a nucleus as it’s size is
bigger the nuclear diameter
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Other forms of uncertainty relations
Other forms of Uncertainty Relations
1 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ∆𝒙. ∆𝝀

𝒉 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨𝒔, ∆𝒑 =. ∆ = 𝒉. ∆ = 𝒉. (− 𝟐 . ∆𝝀ቇ
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝐨𝐧 − 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝟏
∆𝒙. 𝒉. (− 𝟐 . ∆𝝀) ≥
𝒉 𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟐
𝝀 𝟒𝝅 𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, ∆𝒙. ∆𝝀 ≥ − ≥
𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅

2 𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∆𝒙. ∆𝒗

∆𝐩 = ∆(𝒎𝒗) 𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒗 ≥
𝟒𝝅. 𝒎
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Other forms of uncertainty relations
Other forms of Uncertainty Relations
𝟏
3 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ∆𝒙. ∆𝒌 ≥
𝟐
(𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕)

𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒐

4
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝒉
∆𝒙𝒎𝒊𝒏. ∆𝒑𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≥
𝟒𝝅
5 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚
E.g: The speed of an electron is measured to be 1 km/s with an accuracy of 0.005%, then uncertainty in
velocity will be?
𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∆𝒗
= 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
∆𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎Τ𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Other forms of uncertainty relations
Other forms of Uncertainty Relations
𝒉
6 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ∆𝐄. ∆𝐭 ≥
𝟒𝝅
𝒉𝒄 𝟏 𝟏 𝑾𝑲𝑻, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂
𝑨𝒔, ∆𝑬 =. ∆ = 𝒉𝒄. ∆ = 𝒉𝒄. (− 𝟐 . ∆𝝀ቇ
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟏 𝒉
∆𝒕. 𝒉𝒄. (− 𝟐 . ∆𝝀) ≥
𝝀 𝟒𝝅
𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, ∆𝒕. ∆𝝀 ≥ − ≥
𝟒𝝅𝒄 𝟒𝝅𝒄
7 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 𝟏
∆𝑬. ∆𝝂 ≥
∆𝑬 = ∆𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉. ∆𝝂 𝟒𝝅
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Numericals

1. The speed of an electron is measured to be 1 km/s with an accuracy of

0.005%. Estimate the uncertainty in the position of the particle.
𝒉
𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∆𝒙. ∆(𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗) ≥
𝟒𝝅
𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒗 ≥
𝟒𝝅. 𝒎
𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∆𝒗 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
∆𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎Τ𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒉
∆𝒙 = , 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 , 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈
𝟒𝝅𝒎∆𝒗

∆𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Numericals…
2. The spectral line of Hg green is 546.1 nm has a width of 10-5 nm. Evaluate the
minimum time spent by the electrons in the upper state before de excitation to
ℏ 𝝀𝟐
the lower state. (Ans: ∆𝒕 = = = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒔 )
𝟐.∆𝑬 𝟒𝝅𝒄𝜟𝝀

𝑰𝑴𝑷: 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉,

𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, ∆𝝀

𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
= 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒏𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
= 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = ∆𝒕
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 − 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝝀𝟐 𝝀𝟐
∆𝒕. ∆𝝀 ≥ − ≥
𝟒𝝅𝒄 𝟒𝝅𝒄
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Numericals
3. The uncertainty in the location of a particle is equal to it's de Broglie wavelength.
Show that the corresponding uncertainty in its velocity is approx one tenth of it's
ℏ 𝒉 𝒑 𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
velocity. (Ans: ∆𝒑 = = = Hence ∆𝒗 = = ≈ )
𝟐.∆𝒙 𝟒𝝅𝝀 𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅 𝟏𝟐.𝟓𝟔 𝟏𝟎

𝒉
𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝝅
𝒉
𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∆𝒙 = 𝝀 =
𝒑
𝒉 𝒉 𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
. ∆𝒑 ≥ 𝒑 ∆𝒗 ≥ = ≈
𝒑 𝟒𝝅 ∆𝒑 ≥ 𝟒𝝅 𝟏𝟐.𝟓𝟔 𝟏𝟎
𝟒𝝅
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Class 10. Numericals

4. A proton is confined to a box of length 2 nm. What is the minimum

uncertainty in its velocity?
𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒕𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏,
𝒉
∆𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙. ∆𝒑𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≥
𝟒𝝅
𝒉
𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, ∆𝒙. ∆(𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗) ≥
𝟒𝝅
𝒉
∆𝒙. ∆𝒗 ≥
𝟒𝝅. 𝒎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
Explain uncertainty principle.

How does the analysis of hypothetical gamma ray

microscope experiment establish Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Explain why electron cannot exist inside the nucleus of
radius 10-14 m.
Write any two forms of uncertainty principle with an
application for each.
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave functions
Matter waves of moving bodies ( based on de-Broglie hypothesis)
can represented by a wave function  (state of system in motion) -
function of position and time - 𝚿 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕)
Three dimensional wave function in cartesian coordinates

𝚿 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 = 𝝍(𝒙) . 𝝓(𝒚) . 𝝌(𝒛) . 𝝋(𝒕)

In general 𝝍(𝒙), 𝝓(𝒚), 𝝌(𝒛) are orthogonal functions

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit I : Review of concepts leading to Quantum Mechanics

Why wave function and associated concepts?!

−
Matter wave of 𝒉 𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 Impossible to detect
wavelength 𝝀= = =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 and analyze
6000000 g
To study their mechanics-equations of motion, Newton
−
Matter wave of 𝒉 𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 Impossible to detect
TT ball 60 g 𝝀= = =
wavelength 𝒑 𝒎𝒗 𝟔𝟎. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 and analyze

To study their mechanics of quantum world- wave equations,

Schrodinger based on wave function
−
Matter wave of 𝒉 𝒉 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 Possible to detect
𝝀= = = −
9.11x10-31 kg wavelength 𝒑 𝒎𝒗 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 and analyze
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave function and Probability density
• Wave function (probability amplitude) can be positive, negative or
complex valued and can change with time
• Square of absolute magnitude of 𝝍 is called probability density
(Max Born’s Approximation)
• Probability density represents probability of finding the particle in
unit volume of space
• ForProbability
a complexdensity must be a- Probability
wave function positive real quantity
If  is real then probability will be
density 𝝍 is the product  * ( * the
𝟐

complex conjugate of the wave function) 𝝍 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝝍 . 𝝍

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Well behaved wave functions- Characteristics of acceptable wave functions

Characteristics of an
acceptable wavefunction Acceptable
wave function

finite,
continuous & normalizable
single valued
Derivatives:
(FCS)
finite,
continuous &
single valued All mathematical functions
(dFCS) are not well behaved!
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Normalization of wave functions – Normalization condition

The total probability in the range where the function is defined has
to be unity,

i.e, the integral ‫ ׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏, this represents the normalization

condition
For a function 𝝍 → 𝟎 𝒂𝒔 𝒙 → ±∞
+∞
Normalization condition is, ‫׬‬−∞  𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏

An acceptable wave function must be normalizable

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Wave function as a state function
A well behaved function (wave function satisfying the conditions
FCS, dFCS & Normalisable) is a state function

𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 𝒊(𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕)

𝒑 𝑬
𝒌 = (𝒘𝒌𝒕, 𝑷 = ℏ𝒌) and 𝝎 = (𝒘𝒌𝒕, 𝑬 = ℏ𝝎)
ℏ ℏ
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅. 𝒑 𝒉
𝒌= = = 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂
𝝀 𝒉 𝒉 𝟐𝝅
𝒑
𝒊
(𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕)
Thus, wave function 𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ

Thus wave function can provide information about the state of the
system
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Double slit experiment revisited: Superposition of wave functions
𝝍𝟏 is the wave function for photons from slit 1
𝑰𝟏 = I𝝍1I𝟐 is probability of photon reaching the screen
𝝍𝟐 is the wave function for photons from slit 2
𝑰𝟐 = I𝝍2I𝟐 is probability of photon reaching the screen
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Double slit experiment revisited: Superposition of wave functions
𝝍𝟑 = 𝝍𝟏 + 𝝍𝟐 is the superposed wave function for photons from both slits

𝑰𝟑 = I𝝍𝟑I𝟐 is the combined probability of photons reaching the screen

𝑰𝟑 ≠ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐

I𝝍3I𝟐 = I𝝍𝟏I𝟐 + I𝝍𝟐I𝟐 + 𝝍𝟏∗𝝍𝟐 + 𝝍𝟏𝝍𝟐∗ ≠ I𝝍𝟏I𝟐+ I𝝍𝟐I𝟐

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝝍𝟏 + 𝝍𝟐 𝟐 = (𝝍∗𝟏 + 𝝍∗𝟐 )(𝝍𝟏 + 𝝍𝟐 ൯
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Observables
All experimentally measurable parameters of a physical system
are observables

• Position ➢
• momentum ➢
• Energy of a state ➢
• life time of electrons ➢
• Spin of a system

Multiple measurements yield average values of the parameters

Accuracy limited by principles of uncertainty
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators and Eigen Value Equation
• A normalized wave function contains information about
𝒊
(𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕)
the quantum system 𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ - eigen function
෡ operating on the
• A mathematical operator 𝑮
wavefunction can result in the eigen value 𝑮 of the
observable
෡𝝍=𝑮𝝍
• The eigen value equation 𝐆
Operators arise because in quantum mechanics, a system is described
with waves (wavefunction) not discrete particles

(For discrete particles, motion and dynamics can be described with the
deterministic equations of Newtonian physics)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Eigen value equation – Conceptual Question

𝑑2
• If e4x is an eigen function of the operator then write the
𝑑𝑥 2

corresponding eigen value equation and eigen value.

෡𝝍=𝑮𝝍
Eigen value equation 𝐆

𝒅𝟐 (𝒆𝟒𝒙 ൯ 𝟒𝒙
= 𝟒. 𝟒. 𝒆
𝒅𝒙𝟐

= 𝟏𝟔. 𝒆𝟒𝒙 , 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟏𝟔
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Eigen value equation – Conceptual Question

• A representative wave function is given by,

𝝍 𝒙 = 𝑨𝐬𝐢 𝐧 𝒌𝒙

𝝏
Using the operator, 𝐅෠ = 𝒊 ℏ check which is an eigen function.
𝝏𝒙

෡𝝍=𝑮𝝍
Eigen value equation 𝐆

𝜕(𝑨𝐬𝐢 𝐧 𝒌𝒙 )
𝒊ℏ ≠ 𝒊 ℏ𝒌𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙) Not an eigen function
𝜕𝒙
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators – Momentum Operator
Momentum operator:
𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
The partial derivative of 𝝍 (𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ ) with respect to position yields

𝒊
𝝏𝝍 𝝏 𝑨𝒆ℏ 𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
𝒊 𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕 𝒊
= = 𝒑 𝑨𝒆ℏ = 𝒑 𝝍
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 ℏ ℏ

ℏ 𝛛𝝍
𝑶𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈, =𝒑𝝍 Eigen value equation 𝐆෠ 𝝍 = 𝑮 𝝍
𝒊 𝛛𝒙
𝝏
This is in the form of eigen value equation, − 𝒊 ℏ 𝝍=𝒑𝝍
𝝏𝒙
𝝏
ෝ= −𝒊ℏ
Thus, momentum operator 𝐩
𝝏𝒙

operating on the eigen function yields the momentum eigen value

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators – Kinetic Energy Operator
Kinetic energy operator:
𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
The second derivative of 𝝍 (𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ ) with respect to position yields
𝒊
𝒊 𝝏𝝍 𝝏 𝑨𝒆ℏ 𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕 𝒊 𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝝏𝟐 𝑨𝒆ℏ 𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕 𝒊𝒑 𝝏𝒙
=
𝝏𝒙
= 𝒑 𝑨𝒆ℏ
ℏ
= = 𝝍
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐 ℏ 𝝏 𝝏𝝍 𝝏 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊𝒑
𝟐
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
= 𝒑 𝑨𝒆ℏ = 𝝍
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 ℏ ℏ

ℏ𝟐 𝝏 𝟐 𝝍 𝒑𝟐
This can be written in the form of eigen value equation, − = 𝝍 = 𝑲𝑬 𝝍
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒎

෢= ℏ𝟐 𝝏 𝟐 Eigen value equation 𝐆෠ 𝝍 = 𝑮 𝝍

Thus, kinetic energy operator, 𝐊𝐄 −
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐

operating on the eigen function yields the eigen value of the kinetic energy of
quantum system
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators – Total energy Operator (Hamiltonian Operator)
Total energy operator:
𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕
The derivative of 𝝍 (𝝍 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ ) with respect to time yields

𝒊
𝝏𝝍 𝝏 𝑨𝒆ℏ 𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕 𝒊 𝒊
𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕 𝒊
= = − 𝑬 𝑨𝒆 ℏ = − 𝑬 𝝍
ℏ ℏ
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
𝝏
This is in the form of eigen value equation, 𝒊 ℏ 𝝍=𝑬𝝍
𝝏𝒕

𝝏 Eigen value equation 𝐆෠ 𝝍 = 𝑮 𝝍

Thus, total energy operator, 𝐄෠ = 𝒊 ℏ
𝝏𝒕

operating on the eigen function yields the eigen value of the total
energy of quantum system
෡
This is also called as the Hamiltonian operator, 𝐇
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators – Position Operator
Position operator:
The position operator is corresponds to the position observable of
a particle
ෝ operating on 𝝍
The position operator 𝒙
ෝ𝝍=𝒙𝝍
𝒙

yields the eigen value of position of the quantum system

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Operators – Potential Energy Operator

Potential energy operator:

Potential energy operator is not explicitly described
The eigen value of the potential energy can be inferred as the
difference of the total energy and the kinetic energy
The eigen value equation for the potential energy is
෡𝝍=𝑽𝝍
𝑽
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Expectation values (most probable value) of observables
Quantum mechanics predicts only the most probable values of the
observables of a physical system – expectation values

the expectation values ≡ the average of repeated measurements on the system

෡ of the observable 𝒈
In general an operator G

𝝍 𝒅𝒙 ෡
‫ ∗𝝍 ׬‬G
Gives the expectation value of the observable 𝒈 =
‫𝒙𝒅 𝝍 ∗𝝍 ׬‬

෡ 𝝍 𝒅𝒙 = ‫𝒙𝒅 𝝍 ∗𝝍 ׬ 𝒈 = 𝒙𝒅 𝝍 𝒈 ∗𝝍 ׬‬
‫ ∗𝝍 ׬‬G

𝝍 𝒅V ෡
‫ ∗𝝍 ׬‬G volume space
In three dimensional space 𝒈 =
‫𝒅 𝝍 ∗𝝍 ׬‬V
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit II : Quantum Mechanics and Simple Quantum Mechanical systems

Where are we?

Accepted the need for Quantum Mechanics

Accepted the basic approaches and definitions

What Next?!
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit II : Quantum Mechanics and Simple Quantum Mechanical systems

Class #12 (As per less pl 11)

• One dimensional Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation

• Time dependent and position dependent wave functions

• Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit II : Quantum Mechanics and Simple Quantum Mechanical systems

➢Suggested Reading
1. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, Chapter 5

2. Learning material unit II prepared by the Department

of Physics

➢Reference Videos

1. Video lectures : MIT 8.04 Quantum Physics I

2. Engineering Physics Class #10

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Schrödinger’s wave equation

• Analogue of Newton’s law (Backbone of classical mechanics)

Moving Matter Wave

particle wave equation

Backbone of quantum mechanics

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS
One dimensional Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation
• The general form of the wave function describing a system in one
𝒊
(𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕)
dimension is given by 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆 ℏ

• The total energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy and
the potential energy, E = KE + V momentum operator
𝝏
ෝ= −𝒊ℏ
𝐩 𝝏𝒙
• This equation remains invariant when multiplied by 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕
kinetic energy
𝑬𝚿(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝑲𝑬𝚿(𝐱, 𝐭) + 𝑽𝚿(𝐱, 𝐭) ෡ 𝚿(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝑲𝑬𝚿(𝐱,
𝑬 ෢ 𝐭) + 𝑽𝚿(𝐱, 𝐭) ෢=
operator, 𝐊𝐄
ℏ 𝟐 𝝏𝟐
Remember eigen value equation 𝐆෠ 𝝍 = 𝑮 𝝍 −
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐
• The terms in the equations can be rewritten in terms of operators total energy
𝒅𝜳 ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝜳 operator, 𝐄෠ =
𝒊ℏ = − + 𝑽𝜳 Rearranging ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝚿 𝒅𝚿 𝝏
𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐 + 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝚿 = 𝟎 𝒊 ℏ 𝝏𝒕
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒕

• This is the Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation (nonrelativistic)

• The solution of this equation yields the wave function and its time evolution
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Three dimensional Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation

ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝚿 𝒅𝚿
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐
+ 𝒊ℏ
𝒅𝒕
− 𝑽𝚿 = 𝟎 Extending to 3D

ℏ 𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝚿 𝒓, 𝒕
𝟐
+ 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝚿 𝒓, 𝒕 + 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝚿 𝒓, 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒕

ℏ𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝜳 𝒓, 𝒕
𝜵 𝚿 𝒓, 𝒕 + 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝚿 𝒓, 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
Where, 𝜵𝟐 = + + 𝟐 is the Laplacian operator (revisit)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit I : Review of concepts leading to Quantum Mechanics

Quick Recap! (04-01-2021)

Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation

Tools to Only two possible nature
Why Schrodinger’s understand of quantum systems!
wave equations? QM
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation

• For steady state system:

The observables are time invariant and hence the wave function
could be independent of time
𝒊
(𝒑𝒙−𝑬𝒕)
• The wave function 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝒆 ℏ can be expressed as
𝒊 𝒊
(𝒑𝒙) −ℏ(𝑬𝒕)
𝚿 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ 𝒆 = 𝝍 𝒙 .𝝓 𝒕 Any quantum event - function of space and time
𝒊
(𝒑𝒙)
where 𝝍 𝒙 = 𝑨𝒆 ℏ is the space dependent component
𝒊
−ℏ(𝑬𝒕)
and 𝝓 𝒕 = 𝒆 is the time dependent component
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation

• Substituting for 𝜳 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) in the time

dependent Schrodinger’s equation

ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝚿 𝒅𝚿
+ 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝚿 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒕

ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 .𝝓(𝒕) 𝝏𝝍 𝒙 .𝝓(𝒕)
+ 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒕

• Replacing energy operator in the above equation, 𝝏

Total energy operator, 𝐄෠ = 𝒊 ℏ 𝝏𝒕

ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕)
𝟐
+ 𝑬𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) − 𝑽𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙
Remember eigen value equation 𝐆෠ 𝝍 = 𝑮 𝝍
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation
• Rewriting the equation,
ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕)
+ 𝑬𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) − 𝑽𝝍 𝒙 . 𝝓(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐
ℏ 𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 .
𝟐
+ 𝑬𝝍 𝒙 − 𝑽𝝍 𝒙 ∗𝝓 𝒕 =𝟎
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙
• The product of two functions is zero implies that either of the terms is zero
ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 .
• Hence, +
𝑬𝝍 𝒙 − 𝑽𝝍 𝒙 = 𝟎, which is the Schrodinger’s time
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐
independent wave equation
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝟐𝒎
+ 𝟐 𝑬−𝑽 𝝍 𝒙 =𝟎
the standard form of a differential equation 𝒅𝒙𝟐 ℏ
𝒉
Solution of this equation gives the wave function 𝑾𝑲𝑻, ℏ =
𝟐𝝅
of a steady state system
𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
+ 𝑬−𝑽 𝝍 𝒙 =𝟎
Region in which the particle is moving can be 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐
defined by the potential function
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Three dimensional Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation

• The Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in 3D

can be written as 𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 . 𝟐𝒎
+ 𝟐 𝑬−𝑽 𝝍 𝒙 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ℏ
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝟐𝒎
𝟐
+ 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝚿 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 + 𝟐 𝑬 – 𝑽 𝚿 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ℏ

which can be simplified as How to set up Schrodinger’s time

independent wave equation?
𝟐𝒎 1. Accept Schrodinger’s time
𝜵𝟐 𝚿 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 + 𝟐 𝑬 – 𝑽 𝚿 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝟎 dependent wave equation
ℏ 2. Substitute space and time
dependent component of wave
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
where 𝜵𝟐 = + 𝟐 + is the Laplacian operator function
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐 3. Write as second order Diff Eqn.
wrt space component
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Framework for solving Schrödinger’s wave equation
1. Problem statement –
a) The particle (quantum system) and its energy
b) The potential energy of the particle
c) The range in which the particle can be found
2. Write the Schrodinger’s wave equation relevant to the
problem
3. Obtain solution of the SWE - 𝝍 𝒙
4. Verify whether 𝝍 𝒙 is an acceptable function
a) 𝝍 𝒙 and it’s derivatives are finite, continuous and
single valued
b) 𝝍 𝒙 is normalized
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Conceptual Questions
Starting from Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation
arrive at the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.

Set up Schrodinger’s time dependent equation as an eigen

value equation.