CHAPTER 2

THEORY BACKGROUND

2.1. History Background of Aerodynamics

In 1912-1918, Ludwig Prandtl showed the aerodynamic consideration of
wings could be divided into two parts: (1) the study of the section of a wing – an
airfoil and (2) the modification of airfoil properties to assume for the complete – finite
wing. The theoretical calculation and experimental measurement of modern airfoil
properties have been a major part of the aeronautics research was carried out by
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1970s and 1980s. In
1884, Horatio F. Phillips developed the first patented airfoil shapes. He was an
Englishman who made the first wind-tunnel experiments on airfoils.In 1902, Wright
brothers made their own airfoil tests in a wind-tunnel. In early 1930s, the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) collaborated on a series of definitive
airfoil experiments using airfoil shapes that were constructed systematically. Many of
these NACA airfoils are in common use today. Therefore, in this chapter we follow
the nomenclature by NACA.

2.2. Boundary Layer Theory

In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl, a German scientist who first introduced the concept
of boundary layer which changed the analysis of viscous flows and which allowed the
practical calculation of drag and flow separation over aerodynamics bodies. He
derived the equations for boundary layer flow by using Navier-Stokes equations.
Using Prandtl’s concept of a boundary layer adjacent to an aerodynamic surface, the
Navier-Stokes equations can be reduced to a more tractable form called boundary-
layer equations. These boundary-layer equations can be solved to obtain the
distributions of shear stress and aerodynamic heat transfer to the surface. Boundary
layer is the thin layer of fluid adjacent to the solid surface. The effect of viscosity is
very prominent within this layer. The main stream velocity undergoes a change from
zero at the solid surface to the full magnitude through the boundary layer.
 Prandtl regarded that for fluids having relatively small viscosity, the effect of
internal friction in the fluid is significant only in a narrow region surrounding solid
bodies over which the fluid flows. Close to the body, boundary layer where shear
stresses exert an increasingly larger effect on the fluid as one moves from free stream
towards the solid boundary. However, outside the boundary layer where the effect of
the shear stresses on the flow is small compared to values inside the boundary layer
(since the velocity gradient ∂ u/∂ y is negligible), the fluid particles experience no
vorticity, and therefore, the flow is similar to a potential flow.

2.3. Flow Separation

When the flow takes place around the body and curved surfaces, the velocity
outside the boundary layer is not constant. The air across the top of conventional
airfoil causes constricted flow lines and increased air speed relative to the wind. This
causes a decrease in pressure on the top according to the Bernoulli equation and
provides a lift force. From Bernoulli’s equation, it can be decided that when the
velocity decreases, the pressure also increases. When the pressure is increasing i.e.
dp/dx is positive, this pressure gradient is called ‘Adverse pressure gradient’. When
dp/dx is negative, it is called ‘Favorable pressure gradient’. If calculate the point of
separation, boundary layer equations were equitable. At the point of separation, the
fluid flow becomes detached from the solid surface of the object due to excessive
adverse pressure gradient. Beyond the point of separation, the flow reversal takes the
forms of eddies and vortices.
To calculate the boundary layer over an airfoil or slender bodies, we need to
obtain the velocity distribution using the potential flow theory. The potential flow
analyzed the velocity on the surface body is not zero. It is assumed that this velocity
distribution given by potential flow, would roughly be the distribution of velocity
outside the boundary ‘U ∞ ’. From this velocity distribution and using Bernoulli’s
equation, the first estimation of dp/dx is obtained. Based on this data, the laminar
boundary layer and the location of transition point were determined. After the
transition, the growth of turbulent boundary layer is calculated. After obtaining the
boundary layers, the displacement thickness ‘ ⸹ ’ is added to the solid surface.
¿

Subsequently, the skin friction drag can be calculated. Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) solver is used for these calculations.
 The flow always starts out from the leading edge as laminar. Then, at some
point downstream of the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable
and small bursts of turbulent flow being to grow in the flow. Finally, over a certain
region called the transition region, the boundary layer becomes completely turbulent.
A turbulent boundary layer may also separate from the surface when it is subjected to
adverse pressure gradient. Due to turbulent mixing, the value of du/dy for separation
to take place is much higher than that in the case of laminar boundary layer. Hence, a
turbulent boundary layer has a higher resistance to separation. This behavior is used
in bluff bodies to delay the separation and reduce their pressure drag. If the transition
to turbulent flow takes place before separation of laminar boundary layer, the
separation is delayed. A laminar boundary layer giving a larger separated region and a
turbulent boundary layer giving a smaller separated region. Since the drag of a bluff
body is mainly pressure drag, the total drag decreases when the flow is turbulent
before separation. The drag coefficient of a circular cylinder is around 1 when the
separation is laminar and it is 0.3 when the separation is turbulent.

Figure 2.1. Airflow separating from a wing at a high angle of attack

2.4. Prediction Method for Flow Separation Points

It is necessary to know whether boundary layer (either laminar or turbulent)
will separate from the surface of the body. And it is also necessary to know where
flow separation will occur. This is quite important in many design problems. In the
design of airfoils, it is necessary to avoid flow separation order to keep drag levels
low. Designing for high lift, predicting separation points is an important part of the
design problem. For steady two-dimensional and axisymmetric flows, the separation
point is defined as the point where the wall shear stress equal zero.
 With high-performance computers, the boundary-layer equations for laminar
flow can be solved exactly. So, laminar separation point can be determined almost
exactly. And, there are several simple methods which do not require the solution of
the boundary-layer equations but it can be used to predict separation points. The
momentum integral method of Thwaites’ method and the method of Stratford were
examples of such methods. But, Stratford method requires solution of the laminar
boundary-layer equations.
The prediction of separation point in turbulent flows is a much more difficult
job. Under the same flow conditions, a turbulent boundary layer will be thicker than a
laminar boundary layer. The current prediction methods were based on the boundary-
layer equations. The numerical prediction method with MATLAB calculates the
growth of boundary layer over a surface under a pressure gradient. The numerical
prediction method computes laminar and turbulent boundary layers, transition and
flow separation.
The prediction method has three steps. The first step finds the approximate
location of the stagnation point on the two-dimensional across section of the
geometries and defines an upper and a lower surface that extend from the stagnation
point to the trailing edge. The program then computes free stream velocity
derivatives. The second step of the program calculates the boundary layer growth and
location of flow separation points over the upper and lower surfaces. The third step of
the program is defining the boundary layer growth and location of flow separation
points over the two geometries by using SOLIDWORKS for flow simulation and
visualization.

2.5. Separation of Boundary Layer

The flow is reversed at the vicinity of the wall under certain conditions. This
phenomenon is called separation of boundary layer. As the flow proceed over a soil
surface, the boundary layer thickness increases. The velocity profile change from
parabolic to logarithmic. The fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has to do work
surface friction by consuming some kinetic energy. This loss of kinetic energy
recovered from adjacent fluid layer through momentum exchange process. The flow
past a circular cylinder in an infinite medium: at θ=90 °, the flow area is like a
constricted image and the flow behavior is like a nozzle. Beyond θ=90 °, the flow
area is diverged and the flow behavior is like a diffuser. In the free stream, the
pressure and velocity are indicated by the symbols as p∞ and U ∞ . p is the local
pressure on the cylinder.
In the flow field, there are the forces: the pressure force and the force due to
streamwise acceleration are acting in the same direction (the pressure gradient being
negative/favourable) untilθ=90 °. Beyond θ=90 °, the pressure gradient is positive or
adverse. Due to its effect, the forces are opposing each other in the inviscid region. In
the viscid region (near the solid boundary layer), at θ=90 °, the viscous force opposes
the combined pressure force and the force due to acceleration. The fluid particles
overcome this viscous resistance. Beyond θ=90 °, the viscous force and the pressure
force oppose the force due to acceleration. The flow structure becomes different.

Figure 2.2. Boundary layer separation on aircraft wings

Near the interface of boundary layer and free stream regarding ∂ u/∂ y and
2 2
∂ u/∂ y still holds good and the curvature is negative. We observe that for an
2
∂u
adverse pressure gradient, there must exit a point for which 2
=0. This point is n
∂y
known as point of reflection of the velocity profile in the boundary layer. Since the
wake zone pressure is less than that of the forward stagnation point, the cylinder
experiences a drag force which is attributed to the pressure difference. The drag force
brought about by the pressure difference is known as form drag whereas the shear
stress at the wall gives rise to skin friction drag. Generally, these two drag forces
together are responsible for resultant drag on a body.
 Figure 2.3. A Flow separation on the surface of a circular cylinder

2.6. Disadvantages of Boundary layer Separation

(a) Separation of boundary layer greatly affects the flow as a whole.

(b) The formation of a weak zone of disturbed fluid on the downstream, in
which the pressure is approximately constant and much less than that on
the upstream and gives rise to boundary forces.
(c) Thus, the separation of boundary layer gives additional resistance to flow.

2.7. Control of Boundary Layer Separation

The total drag on a body is attributed to form drag and skin friction drag. In
flow configurations, the contribution of form drag becomes significant. In order to
reduce the form drag, the boundary layer separation should be prevented or delayed
so that somewhat better pressure recovery takes place. There are some popular
methods for this purpose. Among them, (1) by giving the profile of the body a
streamlined shape, (2) by blowing to control the boundary layer are the most popular
methods for reducing the drag coefficient C D and (3) acceleration of the fluid in the
boundary layer. The about of these methods are following:
(a) This has an elongated shape in the rear part to reduce the magnitude of the
pressure gradient. The optimum contour for a streamlined body is the one for
which the wake zone is very narrow and the form drag is minimum.
(b) The injection of the fluid through porous wall can also control the boundary
layer separation. This is generally accomplished by blowing high energy fluid
 particles tangentially from the location where separation would have taken
place. The injection of fluid promotes turbulence and therefore increases skin
friction. But the form drag is reduced considerably due to suppression of flow
separation and this reduction can be of significant magnitude so as to ignore
the enhanced skin friction drag.
(c)It consists of supplying additional energy to the particle of fluid which is being
retarded in the boundary layer. It may be achieved by injecting fluid into the
region of boundary layer from the interior of the body with the help of some
suitable devices.

Figure 2.4. Control of Flow Separation around a circular cylinder

2.8. Supercritical Airfoil

A supercritical airfoil is an airfoil designed primarily to delay the onset of
wave drag in the transonic speed range. Supercritical airfoils are characterized by
their flattened upper surface, highly cambered (downward-curved) section and larger
leading edge radius compared with NACA 6-series laminar airfoil shapes. Standard
wing shapes are designed to create lower pressure over the top of the wing. The
camber of the wing determines how much the air accelerates around the wing. As the
speed of the aircraft approaches the speed of the sound, the air accelerating around
the wing reaches Mach 1 and shock waves causes wave drag. Supercritical airfoils are
designed to minimize this effect by flattening the upper surface of the wing.
 The supercritical airfoils were suggested first in Germany in 1940. Research
aircraft of the 1950s and 1960s found it difficult to break the sound barrier, or even
reach Mach 0.9, with conventional airfoils. Supersonic airflow over the upper surface
of the traditional airfoil induced excessive wave drag and a form of stability loss
called Mach tuck. Due to the airfoil shape used, supercritical wings experience these
problems less severely and at much higher speeds, thus allowing the wing to maintain
high performance at speeds closer to Mach 1. Techniques learned from studies of the
original supercritical airfoil sections are used in designing airfoils for high-speed
subsonic and transonic aircraft from the Airbus A300 and Boeing 777.
Supercritical airfoils feature four main benefits: they have a higher drag-
divergence Mach number, they develop shock waves further than traditional airfoils,
they greatly reduce shock-induced boundary layer separation and their geometry
allows more efficient wing design (e.g., a thicker wing and/or reduced wing sweep,
each of which may allow a lighter wing). At a particular speed for a given airfoil
section, the critical Mach number, flow over the upper surface of an airfoil can
become locally supersonic, but slows down to match the pressure at the trailing edge
of the lower surface without a shock. However, at a certain higher speed, the drag-
divergence Mach number, a shock is required to recover enough pressure to match the
pressures at the trailing edge. This shock causes transonic wave drag and can induce
flow separation behind it; both have negative effects on the airfoil’s performance.

Figure 2.5. Supercritical airfoil Mach number/pressure coefficient diagram

At a certain point along the airfoil, a shock is generated, which increases the
pressure coefficient to the critical value, where the local flow velocity will be Mach 1.
The position of this shockwave is determined by the geometry of the airfoil; a
supercritical airfoil is more efficient because the shockwave is minimized and is
created as far as possible, thus reducing drag. Compared to a typical airfoil section,
the supercritical airfoil creates more of its lift at the end due to its more even pressure
distribution over the upper surface.
In addition to improved transonic performance, a supercritical wing’s enlarged
leading edge gives it excellent high-lift characteristics. Consequently, aircraft
utilizing a supercritical wing have superior takeoff and landing performance. This
makes the supercritical wing a favorite for designers of transport aircraft. An example
of one such heavy-lift aircraft that uses a supercritical wing is the C-17 Globemaster
Ш.

2.9. Aerodynamic Characteristics

In order to evaluate the aerodynamic coefficients of the fore body of an
aircraft, a body-axes reference frame is chosen. This frame is set in a longitudinal
symmetry plane of the fore body. This reference frame will be used in all
calculations.
For three-dimensional bodies, including the slender bodies, the normal force,
N, is primary interest because it does work to show the vehicle in maneuvers. The
normal force, sometimes referred to as the lateral force, is orthogonal to the slender
body’s longitudinal direction. This is distinct from the lift, which is orthogonal to the
free stream or body translation. The longitudinal direction of a slender body is its axis
of revolution. From the classical aerodynamic theory, the forces and the moments
acting on the force body are defined as the following:
1 2
Drag force D= ρ∞ U ∞ A ref C D
2
1 2
Normal force N= ρ∞ U ∞ A ref C N
2
1 2
Lift force L= ρ ∞ U ∞ A ref C L
2
1 2
Pitching moment M = ρ ∞ U ∞ A ref Lref C M
2
1 2
Rolling moment M R = ρ∞ U ∞ Aref Lref C R
2
 1 2
Yaw moment M Y = ρ∞ U ∞ Aref Lref C Y
2
In which the Aref and Lref are the reference surface area and length of the fore
body. ρ∞ , P∞ and V ∞ are air density, free stream pressure and free stream velocity.
Evaluating the six coefficients for drag C D , Normal force C N , lift C L, roll moment C R ,
pitch moment C M and yaw moment C Y , it will be possible to calculate all the forces
and moments acting on the fore body.

2.10. Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficients

The actual magnitude of L, D and M depend not only on ∞, but also velocity
and altitude as well. In fact, we can expect that the variations of L, D and M depend at
least on;
(a) Free stream velocity V ∞ .
(b) Free stream density ρ∞ that is on altitude.
(c) Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplanes, we will use the wing
area S to indicate size.
(d) Angle of attack ∞.
(e) Shape of the airfoil.
(f) Viscosity coefficient μ∞ (because the aerodynamic forces are generated
in part from skin friction distributions).
(g) Compressibility of the airflow. Compressibility effects are governed by
the value of the free stream Mach number, M ∞=V ∞ /a∞ .
Hence, we can write that, for a given shape airfoil at a given angle of
attack,
L=f ( V ∞ , ρ∞ , S , μ∞ , a ∞ )
And D and M are similar functions.

2.11. Introduction to NACA Series

The gradual development of wing theory regarded to isolate the wing section
problem from the effects of plan form and led to a more systematic experimental
approach. The tests made at Gottingen during the First World War and contributed
much to the development of modern types of wing sections. Up to about the Second
World War, many families of wing sections were tested in the laboratories of various
countries, but the work of the NACA was outstanding. The NACA investigations
were further systematized by separation of the effects of camber, thickness
distribution, and the experimental work was performed at higher Reynolds numbers.
The wing sections now in common use are either NACA sections or have been
strongly influenced by the NACA investigations because the NACA sections form
consistent families and detailed attention will be given only to modern NACA wing
sections. There are many series of NACA sections. Among them, they are
(a) NACA 1-series Wing Sections
(b) NACA 4-digit Wing Sections
(c) NACA 5-digit Wing Sections
(d) Modified NACA 4-digit Wing Sections
(e) Modified NACA 5-digit Wing Sections
(f) NACA 6-series Wing Sections
(g) NACA 7-series Wing Sections

In this presentation, we use NACA 4-digit wing sections. We explain NACA

series which associated with 4-digit series.
2.11.1. NACA 4-digit Wing Sections
(a) Thickness Distributions: The thickness distribution for the NACA 4-digit
wing sections was selected to correspond closely to that for the Gӧttingen
398 and the Clark Y. They were nearly the same when their camber was
removed and they were reduced to the same maximum thickness. It is given
by the following equation:
t
± y t= ( 0.29690 √ x−0.12600 x−0.35160 x 2+ 0.28430 x3 −0.10150 x 4 )
0.20

Where, t = maximum thickness expressed as a fraction of the chord

The leading edge radius is r t =1.1019 t 2

The ordinate at any point is directly proportional to the thickness ratio and the
leading edge radius varies as the square of the thickness ratio.

(b) Mean Lines: The shape of the mean line was expressed as two parabolic arcs
tangent at the position of maximum mean line ordinate. The equations of
mean lines were taken to be
 m
yc= 2
( 2 px −x 2) and
p

m
yc= 2
[ ( 1−2 p )+ 2 px−x 2 ]
( 1− p )

Where, m = maximum ordinate of mean line expressed as fraction of chord

and
p = chord wise position of maximum ordinate
The ordinates at all points on the mean line vary directly with the
maximum ordinate.

(c) Numbering System: The first integer indicates the maximum value of the
mean line ordinate y c in % of the chord. The second integer indicates the
distance from the leading edge to the location of the maximum camber in
tenths of the chord. The last two integers indicate the section thickness in % of
the chord. Thus, the NACA 2415 wing section has 2% camber at 0.4 of the
chord from the leading edge and is 15% thick.
(d) Approximate Theoretical Characteristics: Values of ( v /V )2, which is
equivalent to the low speed pressure distribution. Values of the velocity
increment ratio ∆ v a /V may be obtained for intermediate thickness by
interpolation.
2.11.2. Modified NACA 4-digit Wing Sections
Some early modifications of the NACA 4-digit series wing section included
thinner nosed and blunter nosed sections which were denoted by the suffixes T and B,
respectively. Some sections of this family with reflexed mean lines were designated
by numbers of the type 2 R112 and 2 R212, where the first integer indicates the
maximum camber in % of the chord and the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate small positive
and negative moments, respectively.
More important modifications common to the NACA 4-digit series wing
sections consisted of systematic variations of the thickness distributions. The
modification is indicated by a suffix consisting of a dash and two digits as for the
NACA 0012-64 or the 23012-64 sections. The modification consists essentially of
changes of the leading edge radius from the normal value and changes of the position
of maximum thickness from the normal position at 30% of the chord. The first integer
following the dash indicates the relative magnitude of the leading edge radius. The
normal leading edge radius is designated by 6 and a sharp leading edge by 0. The
leading edge radius varies as the square of this integer except for values larger than 8,
when the variation becomes arbitrary. The second integer following the dash indicates
the position of maximum thickness in tenths of the chord. The suffix -63 indicates
sections very nearly but not exactly the same as the sections without the suffix.
The family of NACA wing sections defined by these equations has been
studied extensively by German aerodynamicists, who have applied designations of
the following type to these sections:

NACA 1.8 25 14-1.1 30/0.50