Class X Chemistry

Authors
Mr. Sonam Dorji, B.Ed. (Sec. Sci), Norbuling Central School.
Ms. Hari Maya Gurung, M.Sc, PgCE, Paro College of Education.
Mr. Basant Pradhan, M.Sc, PgCE, College of Science and Technology.
Mr. Bhim Kumar Sharma, PgCE, B.Sc, Damphu Central School.

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 Published by
Kuensel Corporation Limited
Thimphu

Reprint 2017

Copyright © Authors

Acknowledgment
We would like to thank all individuals for making contributions in the form of
suggestions, feedbacks and comments towards the writing of this textbook.
Our gratitude and appreciation also goes to the following teachers for their time
and space to attend the review works at Phuentsholing Higher Secondary School
during the winter vacation of 2016. Their feedbacks and comments were very
useful in bringing the book to the current shape.
• Mr. Wangpo Tenzin, Curriculum Specialist, Dean, CDC, REC
• Mr. Bhoj Raj Rai, Unit Head, STEM, CDC, REC
• Mr. Surjay Lepcha, Curriculum Developer, STEM, CDC, REC
• Mr. Thinley Jamtsho, CIE, Yonphula.
• Mr. Khaganath Gajmer, Chemistry Teacher, Shari Higher Secondary School,
Paro
• Mr. Binod Rai, Chemistry Teacher, Punakha Central School, Punakha
• Mr. S K Gyeltshen, Chemistry Teacher, Chukha Central School, Chukha
• Mr. Prem P Timsina, Chemistry Teacher, Nangkhor Central School,
Pemagatsel
• Mr. Rinchen Dorji, Chemistry Teacher, Punakha Central School, Punakha
Our sincere courtesy to all the sources of pictures that are used in this book.
Lastly, sincere prayers of gratitude to all our family members for being there
and rendering unwavering support during the times of need.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without
a written permission from the authors and publishers.
If there are any objections with regard to the use of picture and photographs in
this book, please contact the publishers.

ISBN 978-99936-53-36-3

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 Preface
Class X Chemistry is designed and written in strict accordance with the Science
Curriculum Framework prepared by the Royal Education Council, Ministry of
Education, Bhutan. With the implementation of various science textbooks for
classes Ten and Twelve in 2017, the initiative of Royal Education Council has
been to bring a major reform in the science curriculum of the country. The
implementation of new science textbooks for classes IV to IX has started from
academic session 2013 onward on the basis of different key stages. The science
textbooks for different key stages are developed and written such that there
is a spiral relationship in the flow of content from one key stage to another.
Therefore, the authors hereby recommend that students acquire the scientific
concept and skills of all key stages to maximize the learning in higher classes.
The salient features of this book includes:
• The intended learning objectives for each of the main topic in the chapter.
• Self-Evaluation questions as a follow up of each topic.
• Activities, both practical and theoretical, to explain abstract concepts.
• Summary for each chapter to make revision less time-consuming.
• Chapter-end exercise with all items of questions to maximize their
competency in Chemistry.
• Specimen question paper.
• A glossary at the back of the book serves as a mini dictionary.
• List of references.
The incorporation of the above mentioned features will definitely make students
adore and enjoy learning Chemistry. The inclusion of cartoon concepts to
introduce new topics will make the subject interesting, interactive and easy
to learn. It demonstrates that Chemistry too can be a fascinating subject,
rather than a repelling one. With the successful nationwide implementation of
transformative pedagogy in 2016, the teaching and learning process can be
blended with cooperative learning structures to engage all students in learning.
Class X Chemistry is a student’s most important tool to pursue their future in
the science stream. Thus, this textbook would provide a greater opportunity to
young learners to climb greater heights in Chemistry.
Every attempt has been made to make the textbook error – free. Any comments
in the form of constructive feedbacks and suggestions from all individual users
are welcome. We shall try our best to incorporate them in subsequent editions.
- Authors

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 Contents
Syllabusi
Assessmentv
Purpose of Assessment v
The Assessment Process vi
Scheme of assessment in science vii
Assessment Techniques and Tools  ix
Modern Periodic Table xx
Chapter 1: Gas Laws
1.1 Introduction  1
1.2 Gas laws 1
1.2.1 Boyle’s law: Pressure-Volume relationship 2
1.2.2 Charles’ law: Volume-Temperature relationship 7
1.2.3 Avogadro’s law 10
1.2.4 Gas equation (combining Boyle’s and Charles’ law) 11
1.2.5 Ideal gas equation 13
1.2.6 Dalton’s law of partial pressures 16
Chapter 2: The mole concept and stoichiometry
2.1 Introduction  29
2.2 Relative atomic mass and Relative molecular mass, Avogadro’s
number and Mole 29
2.2.1 Relative atomic mass (RAM or Ar)29
2.2.2 Gram atomic mass 31
2.2.3 Relative molecular mass (RMM or Mr)33
2.2.4 Avogadro’s number 34
2.2.5 Mole concept 36
2.3 Percentage composition, empirical formula and molecular formula 41
2.3.1 Percentage composition 41
2.3.2 Empirical formula 43
2.3.3 Molecular formula 44
2.3.4 Differences between empirical formula and molecular formula 47
2.4 Calculations based on chemical reactions 48
2.4.1 Calculation based on chemical equations 49

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Chapter 3: Metallurgy
3.1 Introduction  61
3.2 Metallurgy 61
3.2.1 Occurrence of metals 62
3.2.2 Some terminologies used in metallurgy. 62
3.2.3 Processes involved in the extraction of metals. 63
3.3 Electrolysis 75
3.3.1 Types of conductors 76
3.3.2 Electrolytic cell or Voltameter. 76
3.3.3 Electron transfer process – oxidation and reduction.  78
3.3.4 Dissociation or ionization of the electrolyte 78
3.3.5 Discharge of ions at the electrodes.  79
3.3.6 Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution.  81
3.4 Aluminum 84
3.4.1 The chief ores of aluminum. 85
3.4.2 Extraction of aluminum. 85
3.4.3 Uses of Aluminum 88
3.5 Iron 89
3.5.1 The chief ores of iron.  90
3.5.2 Extraction of cast iron or pig iron. 90
3.6 Alloy 94
Chapter 4: Halogens
4.1 Introduction  101
4.2 Basic information of halogens 101
4.2.1 Occurrence and source 101
4.2.2 Electron configuration 102
4.2.3 Safety and storage of elemental halogens  105
4.3 General properties  106
4.3.1 Nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge 106
4.3.2 Periodic properties of halogens 109
4.3.3 Physical properties  113
4.3.4 Chemical properties  115
4.4 Uses of halogens 122
4.4.1 Fluorine  122
4.4.2 Chlorine  123

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 4.4.3 Bromine  124
4.4.4 Iodine  124
4.4.5 Astatine 125
Chapter 5: Transition elements
5.1 Introduction  131
5.2 Electron configuration and position in periodic table 131
5.2.1 Electron configuration in s, p, d, f orbital notation 131
5.2.2 Position in a periodic table  135
5.3 Characteristics of transition elements  138
5.4 d-Block elements of group 11 and the uses of transition elements 143
5.4.1 Similarities among copper, silver and gold.  143
5.4.2 Similarities of group 11 elements with other transition elements.145
5.4.3 Reaction involving transition elements  146
5.4.4 Uses of transition elements 148
Chapter 6: Chemical energetics
6.1 Introduction  153
6.2 Energy change in chemical reactions 153
Chapter 7: Rates of reactions
7.1 Introduction  171
7.2 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 172
7.3 Le Chatelier’s Principle 175
7.4 Factors affecting the systems at equilibrium 177
7.5 Application of Le Chatelier’s Principle. 181
Chapter 8: Reversible reactions
8.1 Introduction  187
8.2 Collision theory 187
8.2.1 Threshold energy and activation energy 188
8.2.2 Orientation of reactants 189
8.3 Reaction rates  191
8.3.1 Expressing reaction rates 191
8.3.2 Factors affecting the rate of reaction  191
8.4 Biological catalyst 196
8.4.1 Factors influencing enzyme activity 197
8.4.2 Importance of enzymes in biotechnology 198

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8.4.3 Enzymes and their functions.  199

Chapter 9: Alcohols
9.1 Introduction  207
9.2 Alcohol – structure, classes and nomenclature. 207
9.2.1 Homologous series and functional group. 208
9.2.2 Alcohols – hydroxy derivates of alkane. 209
9.2.3 Structural representation. 210
9.2.4 Classification 211
9.2.5 Nomenclature  212
9.3 Properties of alcohol 215
9.3.1 Physical properties 216
9.3.2 Chemical properties of alcohol  221
9.4 Denatured alcohol or Methylated spirit 223
9.4.1 Spurious liquor or illicit alcohol 224
9.4.2 Identification  224
9.5 Preparation and uses of ethanol  225
9.5.1 Ethanol from starch by fermentation  225
9.5.2 Ethanol from ethene by hydration.  228
9.5.3 Ethanol from molasses ‒ commercial production 228
9.5.4 Uses of ethanol  230
9.6 Ethanol and its impacts 232
9.6.1 Impact on environment  232
9.6.2 Impact to economy, society and health. 233
Specimen Question Paper 243
Glossary  253
References257

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 Syllabus
Strand: Material and their properties
Chapter 1: Gas Laws
1 State Boyle’s law, Avogadro’s law and Charles’ law.
2 Derive gas law equations.
3 Apply gas law equations to solve numerical problems.
4 Use the ideal gas equation pV= NkT and pV= nRT in numerical problems.
5 State Dalton’s law.
6 Apply Dalton’s law to calculate partial pressures of gases in a mixture of
gases.
Chapter 2: The mole concept and stoichiometry.
1 Explain that the quantity of one mole is set by defining one mole of carbon-12
atoms to have a mass of exactly 12 grams.
2 Define the term relative atomic mass (Ar), relative molecular mass (Mr) and
relative formula mass (for ionic compounds).
3 Explain the concept of a mole as applied to electrons, atoms, molecules,
ions, formulae and equations.
4 Explain Avogadro’s constant as the number of particles per mole (6.023
× 1023 mol-1).
5 Calculate empirical formula and molecular formula from composition by
mass and percentage composition data.
6 Differentiate between empirical formula and molecular formula.
7 Calculate reacting masses from balanced chemical equations.
8 Compute reacting volumes of gases.
9 Evaluate the concentrations and volumes for reactions in solution.
Chapter 3: Metallurgy
1 Name the ores of common metals e.g. bauxite (Al2O3) and haematite (Fe2O3).
2 Explain affect of the reactivity of a metal in determining the extraction
process from its naturally occurring ores.
3 Explain that less reactive metal can be extracted by reduction with carbon
or carbon monoxide (e.g. haematite).
4 Explain electrolysis.
5 Describe the purification and recycling of metal by electrolysis.
6 Describe the extraction of reactive metal by electrolysis, e.g. aluminium
from its ore bauxite (aluminium oxide).
7 Outline the uses of common metals.

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 Syllabus

Chapter 4: Halogens
1 State the physical properties of the halogens (e.g. melting points and boiling
points) and the changes in these properties as the order in group descends.
2 Describe the reactions of Group 17 elements Cl2, Br2 and I2 with halide ions
in aqueous solution (Cl-, Br-, I-).
3 Describe the trends in reactivity of the reactions of Group 17 elements Cl2,
Br2 and I2 with halide ions in aqueous solution as order in group descends
to predict the reactions of fluorine.
4 State the common uses of some of the halogens.
Chapter 5: Transition elements
1 Describe the similarities among transition elements and describe the
characteristic properties of their compounds.
2 State some uses of transition elements.
Chapter 6: Chemical energetics
1 Explain that energy transfer is involved in making and breaking of chemical
bonds in chemical reactions
2 Classify reactions as exothermic reaction and endothermic reaction.
Chapter 7: Rates of reactions
1 Explain the effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions
and their dependence on pH.
2 State examples of enzymes being used in biotechnology.
3 Explain that the rate of many reactions depend on the frequency and energy
of collisions between particles, using particle theory and explain the effect
of temperature and concentration on the rates of chemical reactions.
Chapter 8: Reversible reactions
1 Explain common reactions and manufacturing processes as examples of
equilibrium reactions.
2 State Le Chatelier’s principle for equilibrium reactions
3 Explain (using Le Chatelier’s principle) that changing concentration,
pressure and temperature in an equilibrium reaction affects the position
of the equilibrium.
4 Explain (using Le Chatelier’s principle) that the yield of manufacturing
processes depends on the reaction conditions employed, e.g. The Haber's
Process.

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 Chapter 9: Alcohols
1 Explain the key functional group present in alcohols.
2 Name the first three alcohols, methanol, ethanol and propanol, in the
homologous series of alcohols.
3 Describe the general properties of alcohols.
4 Describe industrial manufacture of ethanol by fermentation and by the
reaction of ethene with steam.
5 Explain the principles of manufacture of alcohol in the distilleries.
6 Compare the economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages
of production of alcohol.
7 State the uses of ethanol e.g. in alcoholic drinks, as a bio-fuel and as a
solvent in methylated spirits.
8 Describe the social and health issues of drinking alcohol.
Suggested practical work
1 Carry out displacement reactions of the halogens in water solution of Cl2,
Br2 or I2 with their halides in water solution (Cl-, Br-, I-)
2 Investigate the properties of transition metals such as Zn, Fe and Cu by
using NaOH or NH4OH as testing reagents.
3 Identification of group 1 and 2 metal cations such as Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+ by
flame test.
4 Prepare tincture of iodine (2% w/v) as an antiseptic.
5 Investigate the reversible action of hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals
and anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
6 Investigate the reaction of copper oxide and carbon.
7 Preparation of ethanol from glucose
8 Investigate the properties of alcohol with reference to alcohol as solute, its
reaction with sodium and carboxylic acids.
9 To calculate the weight of solute dissolved in certain volume of solvent
using PhET interactive simulations.
10 Construct a 3D molecular structure and shape of molecules of type Methane,
Ethene, Ethyne, Water and ammonia using PhET interactive simulation.
11 Investigate the electrolysis of CuSO4 and concentrated NaCl solution.

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 Assessment
Assessment in science involves detailed process of measuring students’
achievement in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitude. The progress of learning is
inferred through analysis of information collected. The accuracy and objectivity of
assessment determines its validity. The modality and components of assessment
should be clearly conveyed to the students. The teacher’s expectations should
be made clear to students and appropriate learning outcomes should be set. The
teachers can play an important role in the students’ achievement by effectively
monitoring their learning, and giving them constructive feedback on how they
can improve, and provide the necessary scaffolding for the needy learners as
identified through reliable assessment techniques and tools.

Purpose of Assessment
Assessment is used to:
• inform and guide teaching and learning: A good assessment plan helps
to gather evidences of students’ learning that inform teachers’ instructional
decisions. It provides teachers with information about the performance of
students. In addition to helping teachers formulate the next teaching steps,
a good classroom assessment plan provides a road map for students.
Therefore, students should have access to the assessment so they can
use it to inform and guide their learning.
• help students set learning goals: Students need frequent opportunities
to reflect on what they have learnt and how their learning can be improved.
Accordingly, students can set their goals. Generally, when students are
actively involved in assessing their own next learning steps and creating
goals to accomplish them, they make major advances in directing their
learning.
• assign report card grades: Grades provide parents, employers, other
schools, governments, post-secondary institutions and others with
summary information about students’ learning and performances.
• motivate students: Students are motivated and become confident learners
when they experience progress and achievement. The evidences gathered
can usher poor performers to perform better through remedial measures.
The achievements and performances of the learners in chemistry are assessed
on the following three domains:
• Scientific knowledge: Basic knowledge and understanding of gas laws
and mole concepts, metallurgy, halogen and transition elements, chemical
energetics and rate of reactions, alcohols and modern chemistry and inter-

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 Assessment

relationship of chemical science with other branches of science, and their

attributes to people and environment .
• Working scientifically: Basic understanding of the nature of science, and
how science works. Demonstration of logical and abstract thinking and
comprehension of complex situations. Explore how technological advances
are related to the scientific ideas underpinning them. Compare, contrast,
synthesize, question and critique the different sources of information, and
communicate their ideas clearly and precisely in a variety of ways, including
the use of ICT.
• Scientific values and attitudes: Consider the power and limitations of
science in addressing social, industrial, ethical and environmental issues,
and how different groups in the community and beyond may have different
views about the role of science. They make informed judgments on
statements and debates that have a scientific basis, and use their learning
in science for planning positive action for the welfare of themselves, others
in their community and the environment.

The Assessment Process

Effective classroom assessment in Science:
• assesses specific outcomes in the program of studies.
• the intended outcomes and assessment criteria are shared with students
prior to the assessment activity.
Assessing Student Learning in Classroom
Assessing, Evaluating
& Communicating What will be the next What will Planning
steps in learning? students
• self / teacher reflection learn?
• goal setting

How will students receive

summative feedback? How will we know
• qualitative / descriptive learning has occured?
• quantitative / marks • criteria / indicators
• self / teacher as judge Program of • exemplars
assessment OF learning Studies :
Learner
How will students receive Outcomes
ongoing formative feedback?
• descriptive
• specific
• self / peer / parent / mentor
teaher as coach
assessment FOR learning How will we collect
evidence of learning?
• purpose and contex
What will be the next
• demostration of learning
steps in learning?
- observation
- learning log
- performance tasks
How will students - projects
demostrate their What activities will - tests
learning? enable students to - written language
learn? - oral language

l
- visual communication

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 • assesses before, during and after instruction.
• employs a variety of assessment strategies to provide evidence of students’
learning.
• provides frequent and descriptive feedback to students.
• ensures students can describe their progress and achievement, and
articulate what comes next in their learning.
• informs teachers and provides insight that can be used to modify instruction.

Scheme of assessment in science

The following schemes of assessment are used to assess students’ performance:
i. Continuous Formative Assessment (CFA)
Formative assessment is used to provide feedback to teachers and students,
so that teaching and learning can be improved through the provision of regular
feedback and remedial learning opportunities. It also enables teachers to
understand what teaching methods and materials work best.
CFA facilitates teachers to diagnose the learning needs of learners and recognize
the individual differences in learning. Through the constructive feedback, students
are able to understand their strengths and weaknesses. It also empowers them
to be self-reflective learners, who monitor and evaluate their own progress.
CFA should happen daily throughout the teaching-learning processes of the
academic year. It is NOT graded, as it is only to give continuous feedbacks to
the students.
ii. Continuous Summative Assessment (CSA)
Continuous Summative Assessment is another form of continuous assessment
(CA). It helps in determining the student’s performance and the effectiveness
of instructional decisions of teachers. The evidences from this assessment
help students to improve learning, and mandate teachers to incorporate varied
teaching strategies and resources to ensure quality teaching and learning in the
science classes. This assessment also empowers students to be self-reflective
learners, who monitor and evaluate their own progress.
In CSA, the students’ performances and achievements are graded. This ensures
active participations of learners in the teaching and learning processes.
iii. Summative Assessment (SA)
Summative assessment (SA) is conducted at the end of the first term and at
the end of the year to determine the level of learning outcomes achieved by
students. The information gathered is used by teachers to grade students for
promotion, and to report to parents and other stakeholders.
The identified techniques for SA are term examinations - first term and annual

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 Assessment

examinations. The questions for the term examinations should cover all the
three domains of science learning objectives, using the principles of Bloom’s
taxonomy.
Assessment Matrix
Types of
CFA CSA SA
assessment
Definition It is a continuous process of assessing It is a continuous process of Assesses
student’s problems and learning needs and grading student’s performances and student’s
to identify the remedial measures to improve achievements. Teachers provide cumulative
student’s learning. It also enables teachers feedbacks for improvement. It also performances and
to understand what teaching methods and enables teachers to understand what achievements at
materials work best. teaching methods and materials work the end of each
best. term.
Domains Scientific Working Scientific Scientific Working Scientific SK, SK, WS
knowledge scientifically values and knowledge scientifically values and WS & & SV
(SK) (WS) attitudes (SV) (SK) (WS) attitudes SV
(SV)
Techniques Quiz & Immediate Observation Home Practical Project
debate,class interaction of student’s work and work Work. Term Term
presentation, with conduct, in chapter exam. exam
homework, students, group work, end test.
class work, class work, field trip,
immediate home work, excursion, etc.
interaction experiments,
with exhibition,
students. case studies
Assessment Q&A, Checklist Checklist and Rubrics Rubrics Rubrics Paper Paper
Tools checklist and and anecdotal (HW) and (Practical (Project pencil pencil
anecdotal anecdotal records. paper work) work) test test
records. records. pencil test
(Chapter
end test).
Frequency Checklists and anecdotal records must be HW-for Practical Project Once in Once in
interval maintained for each topic throughout the every work Work – a term. a year.
(when & academic year. chapter, once in Once for
how) Chapter each term the whole
end test – year but
for every assessed
chapter. two times
(half yearly)
Format in SK WS SV Mid- Annual
Progress Term Exam
Report
Weightings T1= 2.5 T1= 5 T1= 2.5 T1=30 T2=50
T2= 2.5 T2= 5 T2= 2.5

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 Assessment Techniques and Tools
The following techniques and tools are used in assessing students’ performance
with objectivity.

i. Observation Check list

Observing students as they solve problems, model skills to others, think aloud
during a sequence of activities, or interact with peers in different learning
situations provides insight into student’s learning and growth. The teacher finds
out under what conditions success is most likely, what individual students do
when they encounter difficulty, how interaction with others affects their learning
and concentration, and what students need to learn next. Observations may be
informal or highly structured, and incidental or scheduled over different a period
in different learning contexts.
Observation checklists are tools that allow teachers to record information quickly
about how students perform in relation to specific outcomes from the program
of studies. Observation checklists, written in a yes/no format can be used to
assist in observing student performance relative to specific criteria. They may
be directed toward observations of an individual or group. These tools can also
include spaces for brief comments, which provide additional information not
captured in the checklist.

Tips for using Observation Checklists

a) Determine specific outcomes to observe and assess.
b) Decide what to look for. Write down criteria or evidence that indicates the
student is demonstrating the outcome.
c) Ensure students know and understand what the criteria are.
d) Target your observation by selecting four to five students per lesson and
one or two specific outcomes to observe. Date all observations.
e) Collect observations over a number of lessons during a reporting period
and look for patterns of performance.
f) Share observations with students, both individually and in a group. Make
the observations specific and describe how this demonstrates or promotes
thinking and learning.
g) Use the information gathered from observation to enhance or modify
future instruction.

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 Assessment

Sample Checklist

Name Topic: Gas Laws Teacher’s

comments
Scientific knowledge Working scientifically Scientific values

Demonstrates concern for oneself and

Handles equipment, apparatuses, and
pressure of a gas and its applications.

temperature and volume of gas at

Respects others ideas and views.

Explain Charles' law in relation to

Shows curiosity to learn science.

Describe Dalton's law of partial

Demonstrates ability to set up

Follows correct experimental
Derive gas law equation.
constant pressure.

chemical safely.

experiments.
procedures.

others.
Tandin
Tshering

ii. Anecdotal notes

Anecdotal notes are used to record specific observations of individual student
behaviours, skills, and attitudes in relation to the outcomes of the science
teaching and learning process. Such notes provide cumulative information on
students’ learning and direction for further instruction. Anecdotal notes are often
written as ongoing observations during the lessons, but may also be written
in response to a product or performance of the students. They are generally
brief, objective, and focused on specific outcomes. The notes taken during or
immediately following an activity are generally the most accurate. Anecdotal
notes for a particular student can be periodically shared with the student, or be
shared at the student’s request.
The purpose of anecdotal notes is to:
• provide information regarding a student’s development over a period of
time.
• provide ongoing records about individual instructional needs.
• capture observations of significant behaviours that might otherwise be lost.
Tips for maintaining Anecdotal Notes
a) Keep a notebook or binder with a separate page for each student. Write

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 the date and the student’s name on each page of the notebook.
b) Following the observations, notes are recorded on the page reserved for
that student in the notebook.
c) The pages may be divided into three columns: Date, Observation and
Action Plan.
d) Keep notes brief and focused (usually no more than a few sentences or
phrases).
e) Note the context and any comments or questions for follow-up.
f) Keep comments objective. Make specific comments about student
strengths, especially after several observations have been recorded and
a pattern has been observed.

iii. Project work

Project work is one of the best ways to practice the application of scientific
conceptual ideas and skills. The very purpose of including project work is to
provide opportunity to explore and extend their scientific knowledge and skills
beyond the classroom. Students learn to organize, plan and piece together many
separate ideas and information into a coherent whole. Through project work,
students learn various scientific techniques and skills, including data collection,
analysis, experimentation, interpretation, evaluation and drawing conclusion;
and it fosters positive attitude towards science and environment.
The science curriculum mandates students to carry out project work to help
them to:
a) develop scientific skills of planning, designing and making scientific
artefacts, carrying out investigations, observation, analysis, synthesis,
interpretation, organization and recording of information.
b) enhance deeper understanding of social and natural environment.
c) develop student’s ability to work in group and independently.
d) provide opportunity to explore beyond the classroom in enhancing
their scientific knowledge and skills, which will contribute towards the
development of positive attitudes and values towards science and
environment.
e) understand how science works and the nature of scientific knowledge.
f) develop oral and written communication skills.
Teachers can facilitate students to carry out the project work by considering
the following suggested guidelines.
• Allow students to select their own project ideas and topics.
• Encourage students to be scientifically creative and productive.

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 Assessment

• Provide a clear set of guidelines for developing and completing projects.

• Help students to locate sources of information, including workers in science-
related fields who might advise them about their projects.
• Allow students the option of presenting their finished projects to the class.
• Inform students about the general areas on which assessment may be
made. For example, scientific content or concepts, originality of ideas,
procedures, and the presentation.
• Advice students to contact their teacher for further assistance or
consultations, for, students must be closely guided by the teacher starting
from the selection of the topic, doing investigations, data collection, and
analysis to writing report in a formal style.
Each student is assigned a Project Work for the academic year. The project
work is assessed out of 28 marks, which should be converted out of 5 marks
for the whole year. Students can share their project work findings, either in the
form of class presentation or display.
At the end of the project work, every student must prepare a project work
report, about 2000 to 2500 words, in the formal format, suggested in the
following section. The product of the project work must be inclusive of write
ups, illustrations, models, or collection of real objects.
Following are some of the useful steps that students may follow.
1. Select a topic for the science project
The first step in doing science project is selecting a topic or subject of your
interest. Teachers guide students in identification and selection of the topic.
The concerned teacher has to approve the topic prior to the commencement
of the project work.
2. Gather background information
Gather information about your topic from books, magazine, Internet, people
and companies. As you gather information, keep notes from where you got the
information as reference list.
3. Write your hypothesis
Based on your gathered information, design a hypothesis, which is an educated
guess in the form of a statement, about what types of things affect the system
you are working with. Identifying variables is necessary before one can make a
hypothesis. For example, depth of the fluid affects the fluid pressure. Develop
a research question supported by a few questions to test your hypothesis. For
example, how does the depth of fluid affect the pressure? Sub-questions may
include, what is the fluid pressure at the same depth at different points? What

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 is the fluid pressure as the depth increases?
4. Identify variables
The hypothesis and the research questions should guide you to identify the
variables. When you think you know what variables may be involved, think about
ways to change one at a time. If you change more than one at a time, you will
not know what variable is causing your observation. Sometimes, variables are
linked and work together to cause something. At first, try to choose variables
that you think act independently of each other.
5. Design an experiment or observation method
Having made the hypothesis, design an experiment to test the hypothesis and
devise the method of observation. Make a systematic list of what you will do
or observe to answer each question. This list is known as experimental or
observational procedure. For observations or an experiment to give answers,
one must have a “control”. A control is a neutral “reference point” for comparison
that allows you to see what changing or dependent variable does by comparing
it to not changing anything. Without a control, you cannot be sure what variable
causes your observations.
6. Write a list of material
Make a list of materials useful to carry out your experiment or observations.
7. Write experiment results
Experiments are often done in series. A series of experiments can be done by
changing one variable at a time. A series of experiments are made up of separate
experimental “runs”. During each run, you make a measurement of how much the
variable affected the system under the study. For each run, a different amount
of change in the variable is used. This produces a different degree or amount
of responses in the system. You measure these responses and record data in
a table form. The data from the experiments and observations are considered
as a “raw data” since it has not been processed or interpreted yet. When raw
data is processed mathematically, for example, it becomes result.
8. Write a summary of the results
Summarize what happened. This can be in the form of a table of processed
numerical data, or graphs. It could also be a written statement of what occurred
during experiments. It is from calculations using recorded data that tables and
graphs are made. Studying tables and graphs, one can see trends or patterns
that tell you how different variables cause to change the observations. Based
on these trends, you can draw conclusions about the system under the study.
These conclusions help to confirm or deny your original hypothesis. Often,

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 Assessment

mathematical equations can be made from graphs. These equations can help
you to predict how a change will affect the system without the need to do
additional experiments. Advanced levels of experimental science rely heavily
on graphical and mathematical analysis of data. At this level, science becomes
even more interesting and powerful.
9. Draw conclusions
Using the trends in your experimental data and your experimental observations,
try to answer your original questions. Is your hypothesis correct? Now is the
time to pull together what happened in the form of conclusion, and assess the
experiments you did. Describe, how variables have affected the observations,
and synthesize a general statement. For example, the pressure for the same
fluid increases with the increase of depth!
10. Write a report on the project
Having completed all the steps of experiment and investigation with appropriate
results and conclusion drawn, the last thing is to write a report. The report should
start with an introduction on the topic related to your hypothesis, purpose of the
study, literature review, methods used, findings, and conclude with conclusions.
Do not forget to acknowledge the support provided by all individuals and
organizations. Write a bibliography to show your references in any form. Such
information includes the form of document, name of writer, publisher, and the
year of publication.
The teacher uses the “Rubric for the Project Work” given below to assess the
student’s project work. Random viva voce is necessary to guide and support
students’ work during the course of project work.
Criteria for the Project Work
Criteria
Background Total
Problem Experimental Format Bibliography
Name research scores
and design / Investigation Analysis and (4)
on the
hypothesis materials / (4) (4) editing (28)
hypothesis
(4) procedure (4) (4)
(4)
Nima
Dawa

Rubrics for the Project Work

Scoring Total
Criteria Score
4 3 2 1 (28)
Problem and Problem is new, Problem is Problem is stated Problem is
Hypothesis meaningful and not new but but neither new not stated
well researched. meaningful. nor meaningful. and

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 Scoring Total
Criteria Score
4 3 2 1 (28)
Hypothesis is Hypothesis is Hypothesis is not Hypothesis is
clearly stated in clearly stated. clearly stated. unclear.
the “IF...THEN”
format.
Background Research is Research is Research is not Research not
research thorough and thorough but not thorough and not thorough and
on the specific. specific. specific. Ideas are not
hypothesis All the ideas are Most ideas are Few ideas are explained.
clearly explained. explained. explained.
Experimental Procedure is Procedure is Procedure is not A few steps of
design / detailed and detailed but not detailed and not procedure are
sequential. sequential. sequential. listed.
materials /
All materials are Most materials Few materials are Materials list
procedure
listed. are listed. listed. is absent.
Safety issues Safety issues Few safety Safety issues
have been have been issues have been are not
addressed. addressed. addressed. addressed.
Investigation Variables have Variables have Variables have Missing two
been identified, been identified somewhat or more of the
controls are and controls are been identified, variables or
appropriate and appropriate but controls are the controls.
explained. not explained. somewhat known. Sample
Sample size is Sample size is Sample size is size is not
appropriate and appropriate. not appropriate. considered.
explained. Data collected Data collected Data
Data collected from at least 3 from at least 2 collected from
from at least 4 sources sources. only 1 source.
sources.
Analysis& Appropriate tool Appropriate tool No appropriate No
conclusion used for analysis. used for analysis. tool used for appropriate
Explanation is Conclusions are analysis. tool used for
made for how supported by the Not enough analysis.
or why the data. explanation is Not enough
hypothesis was Not enough made for how explanation
supported or explanation is or why the is made for
rejected. made for how hypothesis was acceptance
Conclusion is or why the supported or and rejection
supported by the hypothesis was rejected. of hypothesis.
data. supported or Conclusion is not Conclusion is
rejected. appropriate. absent.
Reflection is Reflection is Reflection is not Reflection is
stated clearly. stated. clear. not stated.

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 Assessment

Scoring Total
Criteria Score
4 3 2 1 (28)
Format and Correct format Only one aspect Only two aspects Three or
editing followed of format is of format are more aspects
throughout. incorrectly done. incorrectly done. of format are
Report is Report contains Report contains missing.
free of errors a few errors some errors Report
in grammar, in grammar, in grammar, contains
spelling or spelling, and spelling, many errors
punctuation. punctuation. punctuation in grammar,
spelling, and
punctuation.
Bibliography Five or more Three or four One or two No references
references are references references made.
cited in APA are cited and are cited and
format and referenced referenced
referenced throughout throughout
throughout the paper and the paper and
the paper and presentation. presentation.
presentation.
TOTAL
SCORE

iv. Practical Work

Learning by doing is fundamental to science education. Practical work is one
of the means that helps students to develop their understanding of science,
appreciate that science is evidence driven and acquire hands-on skills that
are essential to science learning and in their future lives. The practical work as
defined by SCORE (2009a) is ‘a “hands-on” learning experience which prompts
thinking about the world in which we live’.Therefore, the purposes of doing
practical in science classes are to –
a) help students to gain or reinforce the understanding of scientific knowledge.
b) develop students’ understanding of the methods by which the scientific
knowledge has been constructed.
c) increase a student’s competence to engage in scientific processes such
as in manipulating and/or observing real objects and materials with due
consideration for safety, reliability, etc.
d) develop technical and scientific skills that improve science learning through
understanding and application.
e) develop manipulative skills, knowledge of standard techniques, and the
understanding of data handling.
f) Inculcate excitement of discovery, consolidation of theory, and the general
understanding of how science works.

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 Practical work is integral to the aspects of thinking and working scientifically in
science, and must be built in as a full learning experience for students. Students
are engaged in a range of practical activities to enable them to develop their
understanding through interacting with apparatus, objects and observations.
The assessment of students’ scientific skills and their understanding about
the scientific processes through practical work is crucial in the process of
science learning. To ensure the validity, assessment needs to sample a range of
activities in different contexts; and reliability is ensured through the appropriate
moderation procedures so that fairness in assessment is maintained.
The new science curriculum envisages that students are given the opportunity
to undertake work in which they make their own decisions. They should be
assessed on their ability to plan, observe, record, analyze, communicate and
evaluate their works.
To ensure that the assessment in the practical is evidence-based and objective,
rubrics is used. The rubrics are scored out of 16, which must be reduced to 5%
each for the two terms.
Criteria for the Practical Work
Criteria
Total
Scientific scores
Name Results & data
operation & Analysis &
representation Conclusions (4)
report format discussion (4) (16)
(4)
(4)
Sonam
Wangmo

Rubrics for the Practical Work

Criteria Scoring Total
4 (Very good) 3 (Good) 2 (Fair) 1 (Poor) Score

(16)
Purpose is clear Purpose is clear Purpose is inaccurate, Purpose is vague
purposeful. purposeful. general or extraneous. or inaccurate.
Scientific All the procedures are All the procedures are A few procedures are Procedures are
operation followed systematically. followed but not done skipped. not followed
Full attention is given systematically. Safety procedures Safety procedures
to relevant safety for Work is carried out with were frequently are ignored
oneself and others. some attention to relevant ignored completely.
safety procedures.

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 Assessment

Criteria Scoring Total

4 (Very good) 3 (Good) 2 (Fair) 1 (Poor) Score

(16)
Results & data Representation of the Representation of the Representation of the Representation of
representation data/results in tables data/results in tables and data/results in tables the data/results in
and graphs with correct graphs with some error in and graphs numerous tables and graphs
units of measurement. units of measurement. error in units of are not relevant.
Transformations in Transformations in some measurement. Transformations
the results/data are of the results/data are Transformations in in the results/data
evident. evident. most of the results/ are not evident.
Graphs and tables are Graphs and tables are data are not evident. Some attempts are
scaled correctly, with scaled correctly with Graphs and tables are evident to produce
appropriate titles and appropriate titles but no scaled correctly, but graphs from the
labels. labels. without appropriate data/results.
titles and labels.
All the tools used Most of the tools used for Only a few tools are No appropriate
Analysis & for analysis are analysis are appropriate. used for analysis. tools are used for
discussion appropriate. A comprehensive A comprehensive analysis.
A comprehensive discussion, containing discussion, containing Comprehensive
discussion, containing some comparative a few comparative discussion is
a comparative analysis analysis is evident. analysis is evident. absent.
is evident. The experimental The experimental The experimental
The experimental findings do not have findings have weak findings have no
findings are significant strong significance significance to the significance to the
to the purpose of the to the purpose of the purpose of the purpose of the
experiment. experiment. experiment. experiment.
Conclusions are drawn Conclusions are drawn Conclusions are No valid
from the findings from the findings but less not drawn from the conclusions drawn
and are significant significant to objectives of findings and have from the findings.
Conclusions
to objectives of the the experiment. no significance to Limitations of
experiment. Limitations of experiment objectives of the experiment are not
Limitations of are identified. experiment. identified.
experiment are Some limitations
identified, and ways to of experiment are
improve are evident. identified.
TOTAL SCORE

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 Chapter-wise Weighting and Time allocation

Maximum time
Chapters Chapter title Weighting (%)
required (mins)
Chapter 1 Gas Laws 432 10%
The Mole concept and 691 16%
Chapter 2
Stoichiometry
Chapter 3 Metallurgy 648 15%
Chapter 4 Halogens 389 9%
Chapter 5 Transition Elements 389 9%
Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics 389 9%
Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction 389 9%
Chapter 8 Rates of Reaction 389 9%
Chapter 9 Alcohol 605 14%
Total 4320 100%

The total time required to complete the topics is 4320 minutes or 96 periods of
45 minutes in a period.

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 Modern Periodic Table

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 1
1.1
Gas Laws
Introduction
Many substances exist in gaseous state in our surrounding. The molecules in a
gas are in constant random motion. Under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure, gases exhibit certain physical properties different to matters in solid or
liquid. The intermolecular distance among the gas molecules are comparatively
large. Hence, the inter-molecular forces among the molecules are weak. The
change in physical conditions like temperature or pressure results in change in
the physical properties of gases, which is explained by gas laws.

1.2 Gas laws

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» state Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
»» solve numerical problems based on the gas laws.
»» verify Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.

The physical properties of gases are described by three standard variables such
as temperature (T), pressure (P) and volume (V).
Temperature is measured in degree Celsius and in solving numerical problems;
it is converted into absolute temperature or Kelvin by adding 273 to degree
Celsius.
0ºC = 273K
Pressure is measured in atmosphere or in height of column of mercury (cm Hg).
The relationship between the different units of pressure is given by
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 76 cm Hg = 101.325 kilo pascal (kPa)

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

The SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa).

Volume is measured in litres (L), Millilitre (mL), cubic meter (m3), cubic centimetre
(cm3) and cubic decimetre (dm3).
1 litre = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
The SI unit of volume is m3.

1.2.1 Boyle’s law: Pressure-Volume relationship

Robert Boyle, an Irish scientist in 1660 performed a series of experiments in
which he examined the effect of pressure on the volume of a given amount of a
gas at a constant temperature. He found out that, when the pressure of a fixed
quantity of a gas was doubled at constant temperature, the volume decreased
to one-half and when the pressure was decreased to one-fourth, the volume
increased by four times. Such behaviour of the gas was generalised in the form of
Boyle’s law which states that at a constant temperature the volume of a sample
of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. Mathematically,
1
P \ V & PV = k (at constant temperature) (1.1)
Where; P = pressure, V = volume, k = proportionality constant
The value of the constant of proportionality (k) depends upon the quantity of
the gas at any constant temperature. Thus, if V1 is the volume occupied by a
given quantity of the gas at pressure P1 and V2 is its volume when the pressure
changes to P2 as shown in the Figure 1.1, then according to Boyle’s law at
constant temperature
P1 V 1 = k (1.2)
P2 V 2 = k (1.3)
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2 (1.4)
Thus, the equation (1.4) is called Boyle’s law equation.

P1
V1 P2
V2
Figure 1.1 Illustration of Boyle’s law

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 This means that if nothing else changes, the volume of a given mass of gas are
inversely proportional to pressure. It is a linear relationship. If pressure on a
gas doubles, its volume will decrease by half. Thus, Boyle’s law states that the
volume of a sample of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, temperature
remaining constant.

Activity 1.1 Investigating Boyle’s law .

Materials required
Syringe (60 mL) with cap and marshmallows.
Plunger Barrel Marshmallow
Cap

Figure 1.2 Syringe with marshmallows

Procedure I
1. Remove the cap from the syringe.
2. Hold the syringe in one hand and with the other pull the plunger out.
3. Carefully put two small marshmallows into the syringe. Put the plunger
back and keep the air space as large as possible.
4. Seal the opening of the syringe by placing the cap so that no air can escape
the syringe.
5. Slowly push the plunger in, and carefully observe the marshmallows. Repeat
it two or three times.
Questions
1. What did you observe when the plunger is pushed in?
2. What happens to the volume of air inside the syringe?
3. Did it become more or less difficult to push the plunger in as the volume
of the air in the syringe decreased?
4. Describe how the pressure changes as the volume of the air decreases
using the marshmallow’s example.
5. Compare the size of the marshmallows before and after pushing the plunger.
6. What can you conclude from the experiment?
7. Plot a graph of the volume against the pressure at constant temperature.
Explain this inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

based on kinetic theory of gases.

Procedure II
1. Remove the cap from the syringe.
2. Compress the plunger in so that it just touches the marshmallows. Ensure
that the plunger is not squeezing the marshmallows.
3. Place the cap back so that no air can escape the syringe.
4. Pull out the plunger and increase the volume. Carefully observe the
marshmallows.
Questions
1. What did you observe when the plunger is pulled out?
2. What happens to the volume of air inside the syringe?
3. Describe how pressure changes as the volume of air increases using the
marshmallows example.
4. What can you conclude from the experiment?

Solved problems
1. A sample of helium occupies a volume of 160 cm3 at 10 atm and 25°C.
What volume will it occupy if the pressure is decreased to 8 atm at constant
temperature?
Solution:
V1 = 160 cm3 P1 = 10 atm
V2 = ? P2 = 8 atm
Using Boyle’s law equation,
P1V1 = P2V2
Rearranging to make V2 the subject of the formula,
P1 V 1
V2 = P
2

Substituting the values

10 atm # 160 cm 3
V2 = 8 atm = 200 cm 3
Thus, the final volume occupied by helium is 200 cm3

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 2. A balloon contains 7.2 L of helium. When the pressure is reduced to 1620
mm Hg, the balloon expands to occupy a volume of 25.1 L. What was the
initial pressure exerted on the balloon?
Solution:
V1 = 7.2 L P1= ?
V2 = 25.1L P2 = 1620 mm Hg
Using Boyle’s law,
P1V1 = P2V2
Rearranging to make P1 the subject of the formula:
PV
P1 = V2 2
1

1620 mm of Hg # 25.1L
P1 = 7.2L
= 5647.5 mmHg
Therefore, the initial pressure exerted on the balloon is 5647.5 mm Hg.

3. What will be the pressure required to reduce 600 mL of a dry gas at 750
mm pressure to 500 mL at the same temperature?
Solution:
V1 = 600 mL V2 = 500 mL
P1 = 750 mm P2 = ?
Using Boyle’s law equation,
P1V1 = P2V2
Rearranging to make P2 the subject of the formula:
PV
P2 = V1 1
2

750 mm # 600 mL
P2 = 500 mL = 900 mmHg

Therefore, the pressure required is 900 mm Hg.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

4. Sulphur dioxide (SO2), a gas that plays a central role in the formation of acid
rain, is found in the exhaust of automobiles and power plants. Consider a
1.53 L sample of gaseous SO2 at a pressure of 5.6 x 103 Pa. If the pressure
is changed to 1.5 x 104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new
volume of the gas?
Solution:
PV = k,
Which is also written as;
P1V1 = k = P2V2 or P1V1 = P2V2
The given data are
P1 = 5.6 # 103 Pa P2 = 1.5 # 104 Pa
V1 = 1.53 L V2= ?
The preceding for equation for V2,
P1 V1 (5.6 # 10 Pa) # 1.53 L
3

V2 = P = = 0.57 L
2 1.5 # 10 4 Pa
Therefore, the new volume of the gas is 0.57 L.

Practice problems
1. A cylinder containing carbon dioxide of volume 20 L at 2.0 atm was
connected to another cylinder of certain volume at constant temperature.
The final pressure of the gas in the cylinders was found to be 380 mm Hg.
Calculate the volume of the second cylinder.
2. A gas of certain mass occupies a volume of 650 cm3 under a pressure of
750 mm Hg. Calculate the pressure under which the volume of the gas will
be reduced by 10 per cent of its original volume.
3. A gas tank holds 2785 L of propane, C3H8 at 830 mm Hg. What is the volume
of the propane at standard pressure?
4. A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atm. If the pressure
is reduced to 0.5 atm without a change in temperature, what would be the
volume of a balloon?
5. 352 mL of chlorine under a pressure of 680 mm Hg are placed into a
container under a pressure of 1210 mm Hg. The temperature remains
constant at 296 K. What is the volume of a container?
6. The pressure on 40 mL of a gas is increased from 760 mm to 800 mm. Find
the new volumes at the same temperature.

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 1.2.2 Charles’ law: Volume-Temperature relationship
The air expands on heating, thereby decreasing its density. For this reason,
balloons rise when inflated with warm air. The effect of temperature on the
volumes of different gases at constant pressure was thoroughly studied by
the French Physicist, J.A. Charles’ who in 1787 observed that the expansion of
the volumes of different gases was the same for equal rise in temperature. His
work was extended by J.L. Gay-Lussac in 1802 who found that, a fixed mass
1
of any gas expand or contract by
273 of its volume at 0ºC for every degree
centigrade rise or fall in temperature respectively under constant pressure.
Such behaviour of gases was generalised in a quantitative way by a law which
is known as Charles’ law. The law states that at a constant pressure, the volume
1
of a given quantity of a gas increases or decreases by
273 of its volume at
0ºC for rise or fall in the temperature by 1ºC.
If V0 and V are the volumes of a given quantity of a gas at 0ºC and tºC respectively
at constant pressure, then from Charles’ law
1
V = V0 + 273 # V0 # t

V = V0 a 1 + 273 k
t
(1.5)

V = V0 b 273 l
273 + t
(1.6)

We may define now a new temperature scale such that any temperature ‘t’ on
this scale will be given by T = 273 + t.
T
Vt = V0 273
V0
For a given mass of a gas,
273 is constant (k)
So, V = k T (1.7)
This new temperature scale is known as the Absolute or Kelvin scale of
temperature and is of fundamental importance in all sciences. In terms of
this scale, equation (1.7) predicts that the volume of a definite quantity of a
gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Mathematically,
V\T
V
Or T = constant (1.8)
V V
or in general, T 1 = T 2 (1.9)
1 2

Equation (1.9) is known as Charles’ law equation.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

Activity 1.2 Investigating Charles’ law.

Materials required
Beaker, ruled scale, thermometer, capillary tube and cooking oil.
Procedure
1. Mount the capillary tube and the thermometer on a ruled scale as shown
in the Figure 1.3.
2. Fill the beaker with oil and warm it.
3. Then carefully lower the ruled scale mounted with the capillary tube and
thermometer into the beaker.
Scale

Air in capillary tube

Hot oil of known

temperature

Figure 1.3

4. Note down the temperature of oil and the length of air space in the capillary
tube.
5. Repeat step no. 4 at different intervals of time.
6. Fill in the data obtained in Table 1.1
Table 1.1

Sl. No Time interval Temperature Length of air space in the capillary

of oil tube
1
2.

Questions
1. What happens to the volume of air space with the decrease in temperature?
2. Why is it important to maintain the bottom of the air space in the capillary
tube at the same depth below the surface of the oil bath?

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 3. Plot a graph for temperature versus air space using the data obtained in
Table 1.1.
N
C AU TI O
Be careful while handling the hot oil. You may need to wear gloves
Wear safty
googles during
experiments.
and laboratory spectacles for protection.

Solved problems
1. The temperature inside the refrigerator is about 4ºC. A balloon is placed
inside the refrigerator that initially has a temperature of 22ºC and a volume
of 0.5 litres. What will be the volume of the balloon when it is fully cooled
by the refrigerator at constant pressure?
Solution:
V1 = 0.5 L = 500 cm3; T1 = 22 + 273 = 295K
V2 = ? T2 = 4 + 273 = 277K
Using Charles’ law equation,
V1 V2
T1 = T2
500 cm 3 V2
295 K = 277 K
500 cm 3 # 277 K
V2 = 295 K = 469.49 cm 3 or 0.46949 L
The volume of the balloon when it is fully cooled by the refrigerator is
469.49cm3 or 0.46949 L.

2. To what temperature should 2.3 L of a gas at 25ºC, be heated in order to

expand its volume to 4.0 L under constant pressure?
Solution:
T1 = 25ºC + 273 = 298 K T2 = ?
V1 = 2.3 L V2 = 4.0 L
Using the Charles’ law equation,
V1 V2
T1 = T2
2.3 4.0
298 = T2
4.0 # 298
T2 = 2.3 = 518.26 K or 245.26cC
The gas should be heated to a temperature of 518.26 K or 245.26ºC.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

3. The volume of a given mass of a gas is 720 mL at 15°C. Assuming constant

pressure, at what temperature will its volume be 960 mL?
Solution:
V1 = 720 mL; V2 = 960 mL
T1 = 273 + 15 = 288 K T2= ?
According to Charles’ law,
V1 V2
T1 = T2
V T 960 # 288
T2 = V2 1 = 720 = 384 K or 111 O C
1

The temperature necessary is 111°C.

Practice problems
1. Under what temperature will the volume of the gas at 0°C double itself if
the pressure is kept constant?
2. A sample of a gas occupies 3000 cm3 at 1°C. What volume will it occupy
at -10°C at a constant pressure.
3. A sample of helium has a volume of 521 dm3 at a pressure of 75 cm Hg and
a temperature of 18°C. When the temperature is increased to 23°C, what
is the volume of the helium?
4. A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 1.6 L at 91°C. What will be the
temperature when the volume of oxygen is reduced to 1.2 L?
5. A container contains 5 L of nitrogen gas at 25°C. What will be its volume if
the temperature increases by 35°C keeping the pressure constant?
6. A sample of gas at 15°C and 1 atm has a volume of 2.58 L. What volume
will this gas occupy at 38°C and 1 atm?

1.2.3 Avogadro’s law

Avogadro in 1811 suggested the participation of molecules in the constitution of
matter. He helped answer some of the basic questions about why substances
react only in certain proportions. In particular, he helped solve the mystery of
the reaction of gases with each other in small whole-number volume. He put
forward a hypothesis, relating number of molecules of gases and their volumes
under identical conditions of temperature and pressure. The hypothesis is
generally known as Avogadro’s law. It states that “equal volumes of all the gases
under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number
of molecules.” He also proposed the relationship between the amount of gas
expressed as the number of moles and volume occupied by it under the similar
conditions of temperature and pressure. He found out that under the similar

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 conditions of temperature and pressure, the volume (V) of the gas is directly
proportional to its number of moles (n) expressed in gram moles.
V\n
V = kn (at constant pressure and temperature) (1.10)
One mole of any gaseous substance at STP contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules.
This number is known as the Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant. It is
represented by NA. Avogadro’s number may be expressed in terms of number
of atoms, ions, molecules or electrons.
One mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4 litres at STP (Standard conditions for
temperature and pressure). This is often referred to as the molar volume of an
ideal gas. Real gases may deviate from this value.

1.2.4 Gas equation (combining Boyle’s and Charles’ law)

If both the temperature and the pressure of a given mass of a gas are varied,
the relationship between pressure, volume and the temperature is given by the
combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
According to Boyle’s law,
1
V\ P
According to Charles’ law,
V\T
Combining both the laws:
1
V \ P #T
1
Or V = k P # T
PV
Thus,
T = k If the volume of the gas changes from V to V1, pressure from P
to P1 and temperature from T to T1 then,
PV P1 V1
T = T1 = k (1.11)
This equation (1.11) is known as gas equation.

Solved problems
1. The given mass of a gas occupies a volume of 450 cm3 at 14°C and 0.9
atm. What will be its volume at 28°C and 1.8 atm?
Solution :
P = 0.9 atm
V = 450 cm3
T = 14 + 273 = 287 K

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

P1 = 1.8 atm
T1= 28 + 273 = 301 K
V1= ?
Using gas equation,
PV P1 V 1
T = T1
PVT 0.9 # 450 # 301
V1 = TP 1 = 287 # 1.8 = 235.97 cm 3
1

The volume of the gas is 235.97 cm3

2. 2.00 L of a gas is collected at 25.0°C and 745.0 mmHg. What is the volume
at STP?
Solution:
P1 = 745 mm Hg
T1 = 25 + 273 = 298K
V1 = 2 L
P2 = 760 mm Hg
V2 = ?
T2 = 273K
Using gas equation
P1 V1 P2 V 2
T1 = T2
P1 V 1 T2 745 # 2 # 273
V2 = P = 760 # 298 = 1.796 L
2 T1

The volume at STP is 1.796 L

Practice problems
1. A gas of certain mass occupies volume of 1.2 L at 37°C and 3.0 atm. At
what temperature will the volume and pressure of this gas become one-
third of their initial values?
2. A balloon filled with 0.5 L of certain gas at 23°C and 0.46 atm was placed
inside a refrigerator. On opening the refrigerators after few hours, the volume
and the pressure of a gas was found to have changed to 0.3 L and 0.7 atm
respectively. Determine the temperature inside the refrigerator.

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 1.2.5 Ideal gas equation
The expressions of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law can be
combined mathematically to give a general relation between pressure, volume,
temperature and the number of moles of a gas.
According to Boyle’s law:
1
V \ P ( at constant T)
According to Charle’s law:
V \ T ( at constant P)
According to Avogadro’s law:
V\n
On combining the three laws:
nT
V\ P
nT
V = R P Where, R = molar gas constant = 0.0821 litre atm K-1 mol-1
PV = nRT (1.12)
w
Or, PV = m RT (1.13)
Where, w = mass of the gas and m = molar mass of the gas.
This equation (1.13) is known as the ideal gas equation.

Solved problems
1. At what temperature will 0.005 mol of a gas occupy 600 mL at a pressure
of 750 mm Hg? (R = 0.0821 L atm / K mol)
Solution:
750
P = 750 mm of Hg =
760 atm = 0.987 atm
V = 600 mL = 0.6 L ( since value of ‘R’ is in litres)
n = 0.005 mole
T=?
Using ideal gas equation:
PV = nRT
0.987 atm # 0.6 L
T = 0.005 mol # 0.0821L atm/K mol = 1442.4 K
The temperature of the gas should be 1442.4K.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

2. A cylinder contains 5.0 g of neon at 256 mm Hg and at a temperature of

35ºC. Calculate the volume of the gas?
Solution:
256
P = 256 mmHg =
760 atm= 0.3368 atm
V=?
w 5.0
n = m = 20 = 0.25 mole
R = 0.0821 L atm / K mol
T = 35ºC + 273 = 308 K
Using ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT
0.25 # 0.0821 # 308
V= 0.3368 = 18.76 L
The volume of the gas is 18.76 L.

3. Suppose we have a sample of ammonia gas with a volume of 7.0 mL at a

pressure of 1.68 atm. The gas is compressed to a volume of 2.7 mL at a
constant temperature. Use the ideal gas law to calculate the final pressure.
Solution:
V1= 7.0 mL; V2 = 2.7 mL
P1 = 1.68 atm, P 2= ?
According to ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
Since ‘n’ and ‘T’ remain constant in this case, we can write P1V1 = nRT
and P2V2 = nRT.
Combining these two equations give
P1V1= nRT = P2V2 or P1V1 = P2V2
On solving for final pressure, we have;
PV 1.68 # 7.0
P2 = V1 1 = 2.7 = 4.4 atm
2

The final pressure is 4.4 atm.

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 4. A sample containing 0.35 mol of argon gas at a temperature of 13°C and a
pressure of 568 torr is heated to 56°C and a pressure of 897 torr. Calculate
the change in volume.
Solution:
Use ideal gas law to find the volume for each set of conditions.
State 1 State 2
n1 = 0.35 mol n2 = 0.35 mol
P1 = 568 torr # 1atm = 0.747 atm P2 = 897 torr # 1atm = 1.18 atm
760 torr 760 torr
T1 = 13°C + 273 = 286 K T2 = 56°C + 273 = 329 K
Calculating Volume for state 1
n 1 RT1 0.35 # 0.0821 # 286
V1 = P1 = 0.747 = 11L
Calculating volume for state 2
n 2 RT2 0.35 # 0.0821 # 329
V2 = P2 = 1.18 = 8.01L
On going from state 1 to state 2, the volume changes from 11 L to 8.0 L.
Thus, the change in volume, ∆V is given as
∆V = V2 ‒ V1 = 8.0 L ‒ 11 L = ‒3 L
Note: The change in volume is -3 L. The change in volume is negative as
there is decrease in volume.

5. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.34 grams of carbon dioxide gas at STP.
Solution:
As per the question, we have;
P = 1 atm (at STP)
Weight in gram 2.34 g
n = gram molecular mass = = 0.05 mol
44.0 g mol -1
R = 0.0821L atm mol -1 K -1
T = 273 K (at STP)
Using ideal gas equation,PV = nRT
nRT 0.05 # 0.0821 # 273
V= P = 1 = 1.12L
The volume occupied by the gas is 1.12 L.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

Practice problems
1. Calculate the volume occupied by 4.2 g of nitrogen at STP.
2. A certain gas of mass 2.5 g at 25°C and 0.65 atm occupies a volume of
23.52 L. Determine the molecular mass of the gas.
3. A volume of 26.5 mL of nitrogen gas was collected in a tube at a temperature
of 17°C and a pressure of 737 mm Hg. The next day the volume of the
nitrogen was 27.1 mL with the barometer still reading 737 mm Hg. What
was the temperature on the second day?
4. Calculate the mass of 15.0 L of NH3 at 27° C and 900 mm Hg.
5. Determine the number of moles and the mass of the sample of argon
occupying 37.8 L at STP.
6. A sample of hydrogen gas (H2) has a volume of 8.56 L at a temperature of
0°C and a pressure of 1.5 atm. Calculate the moles of H2 molecules present
in this gas sample.
7. A sample of methane gas that has a volume of 3.8 L at 5°C is heated to
86°C at constant pressure. Calculate its new volume.
8. At what temperature will 0.654 moles of neon gas occupy 12.30 L at 1.95
atm?

1.2.6 Dalton’s law of partial pressures

The English chemist, John Dalton investigated pressure exerted by the mixture
of non- reacting gases and formulated the law which states that ‘the total
pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases in a vessel of known
capacity at a constant temperature is equal to sum of the partial pressures of
the constituent gases’.
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3...... + Pn (Where Pt is the total pressure of the mixture and P1,
P2, P3... Pn are the partial pressures of each component).
Partial pressure is the pressure that would be exerted by a gas if it alone
occupied the same volume as the mixture at the same temperature.
i. Partial Pressure
A container of fixed volume at constant temperature holds a mixture of gas a
and gas b at a total pressure of 4 atm. The total pressure in the container is
proportional to the number of gas particles.
More gas particles = greater pressure
Less gas particles = lower pressure

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 If each dot in Figure 1.4 represents 1 mole of gas particles, then there are 48
moles of gas particles in this container exerting a total pressure of 4 atm.
Imagine the container with no particles of gas b. Only particles of gas a are
present in the same container at the same temperature. Now the container holds
only 12 moles of gas particles instead of the 48 moles of gas particles it originally
contained. Since pressure is proportional to the number of gas particles, the
pressure exerted by gas a = 12 mol ÷ 48 mol x 4 atm = 1 atm
Imagine the container with no particles of gas a. Only particles of gas b are
present in the same container at the same temperature. Now, the container
holds only 36 moles of gas particles instead of the 48 moles of gas particles
it originally contained. Since pressure is proportional to the number of gas
particles, the pressure exerted by gas b = 36 mol ÷ 48 mol x 4 atm = 3 atm.
1 atm pressure 3 atm pressure 4 atm pressure

gas a gas b gas a + gas b

Figure 1.4 Total pressures in gas mixture

ii. Total pressures

The total pressure in a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each
individual gas.
Ptotal = Pgas a + Pgas b (1.14)
If P1, P2, P3…., Pn are the partial pressures of the individual gases in a mixture
then according to the Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure, P is
given by
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ... (1.15)
It is assumed that the gases do not chemically interact under the conditions
present in the experiment as shown in the illustration Figure 1.5. For example,
suppose you have 1 litre of oxygen at a pressure of 159 mm of Hg and 1 litre of
nitrogen at 593 mm of Hg. You now transfer one of the gases into the container
occupied by the other. You will find that the total pressure is now 752 mm of
Hg. Each gas is occupying the same volume of 1 litre, although they are mixed.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

Each gas is therefore exerting its original pressure of 159 and 593 mm of Hg
respectively. Within the single volume of 1 litre, the two pressures combine to
produce a total of 752 mm of Hg.

Oxygen Nitrogen Oxygen + Nitrogen

Pressure 159 mm Hg Pressure 593 mm Hg Pressure 752 mm Hg

Figure 1.5 Dalton’s law of partial pressure

By applying ideal gas equation, the partial pressure of each gas can be calculated
as given below
n 1 RT
P1 = V
n 2 RT
P2 = V
n RT
P3 = 3V

Now, sum of the partial pressure = total pressure exerted by the mixture gases.
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3
n 1 RT n 2 RT n 3 RT
Or, Pt = V + V + V
RT
= V (n 1 + n 2 + n 3 + ...)
RT
= nt V (1.16)

Where, nt= n1+ n2 … + nn and is the total number of moles of the gas mixture
in volume ‘V’. The equation (1.16) can be used for mixtures of gases as well as
for pure gases.

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 Solved problems
1. 10 g each of nitrogen and helium gas are placed together in a 10 L container
at 25°C. Calculate the partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure
of the gas mixture. (R = 0.0821 litre atm, 1 atm = 101.3 kPa)
Solution:
The number of moles (n) of each gas present:

Nitrogen (N2(g)) Helium (He(g))

mass (g) 10 g 10 g
molar mass (g mol )
-1
2 # 14 = 28 4
n = mass ÷ molar mass 10 ÷ 28 = 0.36 mol 10 ÷ 4 = 2.5 mol

Total number of moles of gases in the mixture (nt) = 0.36 + 2.5 = 2.86 mol
Total pressure exerted by the gas mixture :
RT
P1 = n t V
0.0821 # 298
= 2.86 # 10
= 6.99 . 7 atm
number of moles of nitrogen
Partial pressure of nitrogen = total number of moles # total pressure
0.36
= 2.86 # 7 = 0.88 atm
number of moles of helium
Partial pressure of helium = total number of moles # total pressure
2.5
= 2.86 # 7 = 6.11atm

2. At 15ºC, 25 mL of neon at 1 atm and 75 mL of helium at 0.7 atm are both

expanded into a 1 L sealed flask at the same temperature. Calculate the
partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure of the gas mixture.
Solution:
Since the temperature and moles of each gas is constant, the pressure
exerted by each gas is inversely proportional to its volume which is
according to Boyle’s law.
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
PV
P2 = V1 1
2

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

P2 is taken as the partial pressure of the gases in the mixture.

For neon gas:
V1 = 25 mL = 0.025 L. V2 = 1.0 L. P1 = 1.0 atm.
1.0 # 0.025
Partial pressure of neon (Pneon) = 1.0 = 0.025 atm
For helium gas:
V1 = 75 mL = 0.075 L. V2 = 1.0 L. P1 = 0.7 atm.
0.7 # 0.075
Partial pressure of helium (Phelium) = 1.0 = 0.0525 atm
Total pressure exerted by the gas mixture = 0.025 + 0.0525 = 0.0775 atm

Thus, the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture is 0.0775 atm.

3. In a gaseous mixture at 25°C, the partial pressures of the components are:

Hydrogen = 150 mm
Carbondioxide = 300 mm
Ethane = 110 mm
Methane = 130 mm
What is the total pressure of the mixture and the volume per cent of each
component?

Solution:
Total pressure of the mixture = sum of all the partial pressure of the
components.
= 150 + 300 + 110 + 130 = 690 mm
150
Volume per cent of H 2 = 690 # 100 = 21.74
300
Volume per cent of CO 2 = 690 # 100 = 43.38
110
Volume per cent of C 2 H 6 = 690 # 100 = 15.28
130
Volume per cent of CH 4 = 690 # 100 = 18.84

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 4. Mixtures of helium and oxygen can be used in scuba diving tanks to help
prevent the bends. For a particular dive, 46 L He at 25°C and 1.0 atm and
12 L O2 at 25°C and 1.0 atm were pumped into a tank with a volume of 5.0
L. Calculate the partial pressure of each gas and the total pressure in the
tank at 25°C.
Solution:
Calculate the number of moles of each gas using the ideal gas law in the
PV
form, n =
RT
1.0 # 46
n helium = 0.0821 # 298 = 1.9 mol
1.0 # 12
n oxygen = 0.0821 # 298 = 0.49 mol

The tank containing the mixture has a volume of 5.0 L, and the temperature
is 25°C. We can use these data and the ideal gas law to calculate the
nPV
partial pressure of each gas using P =
RT
1.9 # 0.0821 # 298
Phelium = 5.0 = 9.3 atm
1.0 # 0.0821 # 298
Poxygen = 5.0 = 2.4 atm

The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures:

PTotal = Phelium + Poxygen
PTotal = 9.3 + 2.4 = 11.7 atm

Practice problems
1. A cylinder contains 400g of oxygen and 600g of helium at a total pressure
of 7.0 atm. Calculate partial pressures of the gases.
2. A flask contains 3.0 moles of nitrogen and 3.0 moles of neon. How many
grams of argon must be pumped into the flask so as to make the partial
pressure of the argon twice that of helium?
3. A 2.0 L container is pressurized with 0.25 atm of oxygen gas and 0.60 atm
of nitrogen gas. What is the total pressure inside the container?
4. A mixture of 2 mol H2 and 3 mol He exerts a total pressure of 3 atm. What
is the partial pressure of He?

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

Self Evaluation
1. Figure 1.6 shows the behaviour of a gas at constant temperature. Study
the figure and answer the questions that follow.
10

6
Volume (L)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 1.6
(a) Complete the Table 1.2
(b) What happens to the volume of a gas as the pressure increases?
(c) What happens to the pressure of a gas as the volume increases?
(d) What relation can you draw between pressure and volume of the gas
at constant temperature?
Table 1.2

Data for Gas sample at four pressures

Sl.No Pressure Volume Pressure x Volume
1 25 kPa ?
2 ? 6L
3 100 ?
4 ? 2L
5 300 ?
2. It is not advisable to place the cooking gas cylinder near the hot objects.
Explain.

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 3. Carbon dioxide is usually formed when gasoline is burned. If 30 L of CO2
is produced at a temperature of 1.00 # 103 °C and allowed to reach room
temperature (25°C) without any pressure changes, what is the new volume
of the carbon dioxide?
4. A tank contains 7.7 moles of gas at a pressure of 0.09 atm and a temperature
of 56°C, what is the volume of the tank?

Summary
1. Boyle’s law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure, if temperature is kept constant.
2. Charles’ law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
Kelvin temperature, if pressure is kept constant.
3. The pressure of a gas varies directly with the temperature, if the volume of
the gas is kept constant.
4. Boyle’s law and Charles’ law can be combined into a single mathematical
P1 V1 P2 V2
expression known as the combined gas law:
T1 = T2
5. Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of different gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules or moles of
molecules (n) that it contains.
6. The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, describes the relationship among the pressure,
volume, number of moles, and temperature of an ideal gas.
7. The total pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures that
each gas would exert by itself in the same volume.

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. The volume of the gas would become zero at ______ temperature.
2. At constant temperature when the volume of the gas decreases, the
pressure _____.
3. A sample of helium gas occupies 6 mL at a temperature of 250 K. At ____
K the gas expands to 9 mL.
4. The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the_____ of the partial pressures
of the constituent gases at a particular temperature.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

5. The value of PV for 5.6 moles of a gas at 0°C is _____.

II. Check whether the following statements are true or false and rewrite
the false statements correctly.
1. The inflated balloon inside a car during a hot sunny day will experience
an increase in pressure.
2. You drove continuously from Phuentsholing to Thimphu and observed
that the pressure in your tyres increased. This is because of the increased
friction between the road and the tyres that results in increase in
temperature.
3. When the temperature of a sample gas increases from 100°C to 200°C,
the average volume of its particles is doubled.
4. Charles’ law states that when the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is held
constant, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature.
5. The total pressure in a mixture of gases is equal to the partial pressure(s)
of the gas that occupies the largest volume.
III. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. For a given mass of gas at constant temperature, the a. Boyle’s law.
volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure. b. Charles’s law.
2. Law can be used to determine the total pressure of c. Graham’s law.
the mixture of gases.
d. Dalton’s law.
3. The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its
e. Gay-Lussac’s law.
Kelvin temperature if the volume is kept constant.
f. Ideal gas law.
4. The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly propor-
tional to its Kelvin temperature, if the pressure is kept g. Avogadro’s law.
constant.
5. The volume of gas is directly related to the number of
moles at constant temperature and pressure.
IV. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. Gas pressure is caused by gas molecules
A heating up.
B hitting other gas molecules.
C hitting the walls of a container.
D reacting with other gas molecules.
2. Each of these flasks contains the same number of gas molecules. In which
container is the pressure highest?

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 Flask 1 Flask 2 Flask 3 Flask 4

Figure 1.7
A Flask 1 C Flask 3
B Flask 2 D Flask 4
3. If the absolute temperature of a gas is doubled and the pressure of the
gas is halved, how will the volume change?
A It will increase by two times its original value.
B It will decrease to one fourth of its original value.
C It will stay the same as its original value.
D It will increase by four times its original value.
4. At constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume of a given
amount of gas is constant. This is according to:
A Charles’ law C Boyle’s law
B Gay-Lussac’s law D Avogadro’s law
5. 2 g each of the following gases at 60°C and 700 mmHg are taken. Which
of them will have the highest volume?
A HBr C HF
B HCl D HI
6. At constant temperature in a given moles of an ideal gas
A the ratio of pressure and volume always remains constant.
B the product of pressure and volume remains constant.
C volume always remains constant.
D pressure always remains constant.
7. The food in a pressure cooker gets cooked well and faster than in a pot.
This is because the food in the pressure cooker is cooked
A under high pressure C at constant volume.
B at constant heat. D at constant pressure.
8. If the pressure and absolute temperature of 4 litres of carbon dioxide are
doubled, the volume of carbon dioxide would become.
A 2 litre C 6 litre
B 4 litre D 8 litre

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

V. Write answers for the following questions

1. Table 1.3 shows the volume of a sample of gas at four temperatures.
Table 1.3
Gas Samples at Four Temperatures
Trial Temperature T Volume V
A 10.0ºC 100 cm3
B 50.0ºC 114 cm3
C 100.0ºC 132 cm3
D 200.0ºC 167 cm3

(a) What happened to the volume of gas when the temperature is

changed after each trial?
(b) What kind of pattern or regularity do you observe in the data in Table
1.3?
(c) In trial B, C and D the temperature is doubled, what has happened
to the volume?
(d) Based on the data in Table 1.3, plot a graph of ‘temperature versus
volume’.
(e) What kind of graph do you obtain? Explain the relationship between
the two variables.
(f) What will happen to the volume of gas if the temperature is cooled
below 0ºC?
(g) Add two columns to the right hand side of the volume column in
Table 1.3. Convert the temperatures to the Kelvin scale in one column
and find the ratio of V/T in another column.
(h) Name and state the law associated with the above data.
2. A certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 2.5 L at 90 atm. What pressure
would the gas exert if it were placed in a 10 L container at the same
temperature?
3. A sample of gas at 1 atm had a volume of 1.2 L at 100°C. What would its
volume be at 0°C and 700 mm Hg pressure?
4. 4.5 L of gas at 1.23 atm is expanded at constant temperature until the
pressure is 0.74 atm. Calculate the final volume of a gas?
5. What volume is needed to store 0.050 moles of helium gas at 2 atm and
400 K?
6. 5.0 L of a gas is collected at 100 K and then allowed to expand to 20.0 L.
What is the new temperature in order to maintain the same pressure (as
required by Charles’ law)?

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 7. What pressure will be exerted by 20.16 g hydrogen gas in a 7.5 L cylinder
at 20ºC?
8. A 50 L cylinder is filled with argon gas to a pressure of 100 atm at 30°C.
How many moles of argon gas are in the cylinder?
9. To what temperature does a 250 mL cylinder containing 0.40 g helium gas
need to be cooled in order for the pressure to be 2.49 atm?
10. A gas syringe contains 56.05 milliliters of a gas at 315.1 K. Determine the
volume that the gas will occupy if the temperature is increased to 380.5 K.
11. A sample of gas at 1 atmosphere had a volume of 1.2 L at 100°C. What
would its volume be at 0°C at the same pressure?
12. A balloon had a volume of 75 L at 25°C. How much the temperature should
be raised in order for the balloon to have a volume of 100 L at the same
pressure?
13. A container holds three gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide, and helium.
The partial pressures of the three gases are 2 atm, 3 atm, and 4 atm,
respectively. What is the total pressure inside the container?
14. A container with two gases, helium and argon, is 30 % by volume helium.
Calculate the partial pressure of helium and argon if the total pressure
inside the container is 4 atm.
15. If 60 L of nitrogen is collected over water at 40°C when the atmospheric
pressure is 760 mm Hg, what is the partial pressure of the nitrogen?
VI. Solve the cross word puzzle.
Across
4. At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
its Kelvin temperature.
9. The problem-solving method in chemistry that uses mathematical
relationships to convert one quantity to another.
10. The SI unit for measuring pressure.
11. The temperature scale defined so that temperature of a substance is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles such
that zero on the scale corresponds to zero kinetic energy.
12. At constant temperature, the volume and pressure of a gas are
inversely proportional.
Down
1. Statement that at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes
of gases contain equal numbers of particles.
2. The SI unit for measuring pressure that equals 1000 pascals.
3. A gas in which the particles undergo elastic collisions.

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 Chapter 1 Gas Laws

5. The combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’s law.

6. The pressure that supports a column of mercury 760 millimeters in
height.
7. Abbreviation for standard temperature and pressure which is 0
degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere.
8. The equation that expresses exactly how pressure, volume,
temperature, and the number of particles of a gas are related.

2
3
4
5
6 7 8
9

10

11

12

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 2
2.1
The Mole
Concept and
Stoichiometry
Introduction
An equation of chemical reaction provides quantitative information relating the
reactants and the products involved in it. So, it is possible to calculate the
relation between the weights and the volumes of the substances taking part
in a chemical change. A reaction always takes place through the interaction of
integral number of molecules of the reactants, and the products formed are
also in integral number of the molecules. There is a simple relationship among
the gram-molecular weights or moles of the reactants and the products. The
chemical calculations based on chemical equations are also calculated by using
mole concept.

2.2 Relative atomic mass and Relative molecular

mass, Avogadro’s number and Mole
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain the terms such as relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass,
Avogadro’s number and mole.
»» solve the numerical problems based on the concept of mole, relative atom-
ic mass, relative molecular mass and Avogadro’s number.

2.2.1 Relative atomic mass (RAM or Ar)

Atoms are extremely small and cannot be seen or weighed directly but indirect
methods in Physics have helped us to know the absolute mass of nearly all kinds
of atoms. The mass of hydrogen atom is found to be 1.6735 # 10-24 g while that
of oxygen atom is 26.565 # 10-24 g. These masses are so small that it is not

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

convenient to use bigger units like kilograms or grams. It is appropriate to use

the mass of some light atom as a unit and then relate mass of other atoms to
it. The standard substance taken for this purpose is carbon-12 (12C). One atom
of carbon-12 is given the mass of 12.
1
Atomic mass unit (a.m.u) = 12 # mass of one atom of carbon -12

The mass of an atom of the given element is compared with 1/12 the mass an
atom of 12C and the ratio thus obtained is known as relative atomic mass. The
resulting masses of atoms are called relative atomic masses (RAM).
Average mass of one atom of the element
RAM(A r) = 1
12 mass of one atom of carbon - 12
Relative atomic mass scale
What is the Relative atomic mass scale
(12Carbon Scale)?
• Masses of atoms are expressed relative
to the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

C
12
Why is there a need for the scale? 12 units
• Atoms are too small to be weighed
directly.
• Inconvenient to express masses of
atoms in terms of kg. Figure 2.1
Note: Relative atomic masses have no units
(dimensionless) since they are relative to the
So what does it imply?
arbitrary standard (i.e. ratio).
• 1 atom of 12C = 12 However, in more advanced texts, relative
1 masses are represented in terms of atomic
•
12 the mass of a C atom = 1 mass units (a.m.u).
12

It is observed that most atomic masses are not whole numbers because majority
of elements found in nature are a mixture of two or more isotopes of constant
composition. The atomic weight of an element is the weight average of the atomic
weights of its natural isotopes. For example, a sample of bromine prepared in
the laboratory contains two isotopes: bromine – 79, 35 79 Br and bromine – 81, Br

81 Br . A mass spectrometer can be used to find out the masses of these isotopes
35

using the carbon-12 scale. Their relative isotopic masses are 78.919 and 80.917

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 respectively. The word ‘relative’ emphasizes that the masses are relative to an
atom of carbon-12. The spectrometer will also show the proportions of each
isotope.
Magnet Ions that are too heavy bend
too little
Flight tube
Ions that are too light bend
Insulator too little
Accelerator plate Ions that are of right mass
Ion beam can enter the detector
Ion source
Detector slits
Slits
Detector
Electron beam
To vacuum pump
Probe
Sample

Recorder
Figure 2.2 Mass spectrometer

For example, any naturally occurring sample of bromine contains approximately

35 Br and 49.48 of 35 Br . Thus, the average mass of a bromine atom
50.52% of 79 81

will be

a 78.919 # 50.52 k + a 80.917 # 49.48 k = 79.908

100 100

The value obtained is known as the relative atomic mass of bromine. Relative
atomic masses are given the symbol Ar, and then show the element to which
they refer in brackets. For example, Ar(Br) = 79.908.
The relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an element is the weighted average
of the masses of the isotopes in the naturally occurring element relative to the
mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope which is taken to be exactly 12.
Relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times one atom of the
element is heavier than 1 times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
12
2.2.2 Gram atomic mass
There are several quantities that the chemists use to make their calculations
easier. One of these is the gram atomic mass. A gram atomic mass of an element
is that quantity of the element that has a mass in grams numerically equal to
its atomic mass. The atomic weight of an element expressed in grams is gram
atomic weight or one gram atom of that element. For example, the atomic mass

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

of oxygen atom is 16 a.m.u, therefore its gram atomic mass is 16 g, and a 16 g

sample of oxygen is equal to one atomic weight of oxygen.
The term can be applied either to the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes or
to any particular isotope. A gram atomic mass is also called gram-atom, which
is shorter and more convenient term.
Table 2.1 Relative atomic mass and gram atomic mass

Element Symbol Relative atomic Gram atomic

mass (At.wt.) mass (gram atom)
Aluminium Al 26.98 a.m.u. 27g
Carbon C 12.00 a.m.u. 12g
Chlorine Cl 35.453 a.m.u. 35.5g
Hydrogen H 1.008 a.m.u. 1g
Iron Fe 55.847 a.m.u. 56g
Nitrogen N 14.007 a.m.u. 14g
Oxygen O 15.99 a.m.u. 16g

Calculating relative atomic mass

1. Naturally occurring silver is 51.84% silver-107 and 48.16% silver-109.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of silver.
Solution:

RAM(Ag) = b 100 # 107 l + b 100 # 109 l

51.84 48.16

= 55.469 + 52.494
= 107.96
So, the RAM or Ar(Ag) = 107.96
2. Chlorine consists of two isotopes, 75% chlorine - 35 and 25% chlorine – 37.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Solution:

RAM(Cl) = a 100 # 35 k + b 100 # 37 l

75 25

= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5
So, the RAM or Ar(Cl) = 35.5

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 2.2.3 Relative molecular mass (RMM or Mr)
Since the molecules are very small their masses cannot be determined directly
by weighing. The molecular masses are determined relative to the mass of 12C,
which is taken as the standard substance. The absolute or actual molecular
mass of a compound is the actual mass of one molecule of that compound.
The mass of molecule of the given substance is obtained by adding together
the relative atomic masses of all the atoms or ions present in a molecule or a
compound.
Mass of one molecule of the substance
RMM(M r) = 1
Mass of 12 atom of 12 C

Relative molecular mass of an element or compound is the number of times one

1
molecule of the substance is heavier than 12 the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Calculating relative molecular mass

1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of a bromine molecule.
Solution:
Molecular formula of bromine molecules; Br2
RMM of Br2 = 2 # A r (Br)
= 2 # 79.908
= 159.816

It is not possible to discuss the atomic mass of a molecule or of a compound

because more than one type of atom is involved. Instead, the relative formula
mass (RFM) of the compound needs to be discussed. For example, sodium
chloride, Na+ Cl-, contains sodium ions and chloride ions. Even though there
are no sodium chloride molecules, the values Ar (Na) = 23 and Ar (Cl) = 35.5 are
added to give Mr (NaCl) = 58.5.
Mr = Relative formula mass (RFM) = Relative molecular mass (RMM)
= the sum of all the atomic masses for all the atoms or ions in a
given formula
If all the individual atomic masses of all the atoms in a formula are added
together, then that is equal to relative formula mass or molecular mass. RFM
is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all those elements shown in the
formula of the substance.

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Calculating relative formula mass

1. Calculate the relative formula mass for the following compounds and
elements
a. NaCl
b. N2
c. C6H12O6
Solutions:
a. RFM of NaCl = 1 # 23 + 1 # 35.5 = 58.5
b. RFM of N2 = 2 # 14 = 28
c. RFM of C6H12O6 = 6 # 12 + 12 # 1 + 6 # 12 = 180

For substances that are molecular, the term gram molecular mass can be used
in place of the term gram formula mass. Gram molecular mass (gram molecule)
is the relative molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams.
Table 2.2 Relative molecular mass and gram molecular mass

Substance Relative molecular mass Gram molecular mass

(Mol.wt.) (gram mole)
Nitrogen 28.014 28g
Oxygen 31.998 32g
Chlorine 70.906 71g
Carbon dioxide 43.998 44g
Sulphur dioxide 64.062 64g
Sulphuric acid 98.076 98g

2.2.4 Avogadro’s number

The Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro, first suggested the participation of
molecules in the constitution of matter. According to him, the molecules and not
the atoms were the smallest material particles that are capable of independent
or free existence. He also held that the volumes of gaseous substances under
identical conditions of temperature and pressure should be simply related to their
number of molecules and not the atoms. So, Avogadro put forward a hypothesis,
relating the volumes of gases under identical conditions of temperature and
pressure with the number of molecules contained in them. The hypothesis is
generally known as Avogadro’s law.

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 The law states that equal volume of all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. The converse
of Avogadro’s law is also true. That is, if the samples of different gases at the
same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, then
the volumes of all the samples must be equal. The coefficients in chemical
equations tell the relative number of molecules, they also tell the relative volumes
of gaseous substances, provided that these volumes are measured at the same
temperature and pressure.
Example: If

50 mL of O2 at STP contain ‘V’ number of molecules,

then
50 mL of CO2 at STP also contain ‘V’ number of molecules
50 mL of SO2 at STP also contain ‘V’ number of molecules
(Equal volume of gas) (Same temperature, (Equal number of
pressure) molecules)

Activity 2.1 Worksheet

Instruction
Study Table 2.3 and answer the questions that follow.
Table 2.3

Elements Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide

1. Volume 22.4 L 22.4 L 22.4 L

2. Pressure 1 1 atm 2
3. Temperature 3 4 0ºC
4. Mr 5 6 7

5. Number of 8 9 10
Molecules

1. Fill up the blank spaces numbered 1 to 10.

2. Calculate the relative molecular mass for each type of gas.
3. How many molecules are present in the containers containing hydrogen,
oxygen and carbon dioxide? Justify.

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

The specific number of molecules in one gram-mole of a substance is the

molecular weight in grams and is equal to 6.023 # 1023. For example, the
molecular weight of oxygen is 32.0 and contains 6.023 # 1023 oxygen molecules.
The number 6.023 # 1023 is called Avogadro's number (NA) or Avogadro's
constant. The units may be electrons, atoms, ions, or molecules, depending
on the nature of the substance and the type of reaction.

Solved Problems
1. Calculate the number of molecules in 6.4 grams of sulphur dioxide at STP.
(At.wt. S=32, O=16)
Solution:
Molecular weight = sum of atomic weights.
Molecular weight of SO2 = 32 + (16)2 = 64
GMW of SO2 is 64 grams.
If 64 grams of SO2 contains = 6.023 # 1023 molecules.
6. 4
Then, 6.4 grams of SO2 contains =
23
64 # 6.023 # 10
= 6.023 # 1022 molecules.
2. How many grams are there in 1.8 # 1023 molecules of sulphur dioxide at
STP?
Solution:
If 6.023 # 1023 molecules of sulphur dioxide contains = 64 grams.
Then, 1.8 # 1023 molecules of sulphur dioxide contains
= 1.8 # 10 # 64
23
= 19.126 g
6.023 # 10 23

2.2.5 Mole concept

Atoms and molecules are very small and even a little chemical sample contains
an unimaginable number of them. Therefore, it is impossible to count the number
of atoms or molecules in a sample. The mole, abbreviated as ‘mol’ is SI unit,
which measures the number of particles in a specific substance. A mole is the
quantity of any substance which contains as many elementary entities such as
atoms, molecules or ions as there are in 12.00 grams of carbon-12. The number
of particles is Avogadro's number, which is equal to 6.023 # 1023. Thus, the
weight of 6.023 # 1023 molecules of any substance equals its gram molecular

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 weight and they occupy 22.4 litres at STP. The volume 22.4 litres (22400 cm3) is
also called molar volume. For example, one mole of oxygen molecule means 32
grams of oxygen or 6.023 # 1023 molecules of oxygen or 22.4 litres of oxygen
at STP. Similarly, one mole of oxygen atoms means 16 grams of oxygen or
6.023 # 1023 atoms of oxygen.

+
One: C atom O2 molecule CO2 molecule

One +
dozen:

One
mole:

6.023 x 1023 6.023 x 1023 6.023 x 1023

C atom O2 molecule CO2 molecule
12.011g C 31.9988g O2 44.010g CO2

Figure 2.3 Mole of substances

Thus, mole is a unit for expressing number of atoms, molecules, ions, electrons
etc. Hence, it can be conclude that
• One mole of any substances contains = 6.023 # 1023 particles (the particles
can be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons etc. Thus, we need to specify
particles).
For example,
one mole of hydrogen atoms (H) contains = 6.023 # 1023 atoms of
hydrogen.
one mole hydrogen molecules (H2) contains = 6.023 # 1023 molecules of
hydrogen.
one mole of water molecules (H2O) contains = 6.023 # 1023 molecules of
water.
one mole hydrogen ions (H+) contains = 6.023 # 1023 ions of hydrogen.

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

• One mole of an atom weighs one gram atomic weight of the atom.
• One mole of any substance (molecule) weighs one gram molecular weight
of the substance.
• One mole of any gas weighs one gram molecular weight and occupies 22.4
litres (molar volume) at STP.
Mass of element in grams
One mole of atoms = Gram atomic mass of element
Mass of substance in grams
One mole of substance (molecule) = Gram molar mass

6.023 # 1023 22.4 L of a

particles gas at S.T.P.
in
pa
te icles

es
rm
rt

pi
s o con

oc f
cu
m so
f

lu m

1 mole of oxygen atoms

vo ter
e
ta

= 6.023 # 1023 atoms

in
ns i

1 mole of oxygen molecules

= 6.023 # 1023 molecules 1 Mole
in terms of mass

1 gram atom 1 gram molecule 1 gram formula weight

of elements of substances of substances

12 g C 23 g Na 18 g H2O 44 g CO2 58.5 g NaCl 100 g CaCO3

Figure 2.4 Mole concept

Solved Problems
1. If atomic mass of Ca atom is 40 g, find the number of atoms present in 1g
of Ca.
Solution:
40g of Ca atoms contains = 6.023 # 1023 atoms.
Therefore, 1g of Ca atoms contains = 1 # 6.023 # 1023
40
= 0.1505 # 1023 atoms or 1.505 # 1024 atoms

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 2. Calculate the mass in grams of a single carbon (C) atom.
Solution:
The mass of one mole of carbon atom = 12g
One mole of carbon atom contains = 6.023 # 1023 atoms.
Mass of 1 C atom = Mass of a mole of23atoms
6.023 # 10
12 g
Mass of 1 C atom =
6.023 # 10 23 atoms
Mass of 1 C atom = 1.994 # 10-23 g
Therefore, the mass of a single carbon atom is 1.994 # 10-23 g.
3. Calculate the number of moles of nitrogen in 7g of nitrogen (N=14).
Solution:
1 mole of any substance = 1 gram molecular weight of it.
Molecular weight of N2 = 14 # 2 = 28
` gram molecular weight of nitrogen = 28 g
` 28 g of nitrogen = 1 mole of nitrogen
1
` 7 g of nitrogen = 28 # 7 = 0.25 moles
Alternative method.
weight in gram of a substance
Mole = GMW (molecular weight)
Mole = 7 = 0.25 moles
28
4. Calculate the mass of 50 cc of CO at STP. (C = 12, O = 16)
Solution:
1 mole of any substance = 1 gram molecular weight of it and occupies
22.4 litres at STP.
Gram molecular weight of carbon monoxide = 12 + 16 = 28 g
1 mole of CO = 1 g mol. wt and occupies 22400 cc at STP.
= 28 g of CO occupies 22400 cc at STP.

= ? g of CO will occupy 50 cc at STP = 28 # 50 = 0.0625 g

22400
5. In 3 moles of O2: (a) How many O2 molecules are there? (b) How many O
atoms are there?

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Solution:
a. 1 mole of O2 molecule contain = NA = 6.023 # 1023 molecules
6.023 # 10 23
3 moles of O2 molecules contain =
1 #3
= 1.8 # 10 molecules of O2.
24

b. 1 mole of O atom contain = NA = 6.023 # 1023 atoms

6.023 # 10 23
3 moles of O atoms contain =
1 # 3 # 2 O-atom in O2
atoms.
= 3.6 # 1024 atoms of O.
6. How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300 g of CaCO3?
Solution:
Molecular mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 # 3) = 100 g.
1 mole of CaCO3 contain = 3 moles of oxygen atoms
100 g of CaCO3 contain = 3 # 6.023 # 1023 atoms
3 # 6.023 # 10 23
300 g of CaCO3 contain =
100 # 300
= 54.2 # 10 oxygen atoms.
23

Self Evaluation
1. Use the information from the Table 2.4.
Table 2.4

Element Isotopes Mass Number Relative Abundance (%)

Nitrogen 14
N 14 99.63
15
N 15 0.37
Oxygen 16
O 16 99.76
17
O 17 0.04
Calculate the
(a) relative atomic mass of oxygen and nitrogen atom respectively.
(b) relative formula mass of the dioxide formed by the two elements.
(c) number of atoms of oxygen present in one mole of dioxide formed by
two elements.
2. For 196 g of pure H2SO4, calculate the
(a) number of moles of H2SO4.

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 (b) total number of H2SO4 molecules.
(c) total number of atoms present in it.
(d) number of atoms of each kind present in it.
(e) absolute mass of H2SO4 molecules.
3. How many moles of water are there in 1 L of water? Assume a density of
1.0 g mL-1.
4. From 200 mg of CO2, 1021 molecules are removed. How many molecules
of CO2 are left?
5. Calculate the number of water molecules contained in a drop of water
weighing 0.06 g?
6. Find the number of aluminum ions present in 0.051 g of aluminium oxide,
Al2O3.
7. Borax is the common name of sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O7. In 20 g of
borax,
(a) how many moles of boron are present?
(b) how many grams of boron are present?

2.3 Percentage composition, empirical formula

and molecular formula
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» define the terms empirical formula and the molecular formula.
»» explain the differences between empirical formula and molecular formula.
»» solve numerical problems based on the percentage composition, empirical
formula and molecular formula.

2.3.1 Percentage composition

Percentage composition is the percentage by weight of each element present in
the compound. The percentage of each element in the compound gives the mass
of the element (in grams) present in 100 g of the compound. It compares the mass
of one part of a substance to the mass of the whole. It is also the percentage by
mass of atoms of an element present in one mole of the compound.
Total wt. of element in one molecule of the compound
Percentage composition = Gram molecular weight of the compound # 100

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Determination of percentage composition of an element in a compound

Solved Problems
1. Calculate the % of copper, sulphur and oxygen in copper sulphate, CuSO4.
(Cu = 64, S = 32 and O = 16).
Solution:
The relative molecular mass of CuSO4 = 64 + 32 + (4 # 16) = 160
Gram molecular weight of CuSO4 = 160 g
% composition of Cu in CuSO4 = 64 # 100 = 40% copper by mass in
160
the compound
% composition of S in CuSO4 = 32 # 100 = 20% sulphur by mass in the
160
compound
64
% composition of O in CuSO4 = 160 # 100 = 40% oxygen by mass in the
compound
2. Calculate the percent by weight of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in sodium
chloride. (Na = 23, Cl = 35.5).
Solution:
The relative molecular mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
Gram molecular mass of NaCl = 58.5g
% by weight of Na in NaCl = Mass of Na 23 = 39.32%
RMM # 100 = 58.5 # 100
% by weight of Cl in NaCl = Mass of Cl 35.5 = 60.68%
RMM # 100 = 58.5 # 100
3. Find the percentage composition of Cu and H2O in the compound
CuSO4.5H2O?
Solution:
The relative molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 250
Gram molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 250 g
Percentage composition of Cu in CuSO4.5H2O = 64 = 26%
250
Percentage composition of H2O in CuSO4.5H2O = 90 = 36%
250
4. Calculate the percentage composition of water in hydrated magnesium
sulphate MgSO4.7H2O.
Solution:
Molecular mass of MgSO4.7H2O= 24 + 32 + 16 # 4 + 7 (18) = 246 g
126
246 # 100
Percentage composition of H2O in MgSO4.7H2O = = 51.2 %

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 2.3.2 Empirical formula
The empirical formula of a compound shows the atomic ratio of the elements
present in a molecule of the compound. For example, the empirical formula of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is HO, because the simplest atomic ratio of hydrogen
and oxygen in a molecule of it is 1:1. The empirical formula of a compound can
be determined if the percentage composition of the elements in the compound
is known.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound which gives the
simple whole number ratio of various elements present in one molecule of the
compound.
Determination of empirical formula

i. From percentage composition

A compound contains the following percentage composition 6.7% H, 40%
C and 53.3% O. Determine its empirical formula.
Solution:

Steps Element
H C O
1. Write the percentage of the
different elements. 6.7 40 53.3

2. Divide the percentage of each

element by the respective
6.7 40 53.3
1 = 6.7 12 = 3.33 16 = 3.33
atomic masses to obtain the
number of moles of atoms of
the elements.
3. Divide each ratio by the
smallest number in order 6.7 3.33 3.33
to obtain the simple whole 3.33 = 2 3.33 = 1 3.33 = 1
number.
4. Write the empirical formula
by writing the symbols of
elements with number of CH2O
atoms as the subscript to the
lower right of the symbol.
ii. From mass
A compound was analyzed and found to contain 13.5 g Ca, 10.8 g O, and
0.675 g H. Determine the empirical formula of the compound?

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Solution:

Steps Element
Ca O H
1. Write the masses of each
element, given in the 13.5 10.8 0.675
problem.
2. Divide the mass of each
element by the respective 13.5 = 0.337 10.8 = 0.675 0.675 = 0.675
atomic masses to obtain the 40.1 16 1
mol mol mol
number of moles.
3. Divide each mole value by 0.337 0.675 0.675
the smallest number of moles 0.337 0.337 0.337
calculated. = 1.000 = 2.002 = 2.002

4. Round off the ratio obtained .1 .2 .2

in step 3 to the nearest whole
number. This is called mole
ratio of the elements.
Note: If the number is too far to
round, then multiply each solution
by the same factor to get the
lowest whole number multiple.
5. Write the empirical formula
by writing the symbols of
elements with mole ratio as CaO2H2 or Ca(OH)2
the subscript to the lower right
of the symbol.

2.3.3 Molecular formula

The molecular formula can be derived from the empirical formula when the
molecular mass of the compound is known. Molecular formula gives the actual
number of atoms ‘n’ of the different elements present in a molecule of the
compound. The formula for determining the value of ‘n’ is
Emperical fromula # n = molecular formula, where "n"is an integer
` Relative molecular mass = n # molecular mass
If the substance is a gas or a compound which can be completely volatilised,
the molecular mass can be easily calculated from the relative density (or the
vapour density).
Relative molecular mass = 2 # Vapour density

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 Determination of molecular formula

Solved Problems
1. Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of the compound having the
following percentage composition; C = 26.59%, H = 2.22%, O = 71.19%.
Its molecular weight is 90.
Solution:
Step I: Calculate the empirical weight of the compound from its empirical
formula.

Element Percentage Atomic Atomic ratio Simplest ratio

Composition masses
C 26.59 12 26.59 2.22
12 = 2.22 2.22 = 1
H 2.22 1 2.22 2.22
1 = 2.22 2.22 = 1

O 71.19 16 71.19 4.45

16 = 4.45 2.22 = 2

Hence, the empirical formula is CHO2

The empirical formula weight of CHO2 = 12 + 1 + 16 × 2 = 45.
Step II: Divide its molecular weight by empirical weight which gives the
value of (n)
Emperical formula × n = molecular formula, where "n" an integer
(CHO2)n = 90
(45)n = 90
n = 90 = 2
45
Step III: Multiply the empirical formula by this number to get the molecular
formula.
(CHO2) # 2 = C2H2O4
The molecular formula is C2H2O4
2. A compound with a molar mass of 34.0 g mol-1 is known to contain 5.88%
hydrogen and 94.12% oxygen. Find the molecular formula for this compound.

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Solution:
Step I: Determine the empirical formula using the percentage composition
of the compound.

Element H O
% by mass 5.88 94.12
Molar mass / mol g (relative
-1
1.008 16.00
atomic mass in g)
Moles = mass ÷ molar mass 5.88 94.12
1.008 = 5.83 16.00 = 5.88
Divide throughout by the smallest 5.88 5.88
number of moles calculated 5.83 = 1 5.88 = 1
Convert mole ratio
H1O1 is HO
to an empirical formula

Step II: Determine the molecular formula using the empirical formula and
molar mass of the compound
Empirical formula is HO
Molecular formula = n # empirical formula
i.e., Molecular formula = n (HO) = HnOn
The molar mass of the empirical formula HO = 1.008 + 16.00 = 17.008
g mol-1
Calculating for the value of "n"
molar mass of compound = n # molar mass of empirical formula
34.0 = n # 17.008
34.0
n = 17.008 = 2
Now, substitute the value for ‘n’ into the molecular formula HnOn.
The molecular formula of the compound is H2O2.
Alternative method
Empirical formula is HO
Empirical weight of HO = 1+ 16 = 17
Molecular formula = n # empirical formula
molecular formula weight
Where,n = emperical formula weight
34
n = 17 = 2

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 Molecular formula = n # empirical formula
= 2 # HO
Molecular formula = H2O2

2.3.4 Differences between empirical formula and molecular

formula

Empirical Formula Molecular Formula

The formula which gives the simple The formula which gives the actual
whole number ratio of the atoms number of atoms of various elements
of various elements present in one present in one molecule of the
molecule of the compound is called compound is called molecular formula.
empirical formula.
The empirical formula expresses the This formula expresses the molecular
elements by which it is formed. structure of the compound or element.
It is determined by knowing the It can be determined by knowing
percentage of the elements of the the percentage of elements and the
compounds. molecular mass of the compounds.
Sometimes the molecular formula and Molecular formula of any compound
empirical formula of any compound sometimes becomes identical with
become identical. e.g., HCI empirical formula and sometimes it
becomes multiple of the empirical
formula.
e.g., H2O (empirical formula H2O)
C6H6 (empirical formula CH)
Empirical formula of different compounds Molecular formula of any compound is
can be same. always fixed except isomerism.
e.g., empirical formula of benzene and e.g., The molecular formula of benzene
ethyne is CH. and ethyne are respectively C6H6 and
C2H2.
Empirical formula is only for compound. Molecular formula is for both
compounds and elements.

Self Evaluation
1. Copper (II) carbonate in a crucible produced only 7.0 g of copper (II) oxide.
What was the percentage yield of copper (II) oxide?
2. Find the percent composition of calcium (Ca), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H)

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

in calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.

3. Bromine is used to make 1,2-dibromoethane. This is an additive in leaded
petrol. 1,2-dibromoethane reacts with sodium hydroxide to form a compound
that has the composition by mass: carbon-38.7%, hydrogen-9.7% and rest
oxygen.
(a) Calculate its empirical formula.
(b) The relative molecular mass of the compound is 62. What is its
molecular formula?
4. Calculate the percent composition of carbon in:
(a) CO2
(b) C6H12O6
5. A compound is found to contain 50.05 % sulphur and 49.95 % oxygen by
weight. What is the empirical formula for this compound? The molecular
weight for this compound is 64.07 g mol-1. What is its molecular formula?
6. A compound is 19.3% Na, 26.9% S, and 53.8% O. Its formula mass is 238
g mol-1. What is the molecular formula?

2.4 Calculations based on chemical reactions

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» name the types of chemical reactions.
»» solve numerical problems based on chemical equation.
»» solve problems based on mass – mass and mass ‒ volume relationship.

Activity 2.2 Types of chemical reaction

Instruction
Study the Table 2.6 and write down the missing information to complete the
table.
Table 2.6

Sl. No. Reaction Type Explanation General Formula

1 Combination Two or more elements or A + B → AB
compounds (reactants) e.g. S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
combine to form a single
compound (products).

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 Sl. No. Reaction Type Explanation General Formula
2 ? The opposite of a AB → A + B
combination reaction – a For example: ?
complex molecule breaks
down to make simpler
one.
3 Precipitation Two solutions of soluble A + Soluble salt →
salts are mixed, resulting Precipitate + soluble salt C
in an insoluble solid For example: ?
(precipitate) forming.
4 Combustion ? A + O2 → H2O + CO2
For example: ?
5 ? The more reactive ?
element displaces a less e.g. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
reactive element from its
compound.

The chemical reactions in Table 2.6 can be represented with the help of chemical
equation. A chemical equation gives molecular formulae of the reactants and the
products in a chemical reaction. An equation conveys the following information.
For example
MnO 2
2KClO 3 (s) 2KCl (s) + 3O 2 (g)
i. The molecular proportion of substances: In this equation two molecules of
solid potassium chlorate on heating in the presence of manganese dioxide
give two molecules of solid potassium chloride and three molecules of
oxygen gas.
ii. The relative molecular masses of the substances: 2 # 122.5g = 245g of
potassium chlorate gives 2 # 74.5g = 149g of KCl and 3 # 32 = 96g of
oxygen.
iii. The volumes of gaseous substances: 3 x 22.4 L = 67.2 L of oxygen at STP
is evolved when 245g of potassium chlorate is heated.

2.4.1 Calculation based on chemical equations

i. Mass – mass relationship

Solved Problem
1. The chief component of glass is silica (SiO2). It can be dissolved by the
hydrofluoric acid, HF, to form silicon tetra fluoride, SiF4, a gas at room
temperature according to the following reaction.

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

SiO 2 + 4HF $ SiF4 + 2H 2 O

How many grams and how many moles of SiF4 can be produced from
63.4g of HF?
Solution:
The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is
Step I SiO 2 + 4HF $ SiF4 + 2H 2 O
Step II 4 moles HF $ 1mole SiF4
Step III 4 ^ 1 + 19 h $ 28.1 + 4 # 19
80g $ 104.1g

Step IV 63.4g → ?
Molecular mass of HF = (1 + 19) = 20
20g HF = 1mole
63.4g HF = 1 # 63.4 = 3.17 moles
20
According to the balanced chemical equation,
4 moles of HF produce 1mole of SiF4.
3.17 moles HF produces = 3.17 = 0.793 moles
4
Molecular mass of SIF4 = 104.1
1 mole of SiF4 = 104.1g
0.793 mole of SiF4 = 104.1 # 0.793 g
= 82.5g
2. Copper on reacting with conc.H2SO4 produces copper sulphate. If 1.28g
of copper is to be converted to copper sulphate. Find the weight of the
copper sulphate formed and the weight of the acid required at the same
time according to the equation. (Cu = 64, S = 32, O = 16).
Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 $ CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2
Solution:
The balanced chemical equation involved in the reaction is
a. Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 $ CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2
64g [64 + 32 + 4 × 16=160g]
64g of Cu yields 160g of CuSO4
160 # 1.28
` 1.28g of Cu will yield 64 = 3.2 g of CuSO 4
b. Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 $ CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O + SO 2
64g 2[2 # 1 + 1 # 32 + 4 # 16]

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 2 × 98 = 196g
196g of H2SO4 are required to react with 64g of Cu.
Hence, ?g of H2SO4 are required to react with 1.28g of Cu.
1.28 # 196
X= 64 = 3.92g
` the weight of acid required is 3.92g

ii. Mass – volume relationship

Solved problem
1. Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute HCl according to the equation.
CaCO 3 + 2HCl $ CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
Calculate the weight of CaCl2 obtained from 10g of CaCO3 and also the
volume at STP of CO2 obtained at the same time. (Ca = 40, C = 12, O =
16, Cl = 35.5)
Solution:
CaCO 3 + 2HCl $ CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
[40 + 12 + 48] [40 + 71] 1 mole
=100g =111g 22.4 litres at STP.
100g of CaCO3 gives 111g of CaCl2
111 # 10
` 10g of CaCO 3 gives 100 = 11.1g of CaCl 2
Similarly, 100g of CaCO3 liberate 22.4 litres of CO2 at STP.
22.4 # 10
` 10g of CaCO 3 gives 100 = 2.24 litres of CO 2

2. Calculate the volume of sulphur dioxide formed at STP in mL, by treating

4.8 g of copper with excess of hot concentrated sulphuric acid. (Cu = 64,
H = 1, S = 32, O = 16).
Solution:
The equation obtained as per the problem is
Cu (s) + 2H 2 SO 4 (aq) $ CuSO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O (l) + SO 2 (g)
64 g of Cu produces → 1 mole (of SO2)
64 g → 22400 mL

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Volume of SO2 formed using 64 g of copper = 22400 mL

Volume of SO2 formed using 4.8 g of copper = ?
4.8 # 22400
X= 64 = 1680 mL
Therefore, the volume of SO2 produced at STP is 1680 mL.

iii. Volume – volume relationship

Solved Problem
1. Propane gas burns in Cl2 according to the equation
C 3 H 8 + 4Cl 2 $ 8HCl + 3C
What volume of chlorine will be used up when 40 litres of HCl gas is
produced in the reaction?
Solution:
C 3 H 8 + 4Cl 2 $ 8HCl + 3C
1 Vol 4 Vol 8 Vol
As per the equation,
8 vol of HCl is produced when chlorine used up = 4 vol
` volume of Cl used up to produce 40 L of HCl = 4 #840 = 20 litres

2. What is the volume of O2 produced at STP when 61.25 g of KClO3 is strongly

heated?
(K = 39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16)
Solution:
The relative molecular mass of KClO3= 39 + 35.5 + 3 × 16 = 122.5
2KClO 3 (s) $ 2KCl (s) + 3O 2 (g)
2(39 + 35.5 + 3 # 16) → 3 # 22.4 L
2(122.5) = 245
245 g of KClO3 produces 3 x 22.4 litres of O2
61.25 # 3 # 22.4
` volume of oxygen produced by 61.25g of KClO 3 = 245 = 16.8 L
So, the volume of O2 (measured at STP) produced = 16.8 L

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 iv. Mass – number of particles relationship

Solved Problem
1. How many moles and how many atoms are contained in 10.0 g of nickel?
Solution:
Atomic mass of nickel = 58.69
The molar mass of nickel is 58.69 g mol-1.
weight in gram of substance
Since, Mole = atomic weight
10 gNi # 1mole Ni
` the number of moles in Ni present = 58.69 gNi = 0.170 molNi
To determine the number of atoms, convert the moles of Ni to atoms using
Avogadro's number:
Since, Number of atoms = Mole # Avogadro’s number.
6.023 # 10 23 atoms Ni
` the number of atoms present = 0.170 molNi # 1molNi
= 1.02 # 10 23 atoms

2. A sample of gas contains 4.4 # 1024 carbon dioxide molecules. How many
moles of carbon dioxide molecules are present in the sample?
Solution:
The number of moles of carbon dioxide molecules is
N(carbon dioxide molecules) = number of carbon dioxide molecules
= 4.4 # 1024 carbon dioxide molecules
1 mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of molecules
` the number of moles of carbon dioxide molecules present in the sample
N
n = N , where N A = Avogadro's number = 6.023 # 10 23
A

N (carbon dioxide molecules)

n (carbon dioxide molecules) = NA
N (carbon dioxide molecules)
n (carbon dioxide molecules) =
6.023 # 10 23
4.4 # 10 24
=
6.023 # 10 23
= 7.3 carbon dioxide molecules

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 Chapter 2 The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

Self Evaluation
1. Carbon monoxide burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide according
to the equation:
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
How many molecules of oxygen would react with 5.0 # 105 molecules of
CO?
2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O. A mixture
of 22.4 L of hydrogen and 22.4 L of oxygen at 100ºC is ignited.
(a) Calculate the volume of steam produced.
(b) What gas, if any will be present on cooling to room temperature?
3. Calculate the number of atoms of each element in 31.5 g of HNO3(H = 1,
N = 14, O = 16)
4. How much oxygen will contain the same number of atoms as the number
of molecules in 73g of HCl? (H = 1, O = 16, Cl = 35.5)
5. From the equation (NH4)2Cr2O7 → Cr2O3 + 4H2O + N2.
Calculate:
(a) the volume of nitrogen at STP, evolved when 63g of ammonium
dichromate are heated.
(b) the mass of Cr2O3 formed at the same time.
6. An acid of phosphorus has the following percentage composition: 2.47%
H, 38.27% P, and 59.26% O. Find the empirical formula of the acid and its
molecular formula, given that its relative molecular mass is 162.
(H = 1, O = 16, P = 31)
7. Calculate the following based on the equation:
C + 2H2SO4 → CO2 + 2H2O + 2SO2.
(a) the mass of carbon oxidised by 49 g of H2SO4.
(b) the volume of sulphur dioxide measured at STP, liberated at the same
time.
8. When excess lead nitrate was added to a solution of sodium sulphate,
15.15g of lead sulphate was precipitated. What mass of sodium sulphate
was present in the original solution?
Na2SO4 + Pb(NO3)2 → PbSO4 + NaNO3

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 Summary
1. The study of quantitative relationships based on chemical formulas and
equations is called stoichiometry.
2. The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms
represented by a formula. Either formula mass or molecular mass can be
used to describe this sum in molecular substances. Only the term formula
mass should be used for ionic substances.
3. The term relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times one
atom of the element is heavier than one twelfth times of the mass of an
atom of carbon-12.
4. The term relative molecular mass of an element represents how many times
one molecule of the substance is heavier than 1 of the mass of an atom
12
of carbon-12.
5. A mole of substance contains Avogadro’s number (6.023 x 1023) of units
of that substance. Depending on the substance, a mole of a substance
may have a mass equal to relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass
or relative formula mass.
6. The mass of a sample of an element can be calculated from the number
of moles present.
7. A mole of gaseous substance at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 litres.
8. The percentage composition of a compound is the percentage by mass of
each of the elements in the compound.
9. The empirical formula of a compound can be determined from its percentage
composition, the masses of each element in a sample of the compound or
from the number of moles of each element that makes up the compound . In
order to determine the molecular formula, the molar mass must be known.
10. A chemical equation is a condensed statement of facts about a chemical
reaction. Reactants are substances that exist before a reaction takes place.
Products are the substances that come into existence as a result of the
reaction.
11. There are different types of chemical reaction such as synthesis,
decomposition or analysis, displacement, precipitation, combustion,
neutralization.
12. Calculations made from measurements enable chemists to determine
the quantities of substances that react and are formed during chemical
reactions.

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13. The coefficients in a chemical equation represent the relative number of

molecules and the relative number of moles of reacting substances. If the
substances are gases at the same temperature and pressure, coefficients
represent their relative volumes.
14. When the balanced equation for a chemical reaction is known and the mass
of one substance taking part in the reaction is given, the masses of all the
other substances taking part in the reaction can be determined.
15. If the balanced equation for a reaction is known, chemists can solve
problems based on mass-mass relationship, mass-volume relationship,
volume-volume relationship, and mass – number of particle relationship.

Exercise
I. State whether each of the statement is True or False.
1. The standard molar volume of a gas is 22.4 L.
2. A given mass of a noble gas contains twice the number of atoms as
molecules.
3. The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula.
4. A mole of electrons means 6.023 # 1023 electrons.
5. The vapour density of a gas is twice its relative molecular mass.
II. Fill in the blanks by selecting the most appropriate word given in the
bracket.
(atoms, molecules, empirical, molecular, a, no, the same as, twice, half,
one, two, HO, H2O, H2O2, no)
1. At the same temperature and pressure, equal volume of gases contains
the same number of _____.
2. The ____ formula of a compound is a simple multiple of its ______ formula.
3. There is ____ difference between the atomic and molecular masses of
noble gas elements.
4. The relative molecular masses of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine
are ____ their relative atomic masses.
5. A compound of relative molecular mass 34 and empirical formula HO has
the molecular formula_____.
III. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. What is the total number of moles of hydrogen gas contained in 9.03 # 1023
A 1.50 moles C 6.02 moles
B 2.00 moles D 9.03 moles

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 2. A sample of 100 cm3 of carbon monoxide was burnt in 100 cm3 of oxygen.
What was the composition of the gas remaining after the reaction? (All
measurements were made at room temperature and pressure)
A 100 cm3 of carbon dioxide and 50 cm3 of excess oxygen.
B 100 cm3 of carbon dioxide and 50 cm3 of excess carbon monoxide.
C 100 cm3 of carbon dioxide only.
D 200 cm3 of carbon dioxide only.
3. The volume occupied by half a mole of a gas at STP is
A 5.6 L C 22.4 L
B 11.2 L D 44.8 L
4. The number of molecules in 35.5 g of chlorine gas is
A 3.011 # 1023
B 6.023 # 1023
C 9.033 # 1023
D 1.204 # 1023
5. The relative atomic mass of Ne is 20. Its relative molecular mass is
A 10 C 30
B 20 D 40
IV. Write answers for following questions.
1. Define the term mole.
2. Calculate the relative molecular masses of the following substances:
A NH3
B C8H18
C H2SO4
D Cu(NO3)2
3. Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in the following fertilizers
and nitrogen containing compounds. (Relative atomic mass H = 1, C =
12, N = 14, O = 16, P = 31)
A (NH4)2SO4
B (NH4)3PO4
C CO(NH2)2
D CH2(NH2)COOH

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4. How much oxygen will contain the same number of atoms as the number
of molecules in 73 g of HCl? ( H = 1, O = 16, Cl = 35.5)
5. Figure 2.5 shows two balloons containing oxygen gas and carbon dioxide
gas respectively.

O2 molecule CO2 molecule

0.5 mol. 0.5 mol.

Figure 2.5
(a) Calculate mass of oxygen gas in balloon A.
(b) Calculate the volume of CO2 gas in balloon B.
(c) Compare and explain the number of gas molecules in balloon A and
balloon B.
6. Some types of chemical reaction are listed below.
Decomposition, neutralization, combustion, oxidation-reduction
Which reaction type best describes the following changes.
(a) Hexane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
(b) Calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
(c) Magnesium + copper oxide → magnesium oxide + copper
(d) Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
7. A crop of wheat uses up 20 kg of nitrogen per hectare of soil. What is the
mass of the fertilizer calcium nitrate required to replace the nitrogen in a
10 hectare field. (N = 14, O = 16, Ca = 40)
8. 11.2 L sample of gas is determined to contain 0.5 moles of nitrogen. At
the same temperature and pressure, how many moles of gas would there
be in a 20 L sample?
9. How much of KClO3 must be heated to produce as much O2 as required
to burn 24 g of carbon? (K = 39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16)

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 10. How many atoms of Na are present in 46 g of the metal? (Ar of Na = 23)
11. How many H2O molecules are there in a snowflake weighing 1 mg?
12. Copper (II) oxide can be reduced to copper metal by heating it in a stream
of hydrogen gas. Dry copper (II) oxide was placed in a weighed tube and
the tube reweighed. The apparatus was then set up as shown in the Figure
2.6 below.
Excess gas burning

Oxide of copper

From gas tap

Bunsen burner

Figure 2.6
Hydrogen was passed through the tube for 15 seconds before the
escaping gas was lit. The tube was heated for a few minutes. The
apparatus was then allowed to cool with hydrogen still passing through.
The tube was re-weighed. The process was repeated until there was no
further change in mass.
(a) The results for the experiment are given in Table 2.7
Table 2.7

Mass of empty tube 46.12 g

Mass of tube + copper (II) oxide 47.72 g
Mass of copper (II) oxide ?
Mass of tube + copper 47.40 g
Mass of copper produced ?g
Mass of oxygen in the copper (II) oxide ?g
(b) Copy and complete the results in Table 2.7.
(c) How many moles of copper atoms are involved in the reaction?
(Cu = 64)
(d) How many moles of oxygen atoms are involved in the reaction?
(O = 16)

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(e) From the results of the experiment how many moles of oxygen atoms
will combine with one mole of copper atoms?
13. What is the volume of air required to completely burn 1 L of CO? Assume
that all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure and
also that air contains one-fifth by volume of O2.
14. Determine the number of hydrogen atoms in 1.5 moles of water, H2O,
molecules.
15. What is the volume of oxygen required for the complete combustion of
100 L of ethane according to the following equation?
2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O.
Assume that all the volumes are measured at the same temperature and
pressure.
16. The order of increasing relative molecular mass of the following gases is
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, chlorine. Given 8 g
of each gas at STP, which will contain the least number of molecules and
which the most?
17. When vaporised, 64 g of methanol (CH3OH) would occupy 44.8 L at STP.
What is the vapour density of methanol?
18. 9.2 g sample of a compound contain 2.8 g of nitrogen and 6.4 g of oxygen.
Find the empirical formula of the compound.
19. A metal M forms a volatile chloride containing 65.5% Cl. If the density of
the chloride relative to hydrogen is 162.5, find the molecular formula of
the chloride (M = 56, Cl = 35.5)
20. The empirical formula of a compound is C2H5. It has a vapour density
of 29. Determine the relative molecular mass of the compound and its
molecular formula.
21. 1.000 g sample of red phosphorus powder was burned in air and reacted
with oxygen gas to give 2.291 g of a phosphorus oxide. Calculate the
empirical formula and molecular formula of the phosphorus oxide given
the molar mass is approximately 284 g mol-1.

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 3
3.1
Metallurgy
Introduction
There are 118* elements at present in modern periodic table. These elements are
divided into metals and non-metals. The majority of the elements are metals. In
the ancient times only about eight metals namely gold, copper, silver, tin, iron,
lead, mercury and arsenic were known to the people. Today, scientists have
identified about ninety metals. These metals either exist in their free state or
in the combined state in nature. Learning the art of obtaining metals from the
naturally occurring minerals was a big step for civilization. Several physical and
chemical methods are used to extract metals depending upon their position
in metal activity series and nature of the ore. With the knowledge of science
we have come a long way in learning the skill of extracting metals from their
respective mineral ores. This chapter introduces the various processes involved
in extraction of metals and their uses.

3.2 Metallurgy
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» define metallurgy.
»» name the ores of some common metals.
»» relate how the reactivity of a metal affects its extraction from the naturally
occurring ores.
»» outline the extraction process of metal with brief explanation.
»» explain the uses of some common metals and their alloys.

*On 30th December, 2015, IUPAC has announced the verification of the discoveries of four new
chemical elements, thereby completing the 7th period of the periodic table. The element 113, 115,
117 and 118 were given the temporary working name and symbol as ununtrium (Uut), ununpentium

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(Uup), ununseptium (Uus) and ununoctium (Uuo) respectively.
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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

The study of metal and the various processes involved in the extraction of metals
from their respective ores are called metallurgy. The methods of extraction
depend upon the chemical nature of the sources from which the metals are
obtained.

3.2.1 Occurrence of metals

The surface of the earth’s crust is made up of sand, silicates, metal compounds
(minerals) and some free metals. Very few metals like gold, platinum, silver and
mercury exist in the free or native state. The rest of the metals occur in the
combined form as oxides, carbonates, sulphides, sulphates, silicates, halides,
nitrates, phosphates, etc. Metals at the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg
and Al) are so reactive that they are never found in nature as free elements.
Copper and silver are two metals which occur in free state as well as in the
combined state as sulphide, oxide or halide. Various processes have to be
employed in order to obtain different metals from their respective ores.

3.2.2 Some terminologies used in metallurgy.

i. Minerals and ores
Metals and their compounds are found in earth as natural substance known
as minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring chemical substances in which the
metals and their compounds are found in the earth’s crust. A metal may be
present in the form of several minerals. Some minerals contain large amount
of metal while other contains only traces of metal. Most of the minerals are
associated with impurities but some contain less impurity while others contain
more impurities which make the extraction of metal from them difficult. Thus,
all the minerals are not used for the extraction of metals.
Those minerals from which the desired metals are extracted are called ores. An
ore contains higher percentage of metals with lesser amount of impurities. For
example, both haematite and iron pyrites are the minerals of iron. Haematite
contains higher percentage of iron than iron pyrite. So haematite is used as an
ore to extract iron and iron pyrite due to its high sulphur content is used as
raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. All the ores are minerals,
but all minerals are not necessarily ores. Table 3.1 shows examples of some
types of ores.
Table 3.1 Different types of ores
Oxides ores Carbonate ores Halide ores Sulphide ores
Bauxite [Al2O3.2H2O] Calamine [ZnCO3] Cryolite [Na3AlF6] Cinnabar [HgS]
Cuprite [Cu2O] Marble [CaCO3] Fluorspar [CaF2] Galena [PbS]
Haematite [Fe2O3] Magnesite [MgCO3] Horn silver [AgCl] Chalcocite [Cu2S]
Zincite [ZnO] Siderite [FeCO3] Rock salt [NaCl] Zinc blende [ZnS]
Magnetite (Fe3O4)

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 ii. Charge
The mixture of materials fed into a furnace, to extract a metal is called charge.

iii. Gangue
The impurities like sand, rocky materials, earthy particles etc. associated with
an ore are called gangue. They are also called matrix.

iv. Flux
It is a chemical substance added to an ore during the extraction of metal that
combines chemically with the gangue to form a fusible light mass.

v. Slag
The product obtained by the combination of gangue with the flux is called slag.
Gangue + Flux $ Slag

3.2.3 Processes involved in the extraction of metals.

Metallurgy

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Dressing Concentration Conversion of Refining of
of ore of ore concentrate to oxide metals

Hand Physical Chemical Roasting Calcination Liquation

picking methods methods

Crushing Magnetic Reduction of Electrolysis

Leaching
and grinding separation oxide to metal
of ore
Hydraulic Distillation
washing
Reducing agents:
1. Heat
Froth 2. Carbon
floatation 3. Carbon monoxide
4. Aluminium
5. Electorlysis
Figure 3.1 Overview of the metal extraction process.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

i. Dressing of ores (Step 1)

Generally, the natural ores contains some amount of gangue. The gangue is to
be removed before the metal is extracted from an ore. The conversion of ores
into their physical form from which the gangue can be easily removed is called
dressing of ores. It is also called enrichment. The presence of gangue in the ores
• interfere with the process of extraction.
• make the metal impure.
• increase the cost of production of metal.
Hence, all efforts have to be made to remove the gangue from an ore.
The dressing of ore involves the following stages:
a. Hand picking
Large gangue especially the stony materials are removed manually from the
ores by hand picking.
b. Crushing and grinding of the ore
Most of the ores found in the nature occur as huge lumps. They have to be
broken into small pieces to make the extraction convenient. These large lumps
are broken into smaller pieces with the help of jaw crushers or grinders. These
pieces are then reduced to fine powder with the help of a stamp mill or ball mill.
This process is called pulverization of the ore.
Rotation

Eccentric rotation

Feed
Flywheel

Pullman
(moving jaw)
Adjusting
Crushing
wedges
chamber

Sizing gap Hydraulic rams

Discharge
Figure 3.2 Jaw crusher.

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 Dust collection
Feed material

Feed material

Grinding balls

Adjustable
discharge slot

Finished products
Figure 3.3 The ball mill.

ii. Concentration of ores (Step 2)

The process of removing the gangue from the dressed ore is called concentration
of ore. This is done by using the current of air or water depending on the nature
of ore and the impurities present in it. The purified ore is called concentrated
ore. Some important methods used in concentration of ores are:
a. Froth floatation process.
This method is used generally for the concentration of sulphide ores. It is based
on the preferential wetting properties of the ore with the frothing agent and water.
When powdered ore is added to water containing pine oil (frothing agent), water
wets the gangue particles and the pine oil wets sulphide ore particles.
Compressed air is passed through the mixture containing water, oil and crushed
ore. Froth is formed in the oil layer and the ore particles embedded in the froth
rise up with it. The froth is collected and pressed to remove the adhering oil from
the ore. The gangue particles are collected at the bottom of the tank.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Froth bubbles
carrying sulphide Compressed
ore particles air

Sulphide ore
particles
Water containing
pine oil

Gangue

Figure 3.4 Froth floatation.

b. Gravity separation or levitation.

This process of concentrating ore is based on the difference in the specific
gravities of the ore and gangue particles. The ore particles are generally heavier
than the impurities, so the muddy particles can be removed by washing with
water. When the powdered ore is washed with an upward stream of running
water in a hydraulic classifier,
Powdered ore
the lighter gangue particles are
washed away while heavier ore
particles settle down and are
collected from the base. This
method is called levitation.
The washing of powdered ore
with water can also be carried out
Gangue
by using Wilfley washing table.
It is a wooden table fitted with
ridges and is placed in slanting
position. The crushed ore is Suspension of
spread on the table and stream the ore
of water is passed over the
vibrating table. The heavier ore Water
particles collect in the grooves
(in between the ridges) and the
lighter impurities are washed Concentrated
away by the current of water. ore
Figure 3.5 Hydraulic classifier.

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 Crushed ore

Heavy ore Water and lighter gangue

Platform with wedges

Figure 3.6 Wilfley washing table.

This method is suitable for concentration of heavy oxide and carbonate ores
like cassiterite (SnO2) and haematite (Fe2O3).
c. Magnetic separation.
This method is based on the difference in magnetic properties of the ore and
gangue. The magnetic separator consists of a rubber belt moving over two
rollers, one magnetic and the other nonmagnetic.
The powdered ore is placed on a conveyer belt running on magnetic wheel.
While falling from the conveyer belt at the other end having a magnetic roller,
the magnetic particles are drawn in and the non-magnetic particles are thrown
away. The magnetic and non-magnetic particles form separate heaps as shown
in the Figure 3.7.
Ore

Magnetic Non-magnetic
Electromagnet
wheel wheel
Non-magnetic
gangue Magnetic
Ore
Figure 3.7 Magnetic separator

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Magnetic separation is used for separating magnetite (Fe3O4) from its non-
magnetic impurities and also for separating tin stone (SnO2) from its magnetic
impurities such as wolframite (tungstates of iron and manganese).
d. Leaching.
This is a chemical method of concentrating an ore. The desired metal compound
present in the ore is leached, i.e., dissolved out, by a suitable reagent and the
gangue is left behind. The desired compound is then obtained or precipitated
from the solution by a suitable method. This method is used for concentration
of bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O).

iii. Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore (Step 3).

Being electropositive, a metal loses electron(s) to combine with other elements
and is thereby oxidized. Hence, a metal present in a combined state in an ore
has to be reduced.
a. Conversion of ores into metal oxides.
The form in which a metal occurs in an ore may or may not be suitable for
reduction. For example, the oxide of a metal is more suitable for reduction than
its sulphide, hydroxide, hydrated oxide or carbonate form. To convert the ore
into a suitable form for reduction, the ore is often calcined or roasted.
b. Calcination.
It is the process of heating the concentrated ore in a limited supply of air or
in absence of air at a temperature below its fusion point. This is done in order
to remove moisture, to convert carbonate ores into oxides or to remove any
volatile impurities like sulphur and phosphorus. For example, carbonate ores
get converted into oxide as shown in the equation below.
Heat
CuCO 3 CuO + CO 2 -
c. Roasting.
It is the process of heating the concentrated ore in excess supply of air at a
temperature below its fusion point. This process is generally carried out to
convert sulphide ores into their metallic oxides. Roasting can also remove
moisture and volatile impurities like sulphur, arsenic and phorphorus. For
example, conversion of sulphide ores into oxides is shown in the equation below:
Heat
2PbS + 3O 2 2PbO + 2SO 2 -

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 d. Reduction to metal.
The type of reducing agents and the process employed depends upon the
nature of the metal in the ore. The calcined or roasted ore is reduced to metal
by the following methods:
(i) The carbon reduction process – Pyrometallurgy
This is the cheapest and by far the most common method of producing metals
on a large scale. The oxides of metal below aluminium in the activity series can
be reduced to their respective metals on heating with carbon (C). This process
of heating metal oxide in the presence of carbon is also known as smelting.
There is a great possibility of formation of carbon monoxide (CO) as a result of
carbon reacting with the metal oxide or air. Carbon monoxide acts as a reducing
agent and is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. For example, reduction of
oxides ore to metal with carbon.
Heat
FeO + C Fe + CO -
Heat
Fe 2 O 3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO -

Reduction of oxides ore to metal by CO

Heat
Fe 2 O 3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO 2 -
Heat
CuO + CO Cu + CO 2 -

These reactions are carried out at high temperature and as a result the metal
formed by reduction melt down.
Although the majority of gangue is removed during the concentration of ore,
some impurities are still left in it. Such impurities are also reduced during
smelting and removed from the ore. In order to remove the remaining gangue,
a substance known as flux is added. The impurities present in the ore combine
with the flux to form slag. Slag being lighter, form the upper layer while molten
metal form the lower layer.

Zinc Oxide

Zinc oxide is reduced only by carbon and is not reduced by hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. It is due to the reactivity of zinc oxide which can be
reduced by carbon monoxide and hydrogen only at very high temperature
and pressure.
Heat
ZnO + C Zn + CO -

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Activity 3.1 Reduction of copper oxide (CuO) by carbon

Materials required
Test tube, cork or rubber bung, clamp and stand, Bunsen burner/spirit lamp,
delivery tube, test tube, spatula, copper oxide, charcoal, beaker and lime water.
Procedure
1. Transfer one spatula of CuO into a clean glass test tube.
2. Carefully add one spatula of charcoal powder on top of copper oxide
without any mixing.
3. Strongly heat the content in a test tube in a slanting position for five minutes
on a spirit lamp or Bunsen flame.
4. Pass the evolving gas through a delivery tube fixed with cork or rubber
bung into the lime water (as shown in Figure 3.8).
5. Allow it to cool and then observe the change that takes place at the junction
of two layers.
6. Record your observation.

Stand
Clamp

Test tube

Delivery tube

Charcoal
Copper oxide

Lime water

Bunsen burner

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Figure 3.8 Reduction of copper oxide with carbon

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 Question
1. What is observed when CuO and charcoal is heated in a test tube?
2. Write the balanced chemical equation that takes place between charcoal
and CuO.
3. What change if any is observed when the evolved gas is passed through
the lime water? Why?

(ii) Reduction with aluminium - Aluminothermy

Oxides of some metals like manganese, chromium, iron and tungsten which are
less active than aluminium are reduced by heating them with aluminium powder.
A mixture of metal oxide and aluminum powder, called thermite is ignited with
a magnesium wire embedded in magnesium powder and barium oxide (BaO2)
mixture. Due to aluminum’s strong affinity towards oxygen, it acts as reducing
agent. This process is called aluminothermy.

Heat
Cr2 O 3 + 2Al Al 2 O 3 + 2Cr + Heat
(thermite)

It is carried out in a clay crucible which can withstand very high temperature.
The reaction is highly exothermic and heat produced is sufficient to melt the
metal. This molten metal obtained can be used for welding purpose and the
process is called thermite welding.
(iii) Auto-reduction
In certain cases, no reducing agents are required. The ore is roasted and a
portion of the ore reacts with the rest of the ore to give the metal.

Heat
Cu 2 S + 2Cu 2 O 6Cu + SO 2
(unreacted ore) (roasted ore)

(iv) Electrolytic reduction

Metals are arranged in a vertical column in the decreasing order of their reactivity
called metal activity series. The extraction process of highly reactive metals
depends on the position in the activity series. They are generally extracted by
electrolytic reduction.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Highly Li Lithium
reactive K Potassium
Ba Barium Extraction by
Na Sodium electrolysis
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium Expensive
Al Aluminum
C Carbon
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Ni Nickel Extraction by
Sn Tin reduction of metal
Pb Lead oxide with C or CO
H Hydrogen
Inexpensive
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Least Au Gold
reactive Pt Platinum

Figure 3.9 Metal activity series.

Electrolytic reduction is used for extraction of highly active metals like potassium,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum etc. These metals cannot be obtained
by reduction of their oxide because the metal formed will immediately combine
with the carbon due to high temperature to form the metal carbide. Therefore,
electrolysis is carried out to extract these metals using suitable electrodes. In
fact, electrolytic reduction can be used for any metal, but it is costlier than the
carbon-reduction method.

iv. Purification or Refining of metal (Step 4).

a. Liquation.
This method of refining is used for metals with low melting point like lead and
tin. The impure metal is placed on the sloping hearth of a furnace and heated
gently. As the metal melts and flows down, the impurities called dross is left on
the hearth of the furnace as shown in the Figure 3.10.

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 Impure metal ore

Sloping hearth

Impurity left behind

Pure metal

Figure 3.10 Purification of metal by liquation.

b. Distillation method
Metals like zinc, cadmium and mercury are purified by distillation. In this method,
the impure metal is heated in a vessel. The metal forms vapours which condense
separately in a receiver and the non-volatile impurities are left behind in the first
vessel itself.
c. Electrolytic refining
The metals like copper, silver and gold are purified by electrolytic method. The
block of the impure metal is made the anode and the thin sheet of pure metal
is made as cathode. A suitable metal salt solution is chosen as the electrolytic
solution. On passing the electric current, the metal ions from the electrolyte
are deposited at the cathode in the form of pure metal. At the same time, an
equivalent amount of the metal dissolves from the anode and passes into the
electrolyte in the form of metal ions. The impurities either go into the solution
or settle below the anode as anode mud as shown in the Figure 3.11.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Anode Cathode

Copper Copper
dissolved diposited

Anode mud
(impurity)
Figure 3.11 Electrolytic refining.

d. Oxidative refining
This method is used where the impurities can be easily oxidized than the metal
itself. When air is passed through the impure molten metal, the impurities like
carbon, phosphorus, arsenic etc get oxidized to their volatile oxides. The pure
metal is left behind. Impure iron known as the cast iron which contains carbon,
phosphorus, silicon and manganese as impurities is refined by this method.
When air is passed through cast iron, these impurities are oxidized to their
oxides such as CO2, P2O5, SiO2, etc and are removed.

Activity 3.2 Designing metal extraction process.

Instruction
Design a schematic flow chart to show the entire process involved in extraction
of the metal.

Self Evaluation
1. The elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K and L represent metals in the
decreasing order of reactivity. Which one of them is most likely to
(a) occur in the free state?
(b) be highly reactive?
(c) be least reactive?
(d) occur as salt of fluorides and chlorides?
(e) occur as oxides and sulphides?
2. Give reason for the following:
(a) Metals in the middle of metal activity series cannot be obtained just

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 by heating their ores in air.
(b) In electrolytic refining impure metal is always assigned as an anode.
(c) Hydrogen is not a metal but it has been assigned a place in the
reactivity series of metals.
(d) Metals at the top of activity series, like potassium, sodium, magnesium
and aluminium cannot be obtained by the reduction of their oxides with
carbon, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
(e) Zinc oxide cannot be reduced by hydrogen and is reduced only by
carbon.
3. What is the difference between a mineral and an ore?
4. What are the methods used to concentrate an ore?
5. What is the purpose of the following processes?
(a) Calcination
(b) Roasting
(c) Magnetic separation
(d) Liquation.
6. When is the reducing agents used in the process of metal extraction?
Write down the purpose of using it.

3.3 Electrolysis
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» define electrolyte and non-electrolytes.
»» explain electrolysis with simple illustration.
»» differentiate cathodic reduction and anodic oxidation.
»» investigate the electrolysis of copper sulphate solution.

Some substances allow an electric current to pass through them and some
substances do not. Those substances which allow an electric current to pass
through them are called conductors and which do not allow are called non-
conductors. When the electric current is passed through the substances in
their molten state or in aqueous solution, the chemical compounds undergo
decomposition. The process of decomposition of a chemical compound in its
molten state or in aqueous solution by the passage of electricity through it, is
termed as electrolysis.

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Electrolysis finds its application largely in chemical industries and metal

extraction process. It is used for electro refining, electroplating, electroforming
and extraction of highly reactive metals like sodium from its ore in the molten
state.

3.3.1 Types of conductors

i. Metallic conductors
Metallic conductors conduct electricity without undergoing any chemical
change. The conduction of electric current in them is due to presence of mobile
free electrons. All metals are examples of metallic conductors except the carbon
which in the form of graphite is a non-metallic conductor.

ii. Electrolytic conductor

Electrolytic conductors are those substances which conduct electric current
either in their molten state or in aqueous solution. The ions present in the
electrolytes become free when they are in molten form or in aqueous solution.
These free ions are responsible for the conduction of electric current. Some of
the examples of electrolytes are NaCl, HCl, CuSO4, NaOH etc.
There are substances which do not conduct electricity in aqueous solutions or in
molten state. They are called non-electrolytes. Examples of non-electrolytes are
pure water, alcohol, kerosene, urea, benzene, paraffin wax, carbon tetrachloride,
sugar solution etc.

3.3.2 Electrolytic cell or Voltameter.

The vessel or an apparatus in which the electrolysis is carried out is known as
Electrolytic cell. It is made up of insulating materials like glass. An electrolytic
cell consists of the following components:

i. Electrolyte.
An electrolyte is a substance which in aqueous solution or in molten state
conducts electricity and is decomposed by the passing electric current. When
electric current is passed through an electrolyte in the electrolytic cell, the
electrolyte decomposes into ions. Ion is an electrically charged atom or the
group of atoms. Ions carrying positive charge are called cations and ions
carrying negative charge are called anions.
Electrolytes can be classified as strong electrolyte and weak electrolyte.

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 a. Strong electrolyte.
Electrolytes which are almost completely dissociated into ions in aqueous
solution and allow more electric current to flow through them are known as
strong electrolytes. Some of the examples are strong bases like NaOH and
KOH, strong acids like HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4 and salts prepared from strong
acids and bases like NaCl, KNO3, Na2SO4, etc.
b. Weak electrolyte.
Electrolytes which are dissociated into ions in aqueous solution only to a small
extent and allow less electric current to flow through them are known as weak
electrolytes. Some examples are weak bases like NH4OH, NH3 and its derivatives
and weak acids like H2CO3, H3PO4, CH3COOH, HCOOH etc and salts prepared
from weak acids and bases like NH4NO3, (NH4)2CO3 , etc.

ii. Electrodes.
Electrodes are the graphite or metal plates or rods through which the electric
current enters or leaves the electrolyte. The electrodes are dipped in the
electrolyte during electrolysis. There are two types of electrodes namely;
a) Anode or positive pole is the electrode connected to the positive termi-
nal of the battery. The current enters an electrolyte through anode.
b) Cathode or negative pole is the electrode connected to the negative ter-
minal of the battery. The current leaves an electrolyte through cathode.

(Battery)

Anode e e Cathode
+ -

+ -

Electrolyte

Figure 3.12 Electrolytic cell

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

3.3.3 Electron transfer process – oxidation and reduction.

A chemical reaction occurs by simultaneous loss of electron by an atom, ion or
a molecule and gain of electron by the other atom, ion or a molecule. According
to electronic concept the chemical reaction which involves loss of electron is
called oxidation and the one which involves gain of electron is called reduction.
A chemical reaction which involves simultaneous oxidation and reduction
reaction is known as redox reaction. For example, loss of two electrons by the
magnesium atom is the oxidation reaction as shown in the equation.
Mg $ Mg 2+ + 2e -
And the gain of an electron by chlorine atom is the reduction reaction as shown
in the equation.
Cl + e - $ Cl -
The reaction between magnesium and chlorine to form MgCl2 is an example of a
redox reaction. It involves the transfer of electrons from magnesium to chlorine,
in which magnesium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced.
Mg + Cl 2 $ Mg 2+ + 2Cl - $ MgCl 2
The substance which oxidizes other substance is called oxidizing agent or
oxidant. The substance which reduces other substance is called reducing agent
or reductant. The total number of electrons lost by the reductant is always equal
to the number of electrons accepted by the oxidants.
In the reaction between Mg and Cl2 to form MgCl2
Mg $ Mg 2+ + 2e - (Oxidation)
Mg is oxidized to Mg2+ ion and Mg acts as a reducing agent.
Cl 2 + 2e - $ 2Cl - (Reduction)
Cl is reduced to chloride ion and chlorine acts as an oxidizing agent.

3.3.4 Dissociation or ionization of the electrolyte

The dissociation of an electrolyte is explained by ionic theory, which was put
forward by a Swedish Chemist Avante Arrhenius (1887). It states that when an
electrolyte is dissolved in water or in fused state, it dissociates into charged
particles called ions (cations and anions). These ions have tendency to reunite
to form unionized electrolyte.
M n+ A n- * M n+ + A n-
(electrolyte) (cation) (anion)

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 Where, M is a metal or hydrogen and A is a non-metal or sometimes a radical like
sulphate, hydroxyl, etc. When the ions enter the solution, they are surrounded by
water molecules. This process is called hydration and the hydrated ions move
freely in solution which is responsible for the conductivity of the solution. An
electrolyte is electrically neutral. Thus, in an electrolyte, the total positive charge
is always equal to the total negative charge.

3.3.5 Discharge of ions at the electrodes.

On passing the electric current through the electrolyte, cations being positively
charged ion move towards the cathode, and the anions, being negatively charged
move towards the anode. The cations take up electron(s) from the cathode and
are discharged (i.e., lose their charge) there. The anions, in contrast, give up
electron(s) to the anode and are discharged there.
At cathode M n+ + ne - $ M Cathodic reaction (reduction half reaction)
At anode A n- $ A + ne - Anodic reaction (oxidation half reaction)

The number of electron(s) taken up at cathode must be equal to that given up

at the anode. As the electrons are taken up by the cations at the cathode, the
reaction occurring at this electrode is called cathodic reduction. And since
electrons are given up by the anions at the anode, this reaction is called anodic
oxidation.
Metal atoms are deposited at the cathode, but hydrogen atoms, if discharged,
combine to form H2 molecules. Similarly, gaseous elements like oxygen,
chlorine or bromine are discharged at the anode as the molecules O2, Cl2 or
Br2 respectively.
Preferential discharge of ions from aqueous solution at electrodes.
The product of the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of an electrolyte may be
different from those obtained from molten salt. For example, the electrolysis of
molten NaCl produces Na at the cathode and on the other hand electrolysis of its
aqueous solution produces H2 gas. This is due to the simultaneous dissociation
of water, though to very small extent, into H3O+or H+ and OH- ions.
H 2 O ) H + + OH -
H2 O + H+ $ H3 O+

So in the electrolytic cell, there are more than one ions competing for discharge
at each electrode. For example,
• the metal ion (Mn+) of salt and the H+ or H3O+ of water ion at the cathode.
• the anion of salt and the OH- of water at the anode.

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Only one ion will be discharged in preference to the other at each electrode
which depends on the following factors:

i. Relative position of the ion in the electrochemical series.

In a electrochemical series, the cations and the anions are arranged in decreasing
order of their reactivity. The elements from the top of the electrochemical series
ionize most readily but get discharged at the electrode with greater difficulty.
The elements from the bottom of the electrochemical series ionize less readily
but get discharged at the electrode most easily. So, the ease of discharge of
ions at the electrode in the series increases down the electrochemical series.
At the Cathode: If the metal ‘M’ is more reactive than the hydrogen which lie
at the higher position than H in the electrochemical series, the metal will remain
in the ionic form (Mn+) and stay at the electrode. H+ instead gets discharged
and liberated as H2.
2H + + 2e - $ 2H $ H 2
2H 3 O + + 2e - $ H 2 + 2H 2 O

Thus, the cations lying above H+ in the electrochemical series will not get
discharged in preference to H+. On the other hand, if M is less reactive than H
(lying below H in the electrochemical series) then Mn+ ions get discharged in
preference to H+. The H3O+ (or H+) remains in the ionic form in the solution.
M n+ + ne - $ M
So, the ions like Cu2+ and Ag+ will be discharged at cathode in preference to
H3O+ (or H+) ions. As the reactivity of cation decreases, the ease with which it
accepts electrons increases.

Cation Anion
K+ SO42-
Ease of discharge increases

Na+ NO3-
Ca2+ OH-
Mg2+ Cl-
Al3+ Br-
Zn2+ I-
Fe2+
Sn2+
Pb2+
H+
Cu2+
Ag+

Figure 3.13 Ease of discharge of ions

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 At the Anode: At anode the competing ions are the anion of the salt and OH – ions
of water for discharge. Like cations, the anions can also be arranged in order
of ease of discharge. This arrangement is called the electronegative series of
non-metallic species. The ease of ion that gets discharged at anode increases
down the electronegative series. As the reactivity of anion decreases, the ease
with which it loses electron increases.
Thus, Cl –, Br– and I – are discharged in preference to OH – and the products
formed at anode are Cl2, Br2 and I2. The OH – ions are discharged in preference
to SO42-, NO3 – ions, and product is O2.

ii. Concentration of the ions in the electrolyte.

The products obtained at electrode is also dependent on the concentration
of ions in the electrolyte. In many of the cases it is observed that greater the
concentration of the ion, greater is its probability to get discharged at the
electrode. For example, the electrolysis of very dilute solution of NaCl produces
H2 at the cathode as expected, but at the anode, OH – ions get discharged instead
of Cl- ions, evolving O2 gas. This is due to higher concentration of OH –ions than
Cl- ions in the solution.
OH - $ OH + e -
4OH $ O 2 + 2H 2 O

iii. Nature of the electrode:

The nature of the electrode also influences the product formed at the electrodes.
For example, when the concentrated solution of NaCl is electrolysed using
platinum electrodes, H+ ions get discharged at the cathode in preference to Na+
ions. However, when mercury is used as cathode, Na+ ions get discharged at
the cathode and Cl- ions at the anode. Likewise, if active electrodes like, copper
and zinc are used, they react with the electrolyte giving different products as
compared to the usual product obtained using inert electrode like platinum and
graphite.

3.3.6 Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution.

A concentrated solution of NaCl can be electrolysed in the laboratory. When
electric current is passed through the solution, it results into four different ions.
The two cations, Na+ and H+ move towards cathode and the two anions, Cl – and
OH – move towards anode. The electrodes used here must be inert electrode like
graphite or platinum, which do not react with the electrolytic solution.
Electrical energy
NaCl Na + + Cl -
Electrical energy
H2 O H + + OH -

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Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve)

Cl-
H+ Na+
Cl-
H+
OH-
Na+ Na+
OH -
OH-

Figure 3.14 Electrolysis of NaCl solution.

At cathode
H+ ions get discharged in preference to Na+ as it is less reactive than sodium
and being lower in the electrochemical series. So, the hydrogen gas bubbles
off at the cathode.
At anode
Cl– ions are discharged more readily than OH – ions for chlorine being lower in
the electronegative series. In anode, the pale green chlorine gas bubbles off.

Cathodic reaction Anodic reaction

H ion accepts one electron to form an
+
Cl ion loses one electron to form an
-

atom of hydrogen atom of chlorine.

H+ + e- $ H Cl - $ Cl + e -
Two hydrogen atoms combine to form H2 Two chlorine atoms combine to form Cl2
H + H $ H2 Cl + Cl $ Cl 2
Overall reaction Overall reaction
2H + 2e $ H 2
+ - 2Cl - $ Cl 2 + 2e -

Activity 3.3 Investigating the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using copper

cathode and graphite anode.
Materials required
Water trough or large beaker, copper plates and graphite rod as electrodes,
copper wires, batteries, spatula, glass rod, ammeter/torch bulb, CuSO4 and
water.

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 Procedure
1. Dissolve a spatula of crystals of CuSO4 (blue vitriol) in about 500 mL water.
2. Add about 5 - 6 mL of concentrated H2SO4 to make the solution clear.
3. Pour the solution in the electrolytic cell or large beaker up to 3 of its
4
volume.
4. Complete the circuit using copper plate as cathode and graphite rod as
anode. Connect torch bulb or ammeter within the circuit to ensure that the
circuit is complete as shown in the Figure 3.15.
5. Switch on an electric current using a 4.5 V, 6 V, 9 V or 12 V batteries.
6. Observe the changes.
Ammeter/Torch bulb

Anode (+ve) Cathode (-ve)

H+
OH-
Cu2+
Cu
Graphite OH
-
H+

SO42- CuSO4
SO42- Cu2+
solution

Figure 3.15 Electrolysis of CuSO4 solution

Questions
1. What happens to the colour of the solution? Explain your observation.
2. What is observed at the cathode?
3. Identify reduction electrode and oxidation electrode.
4. Write down the cathodic reaction and anodic reaction.
5. What is observed as the voltage of the batteries increase? Give reason.
6. Write the equations showing the dissociation of electrolyte.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Self Evaluation
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Electrolyte Cathode (graphite) Anode (graphite)

Reaction Product Reaction Product
CuSO4 (aq) 2Cu + 4e → 2Cu Cu
2+ -

AgBr2 (aq) Br - → 2Br + 2e-

2. What kind of a compounds act as an electrolyte? Explain with an example.
3. Classify the following substances into strong electrolytes, weak
electrolyte and non-electrolyte.
(a) Acetic acid (f) Potassium hydroxide
(b) Dilute HCl (g) Carbon tetrachloride
(c) Ammonium hydroxide (h) Sodium acetate
(d) Benzene (i) Sodium sulphate
(e) Distill water (j) Carbonic acid

3.4 Aluminum

Atomic Aluminum is the most abundant metal found

13 number in the Earth’s crust, mostly in the form of

Al Atomic
silicates. The word aluminum is derived from
the Latin word ‘alumen’ for alum which occurs
as aluminum compound naturally used by the
26.98 ancient people for dyeing textiles.
mass

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» name the chief ores of an aluminum.
»» outline the extraction process of aluminum.
»» state the uses of aluminum.
»» discuss the electro refining of aluminum by Hoopes method.
»» explain electrolytic reduction of alumina by Hall-Heroult process.

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 3.4.1 The chief ores of aluminum.
Bauxite: Al2O3.2H2O (Hydrated aluminium oxide), Cryolite: Na3AlF6 (Sodium
aluminium fluoride), Corundum: Al2O3(Aluminium oxide), Feldspar: K 2O.
Al2O3.6SiO2(Potash feldspar).

3.4.2 Extraction of aluminum.

Davy, in 1808, first isolated the metal in an impure state. In 1825, the Danish
chemist and physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, obtained the pure metal by
reducing AlCl3 by potassium.
AlCl 3 + 3K (s) $ 3KCl (s) + Al(s)
This method was very expensive. In 1886, Charles Hall from U.S.A and Paul
Heroult from France simultaneously reduced alumina (Al2O3) dissolved in cryolite
(Na3AlF6) electrolytically on a large scale. Thus, the most important ore from
which aluminum is extracted is bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) and it involves three basic
steps as discussed below:

i. The purification of bauxite.

Bauxite contains some impurities, which need to be removed before subjecting
it to electrolysis. It contains majority of alumina (Al2O3) and some water. The ore
is generally contaminated with iron oxide, silica and titanium oxide. It is purified
by Baeyer’s process, in which bauxite is heated at 150ᵒC along with caustic
soda (NaOH solution) under pressure for several hours in a tank called digester.
Aluminum oxide dissolves in alkali to form water soluble sodium meta aluminate
(NaAlO2) while ferric oxide and silica remain insoluble and settle down.
150cC
Al 2 O 3 .2H 2 O + 2NaOH 2NaAlO 2 + 3H 2 O
(bauxite) (sodium meta aluminate)

The solution is filtered to remove insoluble impurities. The filtrate containing

sodium meta aluminate solution is agitated with freshly prepared aluminium
hydroxide, Al(OH)3 for about 36 hours when sodium meta aluminate hydrolyses
to form precipitate of Al(OH)3. The precipitate is filtered and strongly heated to
obtain pure alumina (Al2O3).
NaAlO 2 + 2H 2 O $ Al (OH) 3 . +NaOH
Heat
2Al (OH) 3 Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O
(pure alumina)
ii. The electrolytic reduction of alumina – Hall-Heroult process
Alumina (Al2O3), being an ionic compound is very stable oxide and cannot be

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

reduced by hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide. Pure Al2O3, dissolved in

molten cryolite and fluorspar acts as an electrolyte and is reduced electrolytically
using Hall-Heroult process. Since alumina has very high fusion temperature
(about 2000ᵒC), it is very difficult to electrolyse alumina alone. Molten electrolyte
is covered with a layer of powdered coke to maintain the temperature and also
to avoid molten metal from vaporizing at high temperature.
Functions of Cryolite (Na3AlF6) and Fluorspar (CaF2).
a. Cryolite.
Cryolite is added to lower the fusion temperature of electrolytic bath. The mixture
melts at 950°C instead of 2000°C thereby saving electrical energy.
b. Fluospar along with cryolite.
Pure alumina is a non-conductor and fluorspar acts as a solvent for the
electrolytic mixture. Fluospar and cryolite enhance the conductivity of the
mixture.

Carbon rods (Anode)

Iron tank
Aluminum oxide
dissolved in cryolite
Molten Al 2 O 3 + Na 2 AlF6
Insulator
Molten
aluminum
Carbon lining (Cathode)
Figure 3.16 Electrolysis of fused alumina.

Carbon lining of an iron tank acts as cathode. The anode consists of a number
of carbon rods attached to the copper clamps and dipped in fused alumina.
The temperature of the electrolytic bath is maintained at 900ᵒC-950ᵒC. When an
electric current is passed, aluminum is discharged at cathode. Aluminum being
heavier than the electrolyte sinks to the bottom and is tapped out periodically
from the outlet. Oxygen is liberated at the anode. Oxygen attacks carbon rods
forming CO or CO2, thus anodes have to be replaced from time to time.

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 Electrode reaction:
2Al 2 O 3 * 2Al 3+ + 2AlO 33-
At cathode: Al 3+ + 3e - $ Al
At anode: 4AlO 33- $ 2Al 2 O 3 + 3O 2 + 12e -
Thus, the overall chemical reaction taking place during electrolysis is
2Al 2 O 3 * 4Al + 3O 2
Aluminum with 99.8% purity is obtained from this process.

iii. The electro refining of aluminum – Hoopes method

Aluminum is further purified by Hoope’s process. The electrolytic cell consists
of three layers.
a) The top layer is of pure molten aluminum which acts as a cathode.
b) The middle layer consists of a mixture of the fluorides of Al, Ba and Na
as (Na3AlF6) and BaF3.
c) The lowest layer consists of molten impure aluminum which acts as an
anode.
Impure
Aluminum Carbon rods
(Cathode)
-
Tapping
hole Pure molten Al
Molten fluorides
Iron tank Impure molten Al
+
Carbon lining (Anode)
Figure 3.17 Purification of aluminum by Hoope’s process.

The graphite rods immersed in pure aluminum and the impure molten aluminum
along the carbon lining at the bottom of the iron tank act as electrode. On
electrolysis, aluminum is deposited at cathode from the middle layer and an
equivalent amount of aluminum is taken up by the middle layer from the bottom
layer. Thus, aluminum is transferred from the bottom to the top layer through
middle layer while impurities are left behind.

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3.4.3 Uses of Aluminum

Some of the uses of Aluminum based on their special characteristic are given
in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Uses of Aluminum

Use Characteristics
House hold uses: Making cooking Aluminum being cheap and corrosion
utensils, household fitting, window resistant.
frames, picture frames, electrical wires It is good conductor of heat and
etc. electricity
Aircraft and other transport such as It is light, strong and resists corrosion.
ships’ superstructures, container vehicle
bodies, trains bodies etc.
It is used in making electric transmission It is light, resists corrosion and good
cables and wires. conductor of electricity
Packaging – used in making food It resists corrosion and has no reaction
containers including trays, foils, bottle with weak organic acids, it keeps food
caps, cans etc. safe and clean from contamination.
Powdered aluminum mixed with linseed It being corrosion resistant.
oil is used as paint for iron poles.
A mixture of aluminum powder and The ammonium nitrate functions as an
ammonium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and the aluminum as fuel.
explosive called ammonal.
Alloys of aluminum are used in making Aluminum is light but is weak, resists
air ship, cheap balances, coins etc. corrosion and alloyed to increase its
strength.
Al is used in aluminothermy for the Al has strong affinity for oxygen.
extraction of metals like Cr and Mn from
their oxide which cannot be reduced by
carbon.

Self Evaluation
1. Fill in the following blanks with appropriate word.
(a) Extraction of aluminum from alumina is done by _____.
(b) The process of reduction of oxides by aluminum is known as ____.
(c) During Hall-Heroult process, only Al2O3 is used up but ____ remains
in the cell.
(d) Aluminum is obtained from Al2O3 by _____ reduction.

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 (e) In the electrolytic refining of aluminum, the molten pure Al acts as
______.
2. Give reason for the following.
(a) Cryolite is used in electrolytic reduction of alumina.
(b) Aluminium is used in making utensils and food packaging.
(c) Fluospar is used in Hall-Heroult process.
(d) The positive anode is replaced from time to time during electrolytic
reduction of alumina (Al2O3).
(e) Aluminium is extracted by reduction of alumina rather than reduction
of AlCl3 by potassium.
3. Name the ore and give its chemical formula from which aluminium is
extracted.
4. Name the processes used to purify aluminium ore.

3.5 Iron
Atomic
26 Iron is the second most abundant metal in
number
Fe
nature beside aluminum. Iron being reactive, it
is rarely found in native state. It oxidizes readily
in the presence of water and air and is found
55.85 Atomic mainly in the form of oxides. Iron was known in
mass Egypt before 3400 BC and in India from about
1000 BC. At around 1400 BC, Hittites of central Turkey discovered the method
of extracting iron by reducing its ore with charcoal. Iron is present as a very
important mineral in red blood cells of animals which helps in the transportation
of oxygen.

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» name the important ores of an iron.
»» explain the extraction process of iron.
»» explain the different types of iron.
»» state the uses of different forms of iron.

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3.5.1 The chief ores of iron.

Haematite (Fe2O3), Siderite (FeCO3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Limonite (Fe2O3.3H2O),
Iron pyrites (FeS2).

3.5.2 Extraction of cast iron or pig iron.

The cast iron is generally extracted from haematite and the extraction process
involves the following steps:

i. Concentration of ores.
The ore is crushed with jaw crusher into small pieces so that it can be easily
reduced by the carbon monoxide in the furnace and also they do not obstruct
the flow of gas to the upper layers. The crushed ore is washed with the stream of
water to remove impurities and then further concentrated by magnetic process.
If pyrites ore is used, it is concentrated by froth floatation process.

ii. Calcination and roasting.

The concentrated ore is roasted and calcined with a little coal in shallow kiln
(furnace) in excess air. This is done in order to remove moisture and to convert
carbonate ores into oxides. It can also remove some of the volatile impurities
like sulphur and phosphorus from the ore.
Some of the chemical reactions that can take place during calcinations are
Heat
2Fe 2 O 3 .3H 2 O 2Fe 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O -
Heat
4FeCO 3 (s) + O 2 2Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 4CO 2 -

iii. Reduction of ore (smelting) in a blast furnace.

Smelting is carried out in a specially designed furnace known as a blast furnace.
It is cylindrical in shape with about 25-30 m in height and 8-10 m in diameter at
its widest part. It is made up of steel shell lined with fire-bricks. The upper two-
third of the furnace flares out downwards to provide proper flow of the charge;
the lower one-third narrows down as the materials melt and get collected.
a. The blast furnace has the following important features.
i) Double cup and cone
The double cup and cone arrangement is at the top of the furnace. When
the charge is placed over it, the cone gets lowered and the charge gets
in. Then the cone automatically gets lifted and the cup is closed. The
function of this arrangement is to permit the entry of charge, help in even
distribution of charges at the top and to prevent the exit of blast furnace
gases during charging.

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 Iron ore, coke and limestone

Hot waste gases

Cup and cone
arrangement

Steel lined with fire bricks

Hot air blast Hot air blast (tuyere)

(tuyere)
Tap hole for slag
Tap hole for iron

Figure 3.18 Blast furnace

ii) Tuyeres
These are water-jacketed iron pipes through which a hot compressed
blast of air is introduced into the furnace to heat the charge.
iii) Tap holes
Just below the tuyeres are the two tap holes, the upper one for the
discharge of molten slag and lower one for the discharge of molten
iron. These are kept closed except when the molten materials are being
discharged to prevent from coming in contact with air.
The charge of roasted ore, coke and lime stone is fed into the furnace
by the double cup and cone arrangement. The coke acts as fuel and
reducing agent for the ore. Haematite contains silica (SiO2) as the chief
acidic impurity, so in order to remove it; a basic flux like limestone
(CaCO3) is used. A hot air which supports combustion is passed through
tuyere. The temperature inside the furnace is very high which can melt

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the iron and the slag. The molten metallic iron and the molten slag drip
to the bottom of the furnace. The molten iron obtained from the blast
furnace is called pig iron or cast iron containing carbon. The slag, being
lighter floats on top of molten iron and are tapped separately through
the respective tap holes. The waste gases coming out of the furnace
contains CO, CO2 and N2.
b. Chemical reactions in the blast furnace.
The chemical reactions that occur in the blast furnace and temperature at various
zones are shown in the Figure 3.19.

200°C 3Fe 2 O 3 + CO $ 2Fe 3 O 4 + CO 2

500°C Fe 2 O 4 + CO $ 3FeO + CO 2

900°C FeO + CO $ Fe + CO 2
Fe + CO 2 $ FeO + CO
1200°C CaCO 3 $ CaO + CO 2
CaO + SiO 2 $ CaSiO 3 (Slag)
Oxygen
enriched air C + CO 2 $ 2CO
1700°C
Slag

Molten iron

Figure 3.19 Blast furnace reactions at various regions

i) In the lower region, the coke is oxidized to carbon dioxide with the liber-
ation of heat, which increases the temperature to 1400°C – 1750ᵒC.
1700c C
C (s) + O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) DH = -405.9 kJ
ii) In the middle region, the carbon dioxide passing upward through the
layer of white–hot coke, is reduced to carbon monoxide. The lime-
stone added as flux dissociate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

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 Both the reactions being endothermic, the temperature in this region
drops from 700ᵒC to 950ᵒC. Further, calcium oxide combines with silica
(gangue) to produce calcium silicate, the fusible slag.
Heat
CO 2 (g) + C (s) 2CO (g) DH = +163.2 kJ
700cC - 950c C
CaCO 3 (s) CaO (s) + CO 2 (g) DH = +181.1kJ
Heat
CaO (s) + SiO 2 (s) CaSiO 3 (l)
(Slag)

iii) In the upper region, the ore is reduced to iron by carbon monoxide at
temperature around 200°C to 550°C is given in the equation;
220c C
3Fe 2 O 3 + CO 2Fe 3 O 4 + CO 2
400cC
Fe 2 O 4 + CO 3FeO + CO 2
550c C
FeO + CO Fe + CO 2
c. Products from the blast furnace and their uses.
i) Pig iron or cast iron.
The molten iron obtained from the blast furnace contains 2.0% to 5.0%
dissolved carbon and small amount of Si, Mn, P and S. It is named as pig
iron because in an early method, the molten iron from the blast furnace
used to be poured into moulds which resembled baby pigs.
Pig iron containing 1.0% to 3.0% silicon as an impurity is called cast iron
because it can expand on solidification and take the shape of the mould.
Pig iron is used in:
• manufacture of gutter covers, railings, drain pipes, radiators etc.
• cast iron is used in casting articles.
• making wrought iron
• making steel
ii) Slag.
The slag composes mainly of calcium silicate (CaSiO3), calcium
aluminates (CaO.Al2O3) and calcium alumina silicates (CaO.Al2O3.SiO2).
Slag is made into granules by running it into water when it solidifies into
rock like materials. It is crushed and used
• in manufacturing of cement.
• along with tar in black topping of roads.
• as a ballast for rail tracks.
• for concrete aggregate and concrete sand.

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iii) Fuel gases.

The mixture of waste gases which comes out of the outlet near the top
of the furnace is called fuel gas or blast furnace gas. It consists of about
25% of CO, 10% of CO2 and 6% of N2. As it contains high percentage
of combustible CO, it can be used for preheating the blast of air to be
admitted through the tuyeres and also to convert poisonous CO into non-
poisonous CO2.

Types of Iron

Depending on the percentage of carbon along with other impurities, there

are three types of Iron.
a) Pig iron or cast iron
The molten iron obtained from the blast furnace contains 2% to 5% dissolved
carbon and small amount of Si, Mn, P, S etc. As it is the most impure form of
iron, it is hard and brittle and cannot be welded. Since cast iron can expand
on solidification, it can be used for casting articles of different shapes.
b) Steel
It contains about 0.1% to 1.5% of carbon along with other impurities like P,
S, Si etc. It comes in between pig iron and wrought iron and its properties
depend on the nature of other elements present in it. It has enormous
application in steel industry in production of furniture and construction
materials.
c) Wrought iron
It is the most pure form of iron with about 0.25% of carbon and traces of
P and Si in the form of slag. It is soft, magnetic, malleable, and ductile and
has high tensile strength. It can be heated, reheated and worked into various
shapes. It is used in railings, outdoor stairs, handrails, fences and gates.

3.6 Alloy
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of metals or a metal and a non-metal, which
cannot be separated by physical means. The most important metallic component
of an alloy (often representing 90 percent or more of the material) is called the
main metal, the parent metal, or the base metal. The other components of an
alloy (which are called alloying agents) can be either metals or non-metals and
they are present in much smaller quantities. Alloys are produced to obtain certain
desirable properties and to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion. An
alloy is usually made by melting the components together and solidifying the

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 mixture. Some common alloys of metal are described in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Uses of common metals and their alloys.

Alloy Composition Properties Use

Magnalium Al = 68-95%. Strong, corrosion For making cheap
Mg= 5-30% resistance, light balances and other
weight, tough, low light scientific
Cu= 1-2 %
density and easy to instruments and
weld. can be used on
high speed lathes.
Duralumin Al = 95% Strong, hard, For making
Cu = 4% corrosion automobile and air
resistance, light ships.
Mn = 0.5%
weight and ductile.
Mg = 0.5%
Aluminum bronze Al = 90% High strength, For making picture
Cu = 10% tarnish resistant frames, coins, trays
and corrosion etc.
resistance.
Stainless Steel Fe = 73% Hard and resists Cutlery, cooking
Cr = 17 -19 % corrosion. utensils, kitchen
sinks, industrial
Ni = 7 -9 %
equipment for
food and drink
processing and
automobile parts.
Manganese steel Fe = 83% Very hard and Used for making
Mn = 13% resistance to wear rock drills, rails
and tear. or railway track,
military helmets
and crushing
machines spring.
Tungsten Steel Fe= 83% Very hard even at Used for making
W = 14% high temperature. cutting tools for
high speed lathes.
Cr = 3%
Invar Fe = 64% Hard and has Used in making
Ni = 36% low coefficient of measuring
expansion. instruments and
clock pendulums.
Alnico Fe= 63%, Ni=20% Highly magnetic. Used in making
Al= 12%, Co =5% permanent
magnets.

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

Alloy Composition Properties Use

Brass Zn = 20-40% Malleable, ductile Utensils,
Cu = 60-80% and resists inexpensive
corrosion. jewelry, hose
nozzles and
condensers tubes.
Bronze Cu=80% Strong, hard and Statues, parts of
Zn= 2% can be polished. machines, coins
and medals, tools
Sn=18%
and electrical
hardware.
German silver Cu=50% Hard, silvery and Making utensils
Zn= 25% takes up polish. and ornaments.
Ni=25 %
Gun metal Cu=87% Hard, brittle and Guns, casting and
Zn=3% easily cast. gears.
Sn=10%

Self Evaluation
1. State whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F)
(a) The cast iron is generally extracted from siderite.
(b) Alnico is used in making coins, cheap balances and pendulum.
(c) Blast furnace gases have their application in cement industry.
(d) For any basic gangue, acidic flux has to be utilized.
(e) Duralumin, brass and magnalium form rust easily.
2. Fill in the Blanks with the suitable word(s)
(a) The iron pipes through which a hot compressed blast of air is introduced
into the furnace are called_____.
(b) 2.0 to 4% of carbon is found in ______.
(c) Smelting is done in ______.
(d) The concentration of the haematite is done by______.
(e) ______is used in drain pipes, gutter covers, railings etc.
3. Explain the function of each of the following component of the blast
furnace.
(a) Double cone and cup arrangement.
(b) Tuyeres
(c) Tap holes

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 (d) Steel body with fire bricks.
4. Give the composition of the following alloys:
(a) duralumin (d) tungsten steel
(b) gun metal (e) manganese steel
(c) alnico

Summary
1. There are 118 elements at present in the universe which are divided into
metals, non-metals, metalloids and noble gases.
2. Metallurgy is the process of extracting the pure metal from its ore.
3. Metals can be extracted from their ores by various methods depending on
the reactivity of the metal concerned.
4. The process of decomposition of a chemical compound in its molten state
or in aqueous solution by the passage of electricity through it is termed
as electrolysis.
5. Electrolytes conduct electricity in their aqueous solution or in molten state
where as non-electrolytes do not conducts electricity in their aqueous
solution or in molten state.
6. Electrodes are the graphite or metal plates or rods through which the
electric current enters or leaves the electrolyte
7. Electrolysis is used in chemical industries and electrometallurgy for
extraction of reactive metals from their ores, electro refining, electroplating
etc.
8. Aluminum being one of the reactive metals is extracted from its ore by
electrolysis.
9. Aluminum is useful as construction metals, house hold utensils and food
industry because it is light and resistant to corrosion.
10. The extraction of iron in the blast furnace is the most important example
of chemical reduction.
11. The different forms of iron produced can be used for various purposes.
12. Alloy is a homogeneous mixture which is made up of at least two different
chemical elements which cannot be separated by physical means, one of

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which is a metal.
13. Various alloys are used as construction materials, manufacturing of
automobiles, utensils, furniture etc.

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. The iron pipes through which a hot compressed blast of air is introduced
into the furnace are called_____.
2. 2 to 4% of carbon is found in ______.
3. Smelting is done in ______.
4. The concentration of the haematite is done by______.
5. ______is used in drain pipes, gutter covers, railings etc.
II. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. The substance added to get rid of the gangue a. CaO.Al2O3.SiO2
2. Removal of moisture from the Al2O3.2H2O is done by b. Haematite
3. Heating of ores in excess supply of air c. Flux
4. The formula for calcium alumina silicate d. Roasting
5. The chemical name of ore Fe3O4 is e. Magnetite
f. CaO.Al2O3
g. Calcination

III. State whether each of the statement is True or False.

1. The oxidation reaction takes place at cathode.
2. Pyrites ores are concentrated by froth floatation process.
3. The degree of dissociation indicates the strength of an electrolyte.
4. The ease of discharge of cation at cathode decreases down the
electrochemical series.
5. Ammonal is an explosive mixture of aluminum powder and NH4NO3.
IV. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. The extraction of aluminum by electrolytic reduction of alumina uses
A Hall-Heroult process. C thermite process.
B Bayers process. D Hoopes process.

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 2. In the froth floatation process for concentration of the ores, the ore
particles float because
A they are lighter than other materials.
B they are insoluble in water.
C they bear electrostatic charge.
D their surface is not easily wetted by water.
3. Which of the following species will be deposited at the cathode on
electrolysis of an aqueous solution of potassium bromide?
A K C Br2
B H2 D O2
4. Heating an ore in the absence of air below its melting point is called
A leaching. C smelting.
B roasting. D calcination.
5. Which one of the following ores is best concentrated by gravity separation
method?
A Magnetite. C Galena .
B Alumina. D Cassiterite.
6. The leaching process of concentrating ores is based upon the
A magnetic properties of gangue and ore.
B preferential wetting of ore particles by oil.
C difference in the specific gravity of ore and gangue particles.
D dissolution of desired metal from ore particles in suitable reagent.
V. Write answers for following questions.
1. Aluminum is extracted from its chief ore, bauxite. The ore is first purified,
in relation to this process, answer the following questions
(a) Name the process by which bauxite is purified.
(b) Write down the balanced equation for this process.
(c) Name the chemical used for dissolving aluminum oxide.
2. With the help of a diagram explain electrolytic refining of aluminum by
Hoopes process.
3. Solid sodium chloride does not conduct electric current. Give reason.
4. Explain briefly the extraction process of iron from its chief ore.
5. Draw and describe the blast furnace. Write the reactions taking place in
various zones inside it during the manufacture of cast iron.
6. Write short notes for the following:
(a) Smelting

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 Chapter 3 Metallurgy

(b) Aluminothermy.
7. Sonam is given two substances, one is a strong electrolyte and other
is a weak electrolyte. What simple experiment would she conduct to
distinguish between them?
8. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following reactions:
(a) Aluminium powder is warmed with hot and concentrated caustic
soda solution.
(b) When carbonate ores are heated in a limited supply of air.
9. Write the names, composition and uses of the following alloys.
(a) Stainless steel
(b) Brass
(c) Aluminum bronze
10. Answer the following questions with respect to electrolytic reduction of
alumina (Al2O3) by Hall-Heroult process.
(a) Name the following:
(i) The electrolyte used.
(ii) The material of which anode and cathode must be made of.
(iii) The material of which electrolytic cell is made up. Give reason
for the answer.
(b) What are the purposes of using cryolite and fluorspar during the
reduction process?
(c) Why are anodes replaced periodically?
(d) Write down the chemical reaction which takes place at the anode
and cathode during electrolytic reduction of alumina.
11. What are the factors that affect electrolysis? Explain briefly.

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 4
4.1
Halogens
Introduction
The elements of group VIIA or 17 constitute a family known as the halogen. The
term halogen has been derived from the Greek word halos meaning salt and
genes meaning former. The family comprises the elements Fluorine (F), Chlorine
(Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine (At). The elements of this family are
highly reactive and thus, they readily combine with most of the elements to form
various products. Most of the chemical and the physical properties, as exhibited
by halogens are results of their smaller atomic size due to increasing nuclear
charge across the period. The halogens and their compounds have wide variety
of uses due to their oxidizing and reducing property.

4.2 Basic information of halogens

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» identify the elements that constitute group VIIA or 17.
»» explain why halogens exhibit similar chemical and physical properties.
»» compare the properties of halogens with other groups.
»» identify the native source of halogen.
»» explain how halogens achieve their stable state.

4.2.1 Occurrence and source

The halogen atoms are highly reactive to occur in their elemental state in nature.
Thus, all halogens exist as diatomic molecules. Astatine is highly radioactive
halogen and is the rarest element found in nature.
The halogen atoms in combined state are found in the form of various minerals

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

and salts. For example, fluorspar (CaF2), cryolite (Na3AlF6) and fluorapatite
(Ca5(PO4)3F) are minerals that contain fluorine. Chlorine is considered as the
twentieth most abundant elements and is found in nature as salts and salt water.
Bromine is found in some salt brine and in the sea. Table 4.1 summarizes the
basic information of group 17 elements.
Table 4.1

Basic Halogens
information
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine
Symbol F Cl Br I At
Atomic 9 17 35 53 85
number
Mass number 18.9 amu 35.4 amu 79.9 amu 126.9 amu 210.0 amu
Isotopes F-18, Cl-35, Has variety 37 known More than 30
(atoms with F-19. Cl-36, of isotopes. isotopes short-lived
same atomic The two which isotopes of have
Cl-37,
number but most stable undergo been identified.
with different Cl-38. isotopes are radioactive At-210 has the
mass number) Br-79, Br-81. decay except longest half-life of
I-127. 8 hrs 10 min.
Joseph Carl Antoine J. Bernard D.R. Corson in
Discovery Henri Wilhelm Balard in Courtois in 1940.
Moissan Scheele 1826. 1812.
in 1886. in 1774.
Mineral Salt. Sea Water. Sodium and Synthetically
Source Fluorite. potassium obtained by
compounds. bombarding
bismuth (Bi) with
α-particles.

Do you know?
Chlorine and iodine are named by their colour: chloros means ‘yellowish green’ and
ioeides is ‘violet’ in Greek. Bromine is named by its smell bromos is Greek word for
‘stink’.

4.2.2 Electron configuration

The atoms of an element are composed of three fundamental particles called
electron, proton and neutron. The proton and neutron together constitute a
nucleus and is located at the central core of an atom. The electrons revolve

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 round the nucleus and exist in discrete energy levels known as first, second,
third energy level and so on. Each energy level can accommodate only certain
number of electrons as shown in the Figure 4.1. The placing of electrons in
various energy levels is guided by the expression 2n2. In the expression, ‘n’
refers to shell number and it has value 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
1st energy level (shell) → (n =1), thus the number of electron in it is 2(1)2 = 2
2nd energy level (shell) → (n = 2), thus the number of electron in it is 2(2)2 = 8
3rd energy level (shell) → (n= 3), thus the number of electron in it is 2(3)2 = 18
4th energy level (shell) → (n= 4), thus the number of electron in it is 2(4)2 = 32
5th shell 5th shell
32e th
4 shell
18e
3rd shell
32e

Energy level increases

8e 4th shell
2nd shell
2e
1st shell
+ 3rd shell 18e

K
L
2nd shell 8e
M
N
1st shell 2e

Figure 4.1 Electron holding capacity of shells

The distribution of electrons in various energy levels or shells of an atom is called

the electron configuration. The Figure 4.2 shows the distribution of electrons in
various energy levels in atoms of halogen.

9p 18 p
10 n 17 n

(a) Electronic configuration of fluorine 2,7. (b) Electronic configuration of chlorine 2,8,7.
Figure 4.2 Orbital structures.

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

The neutral halogen atoms have seven electrons in their valence shell, a
configuration in which one electron short of noble gas configuration. Thus, the
halogen atoms require one more electron to achieve their noble gas configuration
or octet state, which can be achieved by any of the following processes:
i. Mutual sharing of electron between two similar halogen atoms
In this process, the two similar halogen atoms mutually share one electron
each to achieve their octet state. This also shows that all halogen atoms exist
as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2) bonded by a single covalent bond.
Generally, the diatomic molecules are non-polar in nature since there is no
difference in the electronegativity value between the combining atoms. In such a
bonding the shared pair of electrons is located centrally between two combining
atoms as shown in the Figure 4.3.
Shared pair of electrons
Covalent bond

Cl + Cl Cl Cl Cl -- Cl

Figure 4.3 Formation of non polar covalent molecule.

ii. Mutual sharing of electron between one halogen and one non-metal
When one electron each from halogen and non-metal (other than the halogens)
is mutually shared, the type of compound formed is called polar covalent
compound. It is so called since there is a development of partial polarity
(charges) in combining atoms due to difference in the electronegativity value.
In such bonding, the shared pair of electrons is attracted towards the more
electronegative atom. Figure 4.4 illustrates the formation of polar covalent
compound with respect to the formation of HCl.
Cl being more electronegative
attracts the shared pair of electron
towards itself.

H Cl H Cl OR H Cl
Figure 4.4 Formation of polar covalent compound.

iii. Losing and gaining or transference of electron

In this case the electronegative halogen atoms combine with the electropositive
metal atom to form ionic compounds. During this process the metallic atoms

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 donates an electron(s) while the halogen atoms accepts it to achieve their octet
state. The combining atoms of ionic compound are held by a strong chemical
bond known as electrovalent or ionic bond. The ionic compounds like sodium
chloride (NaCl), sodium bromide (NaBr) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2) are
formed by this process.

Na Cl Na Cl

Figure 4.5 Formation of ionic compound.

Activity 4.1 Placing electrons in their places

Answer the following questions with respect to the atom with its atomic number
17.
1. Draw its atomic structure and place the electrons in their respective energy
levels.
2. Write the electronic configuration of it.
3. What is the valence electron in it?
4. In which period and group is the given element located? Write answer
without referring periodic table?
5. How can the given element achieve its noble gas configuration?
6. Write electronic configuration of atom in its ionic state.
7. Why are halogens highly reactive? Explain the reasons based on the
electronic configuration.

4.2.3 Safety and storage of elemental halogens

The halogens are corrosive, poisonous and highly toxic although some of their
compounds are used as table salt (NaCl) and toothpaste. They are highly reactive
to combine readily and explosively with the metals. Thus, the halogen atoms
are preferred to be stored in glass containers. However, fluorine reacts with
a glass container and form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) in the presence of small
amount of water. Thus, the glass containers must be completely dry to avoid any
further reactions. The halogens are powerful oxidizing agent. The container of
chlorine may explode if it is exposed to heat due to oxidation. Similarly, bromine
should not come in contact with ammonia, acetylene and other elements to

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avoid explosion during storage. In a laboratory, the halogens must be handled

safely in a well ventilated fume hood to avoid leakage of poisonous vapors as
its inhalation will cause severe damage to the respiratory system. As a safety
measures in times of unavoidable accidents, the reducing agents like sodium
sulphite must be available in a laboratory for destruction of excess halogen.

Self Evaluation
1. Explain why halogens are rarely found in native state?
2. Compare the conditions required for formation of covalent and ionic
compound.
3. If an atom ‘X’ and ‘Y’ with seven electrons each in its valence shell undergoes
chemical bonding, what will be the type of bond formed? Give an example
to illustrate your answer.
4. Why do neutral atoms lose or gain electron?
5. Name the family in a periodic table that does not participate in chemical
bonding under ordinary conditions. Give reason to support your answer.
6. When are compound said to be polar?

4.3 General properties

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» apply the concept of nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge to ex-
plain the trends in periodic properties of elements.
»» explain the trends in general properties of halogens down the group.
»» compare the trends in properties of halogen with other groups.
»» investigate the displacement reactions of halogen.
»» explain the oxidizing and reducing property of halogen.

4.3.1 Nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge

The nuclear charge of an atom is equal to the number of proton in the nucleus.
For example, the nuclear charge of chlorine atom is +17 as it has 17 protons in
the nucleus. Thus, the nuclear charge of an atom is the total charge of all the
protons in the nucleus.
Electrons are held in an atom or ion by the electrostatic attraction between
the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons. In multi-

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 electron species, the electrons do not experience the full positive charge of the
nucleus due to shielding by electrons which lie between the electron of interest
and the nucleus. The amount of positive charge that actually acts on an electron
of valence shell is called the effective nuclear charge. Thus, the effective nuclear
charge is that portion of the total nuclear charge that a given electron in an
atom experiences. Usually, the value of effective nuclear charge is lesser than
the value of nuclear charge. For example, fluorine has nine electrons and nine
protons. Its nuclear charge is +9. However, its effective nuclear charge is +7,
because of the shielding due to two electrons. Effective nuclear charge of an
atom can be approximated by:
Effective nuclear charge = Atomic number - Shielding electrons
Z eff = Z - S
Electrons outside have The electrons between the
no effect on effective electron of interest and the
nuclear charge for nucleus cancels some of
electron of interest. the positive nuclear charge
due to elctrons-electron
+
Electron of interest repulsion force between
them. Those electrons are
called shielding electrons or
non-valence electron.
Nucleus
Figure 4.6 Effective nuclear charge diagram.

Shielding effect
• The shielding effect describes the attraction between an electron and the
nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell. Shielding effect
can be defined as a reduction in the nuclear charge on the electron cloud,
due to a difference in the attraction forces of the electrons on the nucleus.
• The shielding effect explains why valence-shell electrons are more easily
removed from the atom. The effect also explains atomic size. The more
shielding, the further the valence shell can spread out and the bigger atoms
will be.
Table 4.2 Calculated effective nuclear charge.

Elements Nuclear Non-valence or shielding Effective nuclear

charge electrons (the electron other charge
than valence electrons). (Zeff = Z – S)
Carbon (C) +6 2 6 – 2 = +4
Chlorine (Cl) +17 10 17 – 10 = +7
Calcium (Ca) +20 18 20 –18 = +2

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

Elements Nuclear Non-valence or shielding Effective nuclear

charge electrons (the electron other charge
than valence electrons). (Zeff = Z – S)
Sodium ion +11 2 11‒2 = +9
(Na+)

Example problems on calculating the effective nuclear charge.

1. Calculate the effective nuclear charge experienced by the electrons of
neon atom in
a. first or K shell
b. valence shell

Solution
a. For first shell

Z eff = Z - S No. of shielding electron is 0, because there

is no electron between the electron of interest
Zeff = 10 - 0 = +10
(electron in 1st shell) and the nucleus.
b. For valence shell

Z eff = Z - S No. of shielding electron is 2, because there

are two electrons between the electron of
Zeff = 10 - 2 = +8
interest (electron in 1st shell) and the nucleus.
2. What charge is experienced by the electrons of sodium atom in
a. first shell
b. second shell and
c. valence shell

Solutions
a. For first shell

Z eff = Z - S No. of shielding electron is 0, because

there is no electron between the electron of
Zeff = 10 - 0 = +10
interest (electron in 1st shell) and the nucleus.
b. For second shell

Z eff = Z - S No. of shielding electron is 2, because there

are two electrons between the electron of
Zeff = 11 - 2 = +9
interest (electron in 2nd shell) and the nucleus.

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 c. For valence shell

Z eff = Z - S No. of shielding electron for the third shell is

10, because there are 10 electrons (2e in 1st
Zeff = 11 - 10 = +1
shell and 8e in valence shell) between the
electron of interest (electron in valence shell)
and the nucleus.

Activity 4.2 The trends in nuclear and effective nuclear charge of

halogens.
Fill in the empty boxes in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3

Halogens No. of Nuclear Shielding Effective nuclear charge on

proton charge electron valence electron
Fluorine 9 +7
Chlorine 17 10
Bromine 35 +35
Iodine 53 46
Questions
1. Describe the trend in nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge of halogen
down the group.
2. Predict the trend in nuclear and effective nuclear charge across the period.
Illustrate your answer with the elements of 2nd period from Li to Ne.
3. Differentiate between nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge.
4. Define the term shielding effect.

4.3.2 Periodic properties of halogens

i. Atomic size
The distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost shell is considered as
the atomic radius.

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Outermost shell
Nucleus

N
P

Atomic radius

Figure 4.7 Atomic radius of element

Halogen family being located in extreme right corner of the periodic table has
the smallest atomic radius in its respective periods. The decrease in atomic
size across the period is due to increasing nuclear charge across the period.
Down the group, atomic radius increases due to increase in atomic number and
hence the number of shell. In such cases, there will be more shielding among
the electrons, thereby spreading the valence electrons shell further from the
nucleus, which results in larger atomic radius.
Comparing size of atom and ion (anion)
The atoms of an element may lose or gain one or more electrons in order to
achieve their octet state. The neutral atoms on losing or gaining electron(s) will
develop a charge on it. Thus, the atoms with a net charge on it are referred as
ions. The ions are of two types:
a) Cations: If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, it acquires a net
positive charge on it and is known as a cation. The metal atoms have
tendency to lose electrons to form cation.
Na " Na + + e -
Mg " Mg 2+ + 2e -
Al " Al 3+ + 3e -
The ionic radius (i.e., the radius of cations) is smaller than their parent
atom. This is because when an atom loses one or more electrons from
it, the effective charge on the nucleus increases. Thus, this increased
effective nuclear charge pulls the remaining electrons causing smaller
cationic size.

b) Anions: If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons, it acquires a net

negative charge on it and is known as an anion. Generally, non-metals
accept electrons to form anion. In case of the halogens, they accept one
electron to acquire a net negative charge of ‒1.

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 F + e- " F-
Cl + e - " Cl -
The ionic radius (i.e., the radius of anions) is larger than their parent atom.
Likewise, the ionic radius of halide is larger than their parent halogen atom.
For example, the size of chloride ion (Cl‒) is larger than the chlorine atom
(Cl). This is because the halide ions (i.e., anions) are formed on adding
one electron to their parent atoms. With the addition of electron(s), the
effective nuclear charge decreases resulting in great electronic repulsion
which causes an expansion in electron cloud.

Cl + e- Cl-

Figure 4.8 Size of chlorine atom and chloride ion.

ii. Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself during covalent bonding. Table 4.4 describes
the general trend in the electronegativity value down the group and across the
period.
Table 4.4
IA IIA IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Increasing electronegativity

H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca Br
0.8 1.0 2.8
I
2.5

Increasing electronegativity

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The decrease in value of electronegativity down the group is attributed to the

increase in size of atom on moving down the group. As the atomic size increases,
the valence electrons are set farther apart which results to decrease in the
effective nuclear charge. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity value among
the elements of periodic table.
When atoms combine to form a molecule, the bonding between them may
be ionic or covalent (polar or non-polar) depending on the difference in the
electronegativity.
Table 4.5 Determining the nature of bond

Electronegativity difference Nature of bond Example

(∆EN) between combining
atoms
Less than 0.5 Non polar covalent. Cl2, CS2
0.5 – 1.6 Polar covalent. NH3, H2O
Ionic bond if bonding NaBr
1.6 ‒ 2.0 involves metals.
Polar covalent if bonding HF
involves only non metal.
Greater than 2.0 Ionic bond. NaCl
iii. Ionization energy or ionization enthalpy
Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required by a
neutral atom to remove electron(s) from the valence shell to form cation. It is
expressed in unit of electron volts (eV). This process is accompanied by the
absorption of heat and hence, it is an endothermic process.
X (g) + Energy " X + (g) + e -
The ionization energy increases on moving across the period due to increase in
nuclear charge. The increasing nuclear charge across the period increases the
attraction between nucleus and valence electrons. Thus, halogen atoms have
the highest ionization energy in their respective period and have great difficulty
in removing the electron from a valence shell.
On moving down the group, ionization energy decreases. This is because the
electron to be removed from the valence shell is increasingly distant from the
nucleus, as a result of the atoms getting bigger. The attraction of the nucleus
for the electron becomes less, and it becomes easier to pull it away. Electrons
in the inner energy levels also produce a shielding effect. These inner electrons
reduce the attraction of the nucleus for the outer electrons. The shielding effect
will increase as the number of inner energy levels increases. Within the halogen
group, fluorine has the highest ionization energy.

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 iv. Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron readily. Thus, the
term electron affinity may be defined as the amount of energy released when a
neutral gaseous atom accepts an electron to form anion. Since, the energy is
released on changing from atom to anion, the process is exothermic.
X (g) + e - " X - (g) + Energy
The electron affinity increases on moving across the period due to decrease
in atomic size or increase in nuclear charge. Thus, the halogens have relatively
higher electron affinity values in their respective period. Halogens can readily
accept one electron from alkali metals during chemical bonding to form halide
salts.
On moving down the group, electron affinity value decreases because size of the
atom increases. However, fluorine has a lesser value of electron affinity than the
chlorine. A lesser value of electron affinity for fluorine is due to the small size of
fluorine atom. In a compact L-shell of fluorine, the added electron brings about
electron-electron repulsions, which gives rise to low values of electron affinity.

4.3.3 Physical properties

i. Physical state
At room temperature (25°C), fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a
volatile liquid and iodine is a volatile solid. The existence of halogen atoms in
all three states at room temperature is the result of increasing strength of the
van der Waal’s forces of attraction between the molecules due to increase in
atomic size.
ii. Colour and solubility
Generally, the solute can best dissolve in a solvent when both solute and solvent
molecules exhibit similar polarities. The phrase “like dissolves like” is one such
rule of thumb to determine the solubility of substances. The molecules of halogen
are non-polar in nature while the water molecule is polar in nature. When two
molecules of different polarities are mixed, they do not mix and hence, the
halogens have low solubility in water.
Chlorine, bromine and iodine are soluble in water to some extent. However, it
is difficult to determine the solubility of fluorine as it reacts with water violently.
Iodine is sparingly soluble in water. However, iodine forms aqueous solution in
presence of iodide ions. The iodine reacts with iodide ions to form triiodide ions
which are responsible for its brown colour.
I 2 (aq) + I - (aq) " I -3 (aq)
Table 4.6 Colours and solubility of halogens.

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

Colour and solubility

Halogen In pure form In non-polar In water
solvents
Fluorine Pale yellow (Reacts with (Reacts with water)
gas solvents)
Chlorine Pale green Pale green solution Pale green solution.
gas
Bromine Dark red Orange solution Yellow or Orange-red depending
liquid on concentration solution.

Iodine Grey solid Purple solution (Slightly soluble)

but forms a brown solution if
excess KI is present

iii. Density
The density of a substance is the measure of mass to its volume. On moving
down the group, the mass as well as the volume of atom increases. However,
the increase in mass is more than the increase in volume. Hence, the density
increases as you go down the groups in the periodic table.
On moving across the period, the mass increases but the volume decreases
due to increase in the nuclear charge. Hence, the density increases on moving
across the period.

iv. Melting point and boiling point

When bonds between the combining atoms are strong, the more energy is
required to break that bond. As such there is no distinguishable trend in the
periodic table. However, the general conclusion is that the melting point and
the boiling point of metallic atoms are higher than those of non-metallic atoms.

Do you know?
Group 1 and group 17 are on opposite side of periodic table and show opposite
trends in their reactivity and melting points.

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 Activity 4.3 Trends in boiling point and melting point of halogen family.
The graph in Figure 4.9 shows a melting point and boiling point of halogen family
at room temperature. Based on the information answer the questions as follow:
400

300

200
Temperature (oC)

100 Melting Point

0 Boiling Point
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine
-100

-200

-300

Figure 4.9

Questions
1. Describe the trend in melting point and boiling point of the halogens down
the group.
2. Explain the reasons for the trend observed in question 1.

v. Oxidation state
An oxidation state, also called oxidation number is the number assigned to
the atoms in a chemical combination. This number represents the number of
electrons that an atom can gain, lose, or share when chemically bonding with
an atom of another element.
All halogens uniformly exhibit an oxidation state ‒1. Except for fluorine, other
halogens also exhibit positive oxidation states of +1, +3, +5 and +7. Fluorine
is the most electronegative of all the halogens, and hence, it has ‒1 oxidation
state only.

4.3.4 Chemical properties

i. Combustibility
Halogens are neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

ii. As oxidizing agents

Halogens in its molecular state are powerful oxidizing agents. The oxidizing
power of it is because of their high affinity for electron. They accept electron
and get reduced to form halide ion. The oxidizing power decreases down the
group from fluorine to astatine.
F2 (g) + 2e - " 2F - (aq) Fluorine

Increasing oxidizing ability

Cl 2 (g) + 2e - " 2Cl - (aq) Chlorine

Br2 (g) + 2e - " 2Br - (aq) Bromine

I 2 (g) + 2e - " 2I - (aq) Iodine

Figure 4.10 Trend in oxidizing power of halogen

iii. As reducing agents
The halogens in their ionic form are powerful reducing agent. The reducing
power of halides is its ability to lose electron and get oxidized to form halogen
molecules. Halides are the binary compounds, of which one part is a halogen
atom and the other part is an element or radical that are less electronegative
than the halogen.
2Na + Cl 2 " 2NaCl
In the reaction, the product NaCl is binary compound which undergoes
dissociation as;
NaCl " Na + + Cl -
Here, Cl‾ is halide (chloride ion) and it acts as a reducing agent by losing electron.
During the process, Cl– ion is converted to neutral chlorine atom. Thus, chloride
ion is said to be oxidised.
2Cl - (aq) " Cl 2 (g) + 2e -
Similarly, all halides acts as a reducing agent.
2Br - (aq) " Br2 (aq) + 2e -
2I - (aq) " I 2 (aq) + 2e -
As the number of shells in an ion increases, the electrons in the valence shell
are less strongly held due to increased shielding effects. Thus, those valence
electrons are lost more easily and the halide ions are readily oxidized. Among
halides, the iodide ions are the most powerful reducing agent followed by
bromide ions. Fluoride ions have no significant reducing properties. Thus, the

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 reducing power of the halides increases down the group.
In the reaction equation between chlorine and bromide, chlorine undergoes
the reduction by gaining electron while bromide ion undergoes oxidation by
losing electron. In other word, chlorine is said to be reduced while bromide
ion is oxidized. The kind of reaction in which oxidation and reduction occurs
simultaneously is called redox reaction.
Cl 2 + 2Br - " 2Cl - + Br2

Oxidation

Reduction
iv. As bleaching agent
The term bleaching is defined as the process of removing the colours from
coloured organic matter by using chemical agents or upon exposure to sunlight.
The chemicals used in the process are called bleaching agent. The bleaching
action of chlorine is due to oxidation and hence, the change is permanent.
Mechanism of bleaching actions:
1. Moisture of coloured organic matter combines with chlorine to form
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Hypochlorous acid (HClO).
H 2 O + Cl 2 " HCl + HClO
2. HClO being unstable decomposes to produce nascent oxygen [O].
HClO " HCl + [O]
3. The nascent oxygen oxidizes the colouring matter to a colourless
compound.
Colouring matter + [O] " Colourless compound

Raw jute product Bleached jute product

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

Raw wood pulp Bleached wood pulp

Figure 4.11 Bleached products

v. Displacement reaction.
The displacement reaction of halogens with halide ions provide a clear illustration
of the trends in oxidizing power of the halogens and the reducing power of the
halides in aqueous solution. The more reactive halogens displace the ions of
the less reactive halogens from its compound or in other word the halogen at
top will displace any halide ion below it. For example, when chlorine is bubbled
through a solution of potassium bromide, the solution changes from colourless
to orange due to production of bromine:
2KBr(aq) + Cl 2 (aq) " 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq) (Molecular equation)
Cl 2 (aq) + 2Br - (aq) " 2Cl - (aq) + Br2 (aq) (Ionic equation)

Reaction mechanism: Since chlorine atom has strong affinity for electron than
bromine atom, it takes electron from a bromide ion (i.e., potassium bromide) to
form a chloride ion. On the other hand, bromide ion loses an electron to form
bromine atom. Similarly, chlorine and bromine displaces iodide ions from its
solution and the colour changes from colourless to dark orange or brown owing
to the formation of iodine.
Cl 2 (aq) + 2I - (aq) " Cl - (aq) + I 2 (aq)
Br2 (aq) + 2I - (aq) " 2Br - (aq) + I 2 (aq)

Smaller the size of halogen atom, the stronger is its oxidizing power. Thus,
the reactivity of elements in halogen family decreases down the group due to
increase in atomic size.

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 Activity 4.4 Investigating the displacement reaction.
Materials required
1. Solutions of chlorine, bromine and iodine.
2. Solution of potassium chloride, potassium bromide and potassium iodide.
3. Test tubes, test tube rack, test tube brush and dropper or Pasteur pipettes.
Procedure
1. Place about 2 cm3 each of KCl, KBr and KI solution in three separate test
tubes.
2. To each of these solution add chlorine water drop by drop and record colour
changes observed if any or otherwise record it as “No reaction” if there is
no colour changes after adding up to nine drops. (Shake each test tube
gently to mix the content after every drop).
3. Repeat procedure 1 and 2, but this time replace chlorine water with bromine
water in procedure 2.
4. Once again repeat procedure 1 and 2, but this time replaces chlorine water
with iodine water in procedure 2.
Safety precautions

Halogens are highly toxic and corrosive to skin. Do not inhale any
vapors of halogen. Wear safety goggles and PVC glove to handle
halogens. Keep lab with good ventilation.
Results
Retain all the content of test tubes in a rack and record your observation in
Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Observation table

Halides solution
Halogen solution KCl KBr
KI solution Conclusion
solution solution
Chlorine water
Bromine water
Iodine water

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

Questions
1. Write down the names of halogen in order of their increasing reactivity.
2. How many boxes in the Table 4.9 are filled with ‘No reaction’? Explain why
is the reaction not possible in each combination?
3. What results might you get if fluorine water and potassium fluoride were
in the experiment too?
4. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place between
(a) chlorine and potassium bromide
(b) bromine and potassium iodide.

vi. Reactions with alkali metals.

The halogen atoms and the alkali metals are both unstable. Thus, the halogen
atoms react readily with the elements of alkali metals. During the course of
reaction, one electron lost by the alkali metals is gained by the halogen atoms
to form metal halides.
M(s) + X (g) " M + X - (s)
2Na (s) + Cl 2 (g) " 2NaCl (s)
2K + Br2 (g) " 2KBr (s)
vii. Reaction with water
In the reactivity series of halogen, fluorine and chlorine have larger reduction
potentials, and can oxidize water.
a) Fluorine reacts with water vapor to form oxygen and ozone along
with hydrofluoric acid.
2F2 (g) + 2H 2 O (g) " 4HF (g) + O 2 (g)
3F2 (g) + 3H 2 O (g) " 6HF (g) + O 3 (g)

b) Chlorine dissolves in water to small extent. Thus, chlorine re-

acts with water to from a solution which contains two acids (i.e.,
hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid). This solution is called
chlorine water.
Cl 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) " HClO (aq) + HCl (aq)

Oxidation

Reduction

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 If chlorine water is tested with blue litmus paper, it will first turn red due to
acidity of hydrochloric acid, but then is rapidly decolorized by the action of
the hypochlorous acid, which acts as a bleaching agent. This solution has
disinfectant properties and is used in swimming pools, water supplies, household
cleaners, etc., in a variety of concentration. Iodine and bromine do not react with
water because they have smaller reduction potentials than oxygen.
viii. Reaction with hydrogen
All halogens react directly with hydrogen to form hydrogen halide. For example,
a mixture of moist hydrogen and chlorine directly combine in the presence of
diffused sunlight to form hydrogen chloride. The reaction is explosive in direct
sunlight. In the dark, no reaction occurs, so activation of the reaction by light
energy is required.
diffused sunlight
H 2 + Cl 2 2HCl

Self Evaluation
1. Explain with reasons for the following statements.
(a) The size of chloride ion is larger than the chlorine atom.
(b) Electronegativity decrease as we move down the halogen group.
(c) Iodine is denser than the fluorine.
(d) Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent in paper industry.
(e) Mixture of hydrogen and chlorine should not be exposed to direct
sunlight.
2. Differentiate between
(a) oxidation and reduction
(b) oxidizing agent and reducing agent
3. Is the reaction given below feasible? Justify.
Br2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) " Cl 2 (aq) + 2NaBr (aq)
4. Identify the following reaction as oxidation and reduction.
(a) F2 (g) + 2e - " 2F - (aq)
(b) 2Cl - (aq) " Cl 2 (g) + 2e -
(c) Cl 2 (g) + 2e - " 2Cl - (aq)
(d) 2Br - (aq) " Br2 (aq) + 2e -

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

4.4 Uses of halogens

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» state the uses of halogens.
»» prepare tincture of iodine.
»» explain the ill effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

4.4.1 Fluorine
The fluorine atom being highly
reactive can reacts with almost all Do you know?
the elements including some of the Davy first identified fluorine as an element,
noble gases under extraordinary but was poisoned while trying unsuccessfully
conditions. Even the water will burst to decompose hydrogen fluoride. Two other
into flame if fluorine is bubbled chemists were also later poisoned in similar
through it. Although elemental attempts, and one of them died as a result.
fluorine is highly toxic, its fluoride
form has wide range of uses as
discussed in following points:
a) It helps to prevent the tooth decay and hence, is added in toothpaste in
the form of fluoride salt (eg., sodium fluoride).
b) It is used to manufacture the tough non-stick plastic called Teflon, to
coat cooking pans.
c) Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) is used as refrigerants and propellants.
However, excessive use of CFCs has negative impact to the environment
by depleting the ozone layer in the atmosphere.
d) It is used as an etching agent in a glass industry.

Tooth decay and fluorine

Our teeth have a hard outer layer called enamel which is mainly calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, and hydroxyapatite, [Ca3(PO4)2]3.Ca(OH)2. Formation of
lactic acid (C3H6O3), is the main cause of tooth decay. It is formed when
bacteria in saliva feed on sugars present in the sticky plaque on tooth
surfaces. An increase in H+ concentration causes the minerals in tooth
enamel to decay faster.

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 Most often fluoride ions are added to the water supply in many cities.
Likewise, most of the toothpaste contains fluoride ions which replaces
hydroxide ions in hydroxyapatite to form fluoroapatite, [Ca3(PO4)2]3.CaF2.
This replacement makes the enamel more resistant to decay. Fluoride ions
alone won’t prevent tooth decay. Brushing and flossing teeth after every
meal keeps away plaque from building up on tooth enamel.

4.4.2 Chlorine
Chlorine is a highly poisonous gas with a sharp smell. However, it can combine
with other elements to form compounds safer for human consumption. The
most notable compound of chlorine used daily is table salt (NaCl). Some of the
other uses are shown in Figure 4.12.

Drinking water HCl, Chlorides,

and swimming Chlorates, etc.
pool. St
er

ic
ds
iliz
an
un
at rg
io
n po
Ino

m
co

ctant
Cotton line, Wood Disinfe Chlorine Organic Chloroform,
pulp, etc. compounds CCl4
g
hin

War
ac

fa
Bl e

re

Bleaching Phosgene, Tear

powder gas, etc.

Figure 4.12 Uses of chlorine

Sterilizing swimming pool and Chlorine

Sterilization of swimming pool has two main purposes; prevent the growth of
disease causing bacteria and foul causing algae. Thus, chlorine compounds
are used to sterilize pool water. Liquid chlorine contains sodium hypochlorite,
NaClO. Dry chlorine is calcium hypochlorite, Ca(ClO)2. When hypochlorite
ions dissolve in water, hydrolysis occurs and weak hypochlorous acid, HClO,
is produced.
ClO - (aq) + H 2 O (l) " HOCl (aq) + OH - (aq)

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

The amount of undissociated hypochlorous acid in the pool water depends

on the pH. If the pH is too high, the hydrolysis reaction will shift toward the
reactants and reduce the concentration of HClO. If the pH is too low, too
much acid will form. A high concentration of acid can cause eye irritation,
damage plaster, and corrode the metal piping and filters in the pool.
If the pH of the pool water is too high, solid sodium hydrogen sulphate can
be used to react with the OH‾ ions.
NaHSO 4 (s) + OH - (aq) " Na + (aq) + SO 42- (aq) + H 2 O (l)
If the pH is too low, sodium carbonate can be used to neutralize some of
the acid.
Na 2 CO 3 (s) + 2H + (aq) " 2Na (aq) + H 2 O (l) + CO 2 (aq)

4.4.3 Bromine
Bromine readily transform into gas since it has a boiling point of 58.8°C which
is much lower than the water. Like any other halogens, its vapors are highly
irritating to the eyes and throat. Some of the most significant uses are as follow.
a) It is used to purify the swimming pools.
b) It is used to manufacture organic pesticides and fungicides.
c) It is used as flame retardants for plastic products.
d) Both bromine and iodine are used in car head light.

4.4.4 Iodine
The iodine in iodide form is best known for the prevention of goiter. The thyroid
gland produces a growth-regulating hormone that contains iodine, and lack of
it may result to a goiter. The iodine required by our body is supplied by the table
salts (NaCl). Thus, sodium iodide or potassium iodide is added to table salts to
meet the requirement. Some of the other uses are as follow.
a) It is used in preparation of tincture of iodine.
b) It is also used as a food supplement in animal feed.
c) It is used to make dyes and for development of photography in photographic
film.

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 Activity 4.5 To prepare tincture of iodine
Theory
The tincture of iodine usually contains 2 to 7% of elemental iodine along with
potassium iodide or sodium iodide dissolved in a mixture of ethanol and water.
It is a weak solution of iodine and is often used as an antiseptic during pre-
operative skin preparation.
Materials required
1. Spatula 5. 10 g of iodine crystals
2. Glass rod 6. 12 g of sodium iodide
3. Measuring cylinder (500 mL) 7. 250 ml of ethanol
4. Beaker 8. Distilled water

Figure 4.13 Tincture of iodine and its application

Procedure
1. Dissolve 10 g of iodine and 12 g of sodium iodide in 250 mL of ethanol.
2. Add enough distilled water to make solution up to 500 mL.
Identification
1. Tincture of iodine is dark red-brown liquid and has characteristic odour.

4.4.5 Astatine
Astatine is the rarest of all the elements. This is because astatine isotopes
are radioactive with short half-lives. It is used to treat a condition known as
hyperthyroidism, a disease related to a highly active thyroid gland.

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

Self Evaluation
1. Write chemical equations to show sterilization of water.
2. What causes the tooth decay?
3. Why are fluoride salts used in the tooth paste?
4. What is tincture of iodine? Why is it used during pre-operative skin
preparation?
5. State one physical property to identify tincture of iodine.

Summary
1. The elements of group VIIA or 17 (i.e., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine
and astatine) constitute the family called halogen.
2. Halogens have seven electrons in the valence shell (i.e., one electron short
of noble gas configuration).
3. Halogen atoms combine with the metallic atoms to form ionic compounds
and with the non-metallic atoms to form covalent compounds.
4. The size of halide ion is larger than their parent halogen atom.
5. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity value in a periodic table.
6. Halogen atoms have the highest ionization energy in their respective period.
7. Ionization energy decreases down the group due to increase in atomic size.
8. The melting and boiling points of halogen atoms increases steadily down
the group.
9. The reactivity of halogens decreases down the group. A more reactive
halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from its salts.
10. Oxidation is a process involving the loss of electrons while reduction is a
process involving the gain of electrons.
11. Halogens in its molecular state acts as an oxidizing agent while its ionic
state acts as a reducing agent.
12. Oxidizing property of chlorine is widely used as a bleaching agent to remove
the colours from the coloured organic matters.
13. Tincture of iodine is used as an antiseptic during pre-operative skin
preparation.
14. Chlorine is used as disinfectants to sanitize the drinking water and the
swimming pools.

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 Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. The atomicity of halogen is ______.
2. The halogen used in non sticky cooking pan is _______.
3. The more reactive halogens will _____ the less reactive halides from its
compounds in solution.
4. The halogens form ______ compound with non-metals.
5. Those substances which are capable of undergoing oxidation are the
_____ agents.
II. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The family name given to the element belonging to 3rd period of 17th group
is alkaline earth metal.
2. Chemical combination of sodium and bromine results into ionic bonding.
3. Fluorine in fluoride form is used to prevent the tooth decay.
4. Halogen atoms are the most reactive non-metals in their respective period.
5. Halogens require two electrons to acquire its noble gas configuration.
6. Atoms with stronger effective nuclear charge have greater electron affinity.
III. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. Fluorine a. Radioactive.
2. Chlorine b. Sterilizing wound.
3. Bromine c. Prevent tooth decay.
4. Iodine d. Sterilizing water.
5. Astatine e. Making pesticides and plastics.

IV. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. Which type of bond is formed when electrons are transferred from one
atom to another?
A Covalent bond. C Ionic bond.
B Hydrogen bond. D Metallic bond.
2. Which is the order of increasing reactivity of the halogens?
A F < Cl < I < Br. C I < Cl < Br < F.
B F < Cl < Br < I. D I < Br < Cl < F

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3. Which of the following is correct electron configuration for chloride ion?

A 2, 8, 7 C 2, 8, 8
B 2, 8, 6, 1 D 2, 8, 7, 1
4. Which of the following compounds has high polarity?
A H–Br C H–Cl
B H–F D H–I
5. What happens to the trend in atomic radius and metallic character of
halogen family?
A The atomic radius and the metallic character both increase.
B The atomic radius increases and the metallic character decreases.
C The atomic radius decreases and the metallic character increases.
D The atomic radius and the metallic character both decrease.
6. Which property of the halogens increases from fluorine to iodine?
A Effective nuclear charge C Electronegativity
B Melting point D Chemical reactivity
7. In the displacement reactions between halogens and halides, the halogen
acts as an oxidizing agent. This means that the halogen
A oxidizes the halide ion to the halogen.
B gains the electron.
C is reduced to form the halide ion.
D loses the electron.
8. Which of the following pair would react more readily?
A K + Br C K+F
B K+I D K + Cl

V. Explain the following statements.

1. The atomic radius of a chloride ion is larger than the chlorine atom.
2. The elements in halogen family have similar properties.
3. The halogens become less reactive down the group.
4. These reactions does not occur:
(a) I 2 (aq) + 2Cl - (aq) " 2I - (aq) + Cl 2 (g)
(b) I 2 (aq) + 2Br - (aq) " 2I - (aq) + Br2 (g)

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 VI. Write answers for the following questions.
1. Write down the electron configuration of
(a) fluorine.
(b) phosphorus.
(c) argon.
2. Answer the following questions in reference to the unknown element ‘X’
with its electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
(a) To which period and group does the element ‘X’ belong? Why?
(b) What is the valency of the element ‘X’? Explain.
(c) Is the element ‘X’ electropositive or electronegative? Why?
3. Name the appropriate halogen in each case.
(a) The rare and radioactive.
(b) The only non-metal liquid at room temperature.
(c) Used as bleaching agent.
(d) Sublimes at room temperature.
4. Label (a), (b), (c) and (d) with an appropriate terms given in the bracket
(reducing agent, formed by oxidation, oxidizing agent, formed by reduction).

Cl 2 + 2Br - $ Br2 + 2Cl -

(a) (b) (c) (d)

5. State all the possible advantages and disadvantages of chlorination of

drinking water?
6. How do the reactivity of alkali metals and halogens vary down the group?
VII. Solve the cross word puzzle.
Across
2. The halogen used as a food supplement in the animals feed.
4. The number of electrons present in the valence shell of halogen ions.
8. This halogen combines with an alkali metal to form table salt.
9. The process of being oxidized.
10. The most reactive non-metal.
Down
1. This halogen is a liquid at room temperature.
3. The types of bond existed in halogen molecules.
5. The type of compounds formed when halogen combine with metals.

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 Chapter 4 Halogens

6. The electrons around the nucleus other than valence electron are
called ___ electron.
7. An organic compound used in preparation of the tincture of iodine
•
1

4 5

6 7

10

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 5
5.1
Transition
Elements
Introduction
The transition elements, most commonly refers to as a d-block element includes
the elements of group 3 to 12 in a modern periodic table. The d-block elements
are called transition elements as their properties are intermediate between the
elements of s-block, which typically form ionic compounds, and the element of
p-block, which largely form covalent compounds. The d-block elements, either
in their atomic state or in any of their common oxidation state, the last electron
enters the d-orbital which leaves them incompletely filled. This incompletely
filled d-orbital in most transition elements is accounted for exhibiting the typical
metallic properties and, have offered wide range of applications in biological
systems and modern technologies.

5.2 Electron configuration and position in periodic

table
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» classify the transition elements into four series.
»» identify the position of transition elements in a periodic table.
»» apply Aufbau’s principle in writing electronic configuration in s, p, d, f nota-
tions.

5.2.1 Electron configuration in s, p, d, f orbital notation

The concept of s, p, d, f notations of electronic configuration is required for the
detail study of atomic structure. We know that the electrons in an atom are
revolving round the nucleus in a fixed path called shell. In s, p, d, f notations of
electronic configuration, we would come to know that each shell has sub-shells

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

in which electrons are located.

The following cartoon illustration introduces the concept of electron configuration
in terms of s, p, d, f notations.

Sonam, did you hear something about electronic

configuration in terms of s, p, d, f sub-shells? Actually, I
have observed my senior friends applying s, p, d, f notations
of electronic configuration.

Yes Tashi. We do learn s, p, d, f notations of electronic

configuration in higher classes.

Actually, we have also learnt on electronic configuration in

terms of filling of electrons in K, L, M, N… shells by using the
2n2 rule. Could you explain me the difference between K, L,
M, N…. and s, p, d, f notations of electronic configuration?

The K, L, M, N…. are called the main shells or main energy

levels (n) whereas s, p, d, f are the sub-energy levels (also
called sub-shells or orbitals) within the main shell. The
letters s,p,d and f stands for sharp, principal, diffuse, and
fundamental respectively and it is used to describe the
lines in the atomic spectra generated by these orbitals.

So what are the sub-shells?

The sub-shells, also called orbitals are the shells located

within the main shell. It is said that each main shell may
have 1, 2, 3 or 4 sub-shells.

Does it mean that each main shell has specific number

of sub-shells?

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 Yes, as you said. Look at the Figure 5.1.

What I understood from the Figure 5.1 is that; K shell has

one sub-shell (s -orbital), L shell has two sub-shells (s and
p-orbitals), M shell has three sub-shells (s, p and d-orbitals)
and N shell has four sub-shells(s, p, d and f-orbitals). Am
I right?

Yes you are right.

What is the electron holding capacity of each sub-shell? Is

there any other direct way to calculate the electron holding
capacity of each sub shell?

To find the electron holding capacity for s, p, d and f

orbitals, we have other principles which are dealt in higher
classes. For now you can refer Figure 5.1 and Table 5.1.

In terms of K, L, M, N… notations of electronic configuration,

Na (Z=11) has its electronic configuration as 2, 8, 1. Sonam,
could you show me how to write the electronic configuration
in terms of s, p, d and f notations for Na?

Yes, definitely. The electron configuration for Na is 1s2 2s2

2p6 3s1. You could refer Table 5.2.

What does each numeral, letter and superscript represent

in the configuration of this type?

Look at the illustration given below with respect to 1s2.

Number of electron(s)

Main shell or energy level 1s2 Orbital or sub-shell

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

Is there any sequence or rule while filling the orbitals with

electrons?

Oh! Yes, I nearly forgot. There are few principles which

govern the filling of orbitals with electrons. One such
principle is Aufbau’s Principle. According to this principle,
the electrons are filled to the orbitals one by one in order
of increasing energies. This means that the electrons
starts filling the orbitals of the lowest energy level first
and continues to fill up the orbitals of higher energy levels.
The order of filling of orbitals as per Aufbau’s principle is:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s,
5f, 6d, 7p, etc. You could refer Figure 5.2.

f (14e-)
n=4 d (10e-)
n=3 n=4, N-shell (32e-) p (6e-)
n=2 s (2e-)
n=1
d (10e-)
p (6e-)
+ n=3, M-shell (18e-) s (2e-)
K
L p (6e-)
s (2e-)
M n=2, L-shell (8e-)
N
s (2e-)
-
n=1, K-shell (2e )

Figure 5.1 Electron holding capacity.

Table 5.1

Orbital s p d f
Electron holding capacity of each orbital 2 6 10 14

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 Table 5.2 Electron configuration of sodium atom.

Main shell (energy level(n) K L M N

(n=1) (n=2) (n=3) (n=4)
Orbital(s) in each main shell. s s p s p d s p d f
Electronic configuration in 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
terms of s, p, d, and f orbital
notation.

1s
K shell (n = 1)

2s
L shell (n = 2) 2p

3s
M shell (n = 3) 3p 3d

4s
N shell (n = 4) 4p 4d 4f

5s
O shell (n = 5) 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p
P shell (n = 6) 6d

7s 7p
Q shell (n = 7)

Figure 5.2 Order of filling of orbitals (Aufbau’s Principle).

In the electronic configuration of copper (i.e., 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10), 4s
orbital is filled before filling of the 3d orbital. This would mean that the energy
level of 3d orbital is higher than the energy level of 4s orbital.

5.2.2 Position in a periodic table

In a modern periodic table, the elements are classified into four blocks, i.e.,
s, p, d and f block as shown in the Figure 5.3. The classification is based upon
the name of orbital where the last electron enters, which is discussed as follow:
i. s-Block elements
Those atoms of the elements in which the last electron enters the s-orbital
are called s-block elements. Thus, the elements of group 1 and 2, including

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

hydrogen and helium in which s-orbitals are progressively filled in are s-block
elements.

1
H 1s1

2
He 1s2

4
Be 1s2 2s2

11
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

ii. p-Block elements

Those atoms of the elements in which the last electron enters the p-orbitals of
their outermost shell are called p-block elements. It constitutes the elements
from group 13 to 17 in which p-orbitals are progressively filled.

5
B 1s2 2s2 2p1

7
N 1s2 2s2 2p3

9
F 1s2 2s2 2p5

10
Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6

iii. d-Block elements

Those elements between s-block and p-block, i.e., from group 3 to 12 comprise
the d-block elements. In these elements, the last electron enters the d-orbital,
i.e., the second last shell. Usually, the d-orbitals of this block are incompletely
filled. For example, the electronic configuration of 26Fe is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6
4s2. The last electron, during filling of the orbital is entering d-orbital of second
last shell and it remains incompletely filled.
The d-block elements are classified into four series as discussed
below:
a) 3d-series (1st transition series): This series constitute ten elements, be-
ginning with Sc-21 and ending at Zn-30. The elements of this series lie
in 4th period.
b) 4d-series (2nd transition series): This series constitute ten elements,
beginning with Y-39 and ending at Cd-48. The elements of this series lie
in 5th period.
c) 5d-series (3rd transition series): This series also have ten elements, be-
ginning with La-57, Hf-72 to Hg-80. The elements of this series lie in the
6th period.
d) 6d-series (4th transition series): This series forms a part of the 7th period

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 and contains elements from actinium, Ac – 89 and those beyond ruther-
fordium, Rf ‒104.
According to IUPAC, transition elements are those which have incompletely
filled d-orbitals in their ground state (atomic state) or in any of their oxidation
states. Taking this definition into account, not all of the d-block elements are
transition element. For example, zinc and scandium are not transition metals
although they are the members of d-block elements. This is because Zn2+ has
its d-orbital completely filled, while Sc3+ has no electron in d-orbital.
In case of copper, it forms two ions (i.e., Cu+ ion and Cu2+ ion). In Cu+ ion, it has
outer configuration of 3d10 which has completely filled d-orbital, while Cu2+ has
3d9 in outer configuration. Thus, copper is regarded as transition element since
Cu2+ ion having incompletely filled d-orbital is the most common form.
iv. f-Block elements
This block elements lie at the bottom of the table, which includes the elements
in Lanthanoids and Actinoids series. These elements are commonly known as
inner transition elements or rare earth elements. Those atoms of the elements
in which the last electron enters the f-orbitals of their outermost shell are called
f-block elements.
s-block p-block
1 18
1s 2 13 14 15 16 17 1s
2s d-block 2p
3s 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
6s 5d 6p
7s 6d 7p
f-block
4f
5f
Figure 5.3 Periodic table showing different blocks

Self Evaluation
1. Write electron configuration for the following elements in s, p, d, f notations
by using Aufbau’s principle.
a) Copper b) Zinc c) Iron d) Manganese e) Sulphur f) Calcium

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

2. Define Aufau’s principle.

3. Which orbital is of higher energy level in following case:
(a) 2s and 2p (c) 4s and 3d
(b) 3p and 3s (d) 5s and 4d

5.3 Characteristics of transition elements

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» discuss the characteristics of transition elements.
»» explain the reasons for observed trends among the transition elements.
»» explain why d-block elements exhibit variable valencies.
»» discuss the similarities and the differences between d-block and s-block
elements.

i. Metallic character
Since the valence electron in transition elements is two, they are good conductor
of heat and electricity. Normally they are hard, ductile, and malleable and have a
metallic lustre. They also form alloys with other metals. The transition elements
can form both covalent and metallic bonding. The presence of unfilled d-orbital
favours covalent bonding.
ii. Melting and boiling point
The transition metals being heavy metals exhibit very high melting point and
the boiling point. Transition elements typically melt above 1000ᵒC except Zn,
Cd and Hg as they have completely filled d-orbital.
iii. Colour
All transition metals of first row except zinc (Zn) form coloured ions. Since
transition metals have incompletely filled d-orbitals, it is possible to promote
the electrons from lower energy level to higher energy level. This process is
accompanied by the emission of radiation from which the compounds absorb a
particular colour. However, some elements other than Zn also appear colorless
depending on their oxidation state. For example, Sc3+, Ti4+ and Cu+ have
completely filled d-orbitals and hence they appear colourless.
Many naturally occurring substances like minerals and gem stones are coloured

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 due to the presence of transition metal ions or compounds. For example, blue
aquamarine is due to iron compounds, green emeralds due to iron and titanium
ions, red and blue sapphires are due to traces of iron, titanium, chromium and
copper ions and red rubies due to chromium compounds.
iv. Ionization potential
The ionization potential of transition elements is intermediate between the
elements of s-block and p-block. Thus, the elements of d-block are less
electronegative than the s-block but are more electronegative than the p-block.
As a result, these elements do not form ionic compounds as readily as the
s-block elements. The tendency to form ionic compound decreases as the size
of the atom increases.
v. Atomic volume and densities
The atomic volumes of transition metals are smaller than the metals of group 1
and 2 due to increased nuclear charge. The decrease in atomic volume increases
the density. Thus, the densities of transition metals are higher than the metals
of groups 1 and 2.
vi. Low reactivity
Most of the transition elements react with mineral acids, liberating hydrogen
gas. The noble metals like platinum (Pt) and gold (Au) have low reactivity due
to their high melting point, boiling point and ionization potential.
vii. Magnetic properties
Most transition elements are paramagnetic in nature. The paramagnetic
character of the transition metals increases on moving across the period as the
number of unpaired electron increases from one to five. The middle elements are
found to possess the maximum paramagnetic property. The magnetic property
decreases with the decrease in the number of unpaired electrons. The transition
metals which contain paired electrons depict diamagnetic behavior.
Table 5.3 Types of magnetic substances

Magnetic Paramagnetic substances Ferromagnetic Diamagnetic

substance substances substances
Definition Those substances which Those Those substances
acquires magnetic property paramagnetic which are repelled by
in the presence of magnetic substances The magnetic field.
field but loses their property which retain
A substance shows
when the magnetic field is their magnetic
diamagnetism when
removed. The substance property even
it contains only
shows paramagnetism when it upon removing the
paired electrons.
contains one or more unpaired magnetic field.
electrons.

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

Magnetic Paramagnetic substances Ferromagnetic Diamagnetic

substance substances substances
Example Platinum, chromium, Iron, nickel, cobalt. Zinc, cadmium,
manganese. copper.
viii. Variable oxidation state (valency).
Most of the 3d-block elements exhibit variable oxidation state. This is because
the core or kernel left after their atom loses valence electrons is unstable,
and tends to lose one or more electrons further. For example, iron exhibit two
oxidation states.

26
Fe = 2, 8, 14, 2

24
Fe2+ = 2, 8, 14 (core or kernel)
The core being unstable loses one or more electron to give Fe3+ ion

23
Fe3+ = 2, 8, 13
Table 5.4 Oxidation state of 3d-block elements

3d series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
transition
element
Electronic s2d1 s2d2 s2d3 s1d5 s2d5 s2d6 s2d7 s2d8 s1d10 s2d10
configuration
Oxidation +1 +1
states
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
ix. Complex ion formation
The transition metals have high tendency to form complex ions (coordination
compound) with the ligands.
Complex ion (coordination complex or coordination compound): It is an ion
comprising of one or more ligands attached to a central metal ion by means of
a coordinate bond.
Ligand: It is a species which can use its lone pair of electrons to form a
coordinate bond with a transition metal. Ligands can be a neutral molecule
such as NH3, H2O or negatively charged ions such as Cl‒, OH‒, CN‒ etc.

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 OH2
H2O OH2
Fe
H2O OH2
OH2
Figure 5.4 Complex ion

The formation of coordination compound is favoured if the ions of transition

elements have following two features:
a) High charge density (i.e., smaller cationic size).
b) Vacant d-orbital to accept lone pairs of electron from the ligands.
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ is an example of complex ion. In this complex, Fe2+ is central metal
ion and six molecules of water are the ligands. Each water molecule donates
a lone pair of electrons from its oxygen atom to Fe2+ ion to form a coordinate
bond. The central ion is assigned with the number known as the coordination
number depending upon the number of lone pair of electrons accepted from
the ligands. In the [Fe(H2O)6]2+, the coordination number is 6 because the central
ion has accepted six lone pairs of electrons as shown in the Figure 5.4.
Coordination number: It is the number of coordinate bonds formed by the
central metal ion by accepting the lone pairs of electron from the ligands during
the formation of complex ion.
Some of the other examples of complex ions are [Fe(CN)6]4‒, [Cu(NH3)4]2+,
[Ni(CN)4]2-, [CoCl4]2-, [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+.

x. Catalytic properties
Catalysts are the substances that alter the rate of chemical reaction; they
generally speed up the chemical reactions. Some of the commonly used catalyst
in chemical reactions are Pt, Ni, Fe, Cr, MnO2, V2O5, etc. The catalytic property
of transition elements is due to their vacant d-orbital and their ability to adsorb
and activate reacting substances. The following processes illustrate the use of
transition element as catalyst.

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a) Haber process
The process is used to prepare ammonia (NH3) through a reaction between
nitrogen and hydrogen.
Fe
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g)
In this process, iron (Fe) as a catalyst helps to increases the rate of reaction and
lowers the temperature at which the reaction takes place.
b) Contact process
In this process, sulphur dioxide (SO2) is converted into sulphur trioxide (SO3) in
manufacturing of sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
V2 O 5
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2SO 3 (g)
Here, vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5) is used as a catalyst.
c) Hydrogenation of alkenes
The hydrogenation reaction involves the addition of hydrogen to the reactant
molecules. In this reaction, unsaturated hydrocarbon (alkene) is converted to
saturated hydrocarbon (alkane) on addition of hydrogen across the C = C double
bond.

H H
H H Ni
C C H2 H C C H
H H H H
(ethene) (ethane)

Nickel lowers the temperature and the pressure needed to complete the reaction.

Self Evaluation
1. Iron exhibits variable valencies forming Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. Write down the
name and formula of each compound that iron can form with chlorine.
2. Vanadium (V) reacts with oxygen gas to form vanadium (v) oxide. Write a
balanced equation for the reaction.
3. Describe the trends in melting point and boiling point among the transition
element?
4. Define the following terms.
(a) Ligands. (b) Coordination number.

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 5.4 d-Block elements of group 11 and the uses of
transition elements
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» discuss the similiarities among the elements of group 11 or IB.
»» recognize the variation of properties among the transition elements.
»» state the uses of transition elements and their compounds

The elements of group 11 (i.e., Cu, Ag and Au) in a periodic table are also called
a coinage metals.

5.4.1 Similarities among copper, silver and gold.

Cu, Ag and Au belong to the same sub-group and show similar properties which
are discussed in the Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Similarities among Cu, Ag and Au

Properties Copper Sliver Gold

Physical properties All three metals are hard, malleable and ductile. They have
metallic lustre and take high polish. They have high density,
melting points and low atomic volume.
Occurrence All these metals are found in their native state in nature, owing
to their inert character.
Electropositive All these elements are weakly electropositive.
character
Electronic The electronic configuration of these metals show that
configuration the ultimate shell has 1 electron (1s1 electron) while the
penultimate shell contains 18 (s2 p6 d10) electrons which
contribute to their inert nature.
The electronic configurations of Cu, Ag and Au atoms are
given below in the Table 5.6.
Variable valency +1, +2 +1, +2 +1, +3
Displacement Cu, Ag and Au atoms are not able to displace hydrogen from
reactions acids, as they are less electropositive, but metals like Zn, Fe
and Mg can displace these metals from their salt solution.
Formation of [Cu(NH3)4SO4] [KAg(CN)2] [KAu(CN)2]
complex salts. (Tetrammine (Potassium (Potassium
copper (II) argentocyanide) aurocyanide)
Sulphate)

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Table 5.6 Electronic configuration

Element At. No. Complete Electron configuration Valence-shell

configuration
Cu 29 2,8,18,1 or [Ar] 3d10 4s1 3d10 4s1
Ag 47 2,8,18,18,1 or [Kr] 4d10 5s1 4d10 5s1
Au 79 2,8,18,32,18,1 or [Xe ] 4f14 5d10 6s1 4f14 5d10 6s1

Activity 5.1 Identification of copper ion in copper compounds by flame

test
Material required
CuSO4 (any copper salts or compounds), watch glass, conc. HCl, platinum/
nichrome wire and Bunsen burner.
Procedure
1. Take 5 g sample of copper sulphate in a watch glass.
2. Moisten the sample with conc. HCl.
3. Clean platinum or nichrome wire by repeatedly dipping it into conc. HCl
acid and holding it in a Bunsen burner, till the wire does not produce any
colour in the flame.
4. With the help of this clean platinum or nichrome wire, pick very small
amount of moist sample and place it in a flame.
5. Observe and record the result.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for any other copper compounds.
Safety Precaution

Conc. HCl is highly corrosive.

Question
1. Why platinum or nichrome wire is used for the flame test?
2. Discuss some of the limitations in identifying ions using flame tests
technique.
3. Why copper exhibits colour with flame?

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 5.4.2 Similarities of group 11 elements with other transition
elements.
i. Similarities of Cu with Zn
Although Cu (group 11) and Zn (group 12) are metals of different group, they
exhibit some similar characteristics as discussed below.
a) Both the metals exhibit bivalency.
b) Sulphides, carbonates and phosphate of both the metals are in-
soluble in water, whereas their chloride and sulphates are soluble
in water.
ii. Similarities of Ag with Cd
a) Both the metals are white in colour.
b) Their oxides are coloured and get reduced when heated with
carbon.
c) Both the metals form complex compounds, e.g. [Ag(CN)2]¯,
[Cd(CN)4]2¯, [Ag(NH3)2]+, [Cd(NH3)4]2+.
iii. Similarities of Au with Pt
a) These metals are noble metals hence, air, water, alkalis or acids
have no action on them at ordinary conditions. Thus, they are
used as raw materials for preparing the jewelries. However, they
are attacked by fused cyanides and nitrates.
b) They occur in their native state in nature.
c) Both are heavy metals with high melting point and show metallic
lustre. They are malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat
and electricity.
d) Both metals dissolve in aqua regia, i.e., mixture of concentrated
HNO3 and HCl in the volume ratio of 1:3.
e) These elements show variable valency as given below:
Au +1, +3.
Pt +2, +4.

Activity 5.2 Action of alkalis on some compounds of transition element.

Materials required
Iron(II) Sulphate solution (FeSO4), iron (III) sulphate solution Fe2(SO4)3, copper
(II) sulphate, zinc sulphate, sodium hydroxide, test tubes and test tube stand

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

and a dropper.
Procedure
1. Take small amount of iron (II) sulpahte solution in a test tube.
2. Then slowly add equal amount (5 mL) of sodium hydroxide to it.
3. Observe and record the result.
4. Repeat the same process for CuSO4 solution and ZnSO4 solution.
Safety Precaution

• Concentrated sodium hydroxide is corrosive in nature.

• Do not mix the dropper.
Table 5.7 Observation Table

Transition metal Transition metal Colour of the Name of the

compound. ion. precipitate formed precipitate formed
when mixed with when mixed with
NaOH. NaOH.
Iron (II) Sulphate Fe 2+
Iron (III) Sulphate Fe 3+
Copper (II) Sulphate Cu 2+
Zinc Sulphate Zn 2+

Question
1. Explain each of the observation and result with a balanced chemical
equation.

5.4.3 Reaction involving transition elements

i. Iron (Fe)
Iron is moderately reactive metal with steam and acids thereby displacing
hydrogen from steam or acid to form hydrogen gas.
Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ FeCl 2 (aq) + H 2 -
With the solution of iron (II) salt, a grey gelatinous precipitate of iron (II) hydroxide
is formed on adding an alkali:
FeCl 2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) $ Fe (OH) 2 . +2NaCl (aq)
(grey gelatinous precipitate)

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 The precipitate is not affected by adding excess alkali. Also, the same precipitate
is formed if ammonia solution is used instead of sodium hydroxide.
With solutions of iron (III) salts, a red-brown gelatinous precipitate of iron (III)
hydroxide is formed when an alkali is added:
FeCl 3 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) $ Fe (OH) 3 . + 3NaCl (aq)
(red gelatinous precipitate)

ii. Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is moderately reactive metals that will displace hydrogen from steam or
dilute acids to form hydrogen.
Zn (s) + 2H 2 O (g) $ ZnO (s) + H 2 -
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ ZnCl 2 (aq) + H 2 -

When zinc (II) carbonate is heated, it decomposes to give zinc oxide with the
evolution of CO2.
ZnCO 3 (s) $ ZnO (s) + CO 2 -
(white) (white)

Solutions of zinc (II) salts produce a white precipitate of zinc (II) hydroxide when
sodium hydroxide solution is added.
ZnSO 4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) $ Zn (OH) 2 . +Na 2 SO 4 (aq)
(white precipitate)

Zinc hydroxide, is an amphoteric hydroxide and on addition of excess NaOH

solution, Zn(OH)2 dissolves with it to form sodium zincate, Na2Zn(OH)4 which
is colourless.
Zn (OH) 2 . + 2NaOH (aq) $ Na 2 Zn (OH) 4 (aq)
(white precipitate) (colourless solution)

Amphoteric Compounds

They are the molecules or ions that can act as an acid as well as a base. The
word is derived from Greek word amphoteroi meaning ‘both’. Many metals
like Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb, Al and Be, form amphoteric oxides and hydroxides.

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 Chapter 5 Transition Elements

5.4.4 Uses of transition elements

Most of the transition metals and their compounds exhibit catalytic properties
and have varied application in chemical industries. The noble metals like gold
and silver are inert to air and water, and are used for making jewelries. Some of
the transition metals are useful in our day to day life as shown in the Figure 5.5.

(a) Mercury: in (b) Tungsten: (c) Titanium: in

thermometer. in filament. hip replacement.
Figure 5.5 Use of transition elements.

Table 5.8 Uses of some transition metals and their compound.

Sl. Transition metal and Uses

No. their compounds
1 CuCl2 Used in manufacturing Cl2 from HCl by Deacon
process.
2 Cu Used as an electrodes during electrolysis.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity and
used for making calorimeter and electrical wires.
3 Fe Iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber-Bosch process
for manufacturing NH3.
4 FeCl3 Used in the production of CCl4 from CS2 and Cl2.
5 MnO2 Used as a catalyst in the laboratory preparation
of oxygen from KClO3 (or from decomposition of
KClO3).
6 Ni Used in production of H2 from NH3 and production of
H2O2.
Used in polymerization of alkynes.
Used as a catalyst in hydrogenation of vegetable fats
and oil (vanaspati/ghee production)

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 Sl. Transition metal and Uses
No. their compounds
7 Pd Used in hydrogenation of phenol (aliphatic
compound) to cyclohexanone (aromatic compound).
8 Pt / V2O5 Used to oxidize SO2 to SO3 in the Contact process
for manufacturing H2SO4.
9 Pt / Rh Used as a catalyst in Ostwald process during
preparation of HNO3 to oxidize NH3 to NO.
10 Zn i. Used in galvanization of iron.
ii. It is employed as cathode plate in dry cell.
iii. An alloy of Zn with Cu is used in kitchen utensils,
jewelries and ornaments, machine parts, statues
etc.
iv. Granulated Zn is used in laboratory preparation
of H2.

Self Evaluation
1. Fill in the blanks by using the word(s) given the bracket.
(catalysts, coloured, conductors, densities, less, melting)
The transition elements have high ________, high ________ points and
are good ________. They are ________ reactive than the alkali metals,
and often form ________ compounds. The transition elements and their
compounds are useful ________ in the chemical industry.
2. Compare the following pairs of element with respect to their valency and
electropositive character.
(a) Ag and Au (b) Au and Pt
3. Name the transition metal(s) used in
(a) Haber-Bosch process. (d) making electrodes during
(b) barometer and thermometer. electrolysis of acidified water.
(c) galvanization of iron. (e) Contact process.

Summary
1. Transition elements are the elements of d-block series in periodic table.
2. Transition elements are classified into four series as 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d series
corresponding to the filling of 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d orbitals.

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3. The transition elements are located in-between the s-block and the p-block
elements in a periodic table.
4. The properties of transition elements are intermediate between the highly
electropositive elements of s-block and highly electronegative elements
of p-block.
5. The transition elements are less reactive than the metals of groups 1 and 2.
6. During the filling up of electrons, the electrons are filled to the orbitals one
by one in order of increasing energies.
7. Cations of d-block metals are small, have a high charge density and vacant
orbital of low energy. Thus, they form complex ions readily.
8. Transition elements have certain distinctive properties from other elements.
• the metals and their compounds often make good catalysts.
• they have high melting and boiling point
• the formation of coloured compounds.
• the formation of complex compounds
• they exhibit magnetic property
• their variable valency
9. Paramagnetic substances are those substances which have tendency to
acquire magnetic property in the presence of magnetic field.
10. Most of the transition elements are sufficiently electropositive and have
low reactivity but there are some transition metals which are acted upon
by acids, alkalis and water.
11. Many transition metals and their compounds are employed in chemical
industry for the production of other compounds.
12. Some of the oxide and hydroxide of transition metals act as amphoteric
compounds.

Exercise
I. State whether each of the statement is True or False.
1. Sc and Zn are not transition metals.
2. Complex ions are often coloured.
3. Number of dative bonds to central metal ion is called oxidation number.
4. The location of transition elements is in between s-block and f-block
series.
5. In p-block elements, the electron enters the d-orbitals.

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 II. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. Building materials, tools and vehicles. a. Copper
2. Water pipes and electric cables. b. Iron
3. In coins and catalyst in the manufacture of margarine. c. Zinc
4. Jewelry and plating of teeth. d. Nickel
5. Artificial hip joints, pipes in nuclear power stations. e. Titanium
6. Galvanization of steel. f. Gold
g. Silver
h. Mercury
III. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. Which of the following ions are expected to be paramagnetic?
A 29
Cu+ C 26
Fe2+
B 30
Zn2+ D 21
Sc3+
2. In a periodic table, the element in a second row of transition elements
beneath cobalt is
A Zinc (Zn) C Palladium (Pd)
B Nickel (Ni) D Copper (Cu)
3. The coordination number of complex ion, [Fe(H2O)6]2+ is
A 5 C 6
B 4 D 3
4. The electronic configuration of 24Cr is
A 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
B 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
C 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5
D 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
5. Which of the following are not the characteristics of the transition elements
and their compounds?
A Exhibit more than one oxidation state
B They form coordination compounds.
C Many of their compounds are colored.
D Most of the transition metals exhibit diamagnetic properties.
IV. Give reasons for the following.
1. Transition metals have tendency to form complex compounds with the
ligands.

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2. The compounds containing transition metals are usually coloured.

3. Mercury is used as thermometric fluid.
4. Chromium is paramagnetic in nature.
5. 4s orbital is filled before 3d orbital according to Aufbau’s principle.
V. Write answers for following questions.
1. The chemical properties of zinc are similar to those of iron.
(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of Zn and Fe with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
(b) Explain with equation the action of alkali on the solution of any salt
of Zn and Fe.
(c) What happens to the precipitate of both zinc hydroxide and iron
hydroxide when excess of alkali is added?
2. Define the term galvanization. State its purposes.
3. Potassium and copper are two elements belonging to same period in the
periodic table.
(a) Write one property which is common to both the elements.
(b) Describe two differences in their chemical properties.
4. What is the role of platinum in Ostwald process?
5. Discuss the following properties of transition elements.
(a) Atomic volume and densities.
(b) Ionization potential.
6. Write down the electronic configuration in s, p, d, f notation for the following
atoms.
A V D Cu
B Cr E Zn
C Co

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 6
6.1
Chemical
Energetics
Introduction
Molecules have energy, and when they react, changes in the total energy of
the reacting molecules take place. During chemical reaction, some bonds in
the molecules are broken and some new bonds are formed. Energy is needed
to break a chemical bond and on the other hand energy is released when a
bond is formed. Hence, all the chemical reactions are accompanied by energy
change. These energy changes appear in the form of evolution or absorption
of heat, light, electricity etc. The energy evolved during a chemical reaction is
in the form of heat and is absorbed in the form of thermal, electrical or photo
energy. The amount of energy evolved or absorbed during chemical reaction is
always same for the same quantities of reacting substances.
The branch of chemistry which deals with the energy changes during chemical
reactions is called Chemical energetics, while the branch of chemistry that deals
with the quantities of heat released or absorbed during chemical reactions is
called Thermochemistry.

6.2 Energy change in chemical reactions

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» state the law of conservation of energy.
»» explain endothermic and exothermic reactions with energy diagram.
»» differentiate internal energy and enthalpy.
»» mention some of the applications of energy transfer in everyday life.
»» explain types of heat of reaction.

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

6.2.1 Law of conservation of energy

The energy may be released or absorbed in a chemical reaction, but the
total energy of a reacting system and the surrounding remains constant. The
transfer of energy between system and the surrounding is guided by the law of
conservation of energy by Mayer and Helmholtz (1840). According to them, the
law states that the ‘energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be
converted from one form into another.
The amount of energy that leaves a system is same as that dissipates into the
surrounding, which implies that there is no lost in the energy (i.e. the total energy
of the universe is always constant). However, during the course of physical and
chemical change, one form of energy may be converted into another form. For
example, water in a Chhukha dam possesses potential energy. When this water
is released, the potential energy gets converted to kinetic energy. As the force
of water rotates the turbine, kinetic energy is converted to electrical energy.
This proves that whenever, one form of energy disappears an equal amount of
energy in some other form appears, proving the law of conservation of energy.

6.2.2 Internal energy (E)

The chemical reactions take place due to interaction between various atoms
and molecules of the substance undergoing a change. It is assumed that, these
atoms and molecules are associated with some energy of their own which is
called their internal energy. It is denoted by E.
The energy stored in a substance by virtue of its molecules is called its internal
energy.
The internal energy is the sum of all the energies such as vibrational, rotational
and translational kinetic energy and potential energy from intermolecular forces.
E = Ev + Er + Et + Ep
Change in internal energy (∆E)
The internal energy is different for different substance and therefore, in a chemical
reaction the internal energy of a reactant is different from that of the products.
For example, during a chemical reaction whereby reactant is converted to
product at a constant temperature and volume, the change in internal energy
of the reactant (ER) and the internal energy of the product (EP), ∆E is given by:
DE = E P - E R
Sign of ∆E depends on the fact whether ER is greater or smaller than EP. Both
positive and negative value of internal energy change is possible. For example:

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 a) When E R < E P, DE = (E P - E R) will have a positive value. In this case energy
will be absorbed in the reaction, i.e., the reaction will be endothermic.
Thus, for all endothermic reactions that take place at constant volume
and temperature, ∆E will have a positive value.
b) When E R > E P, DE = (E P - E R) will have a negative value. In this case
energy will be released in a reaction, i.e., the reaction will be exothermic.
Thus, for all exothermic reactions that take place at constant volume and
temperature, ∆E will have a negative value.

6.2.3 Enthalpy or Heat content (H)

When the chemical reactions are performed in an open vessel at a constant
pressure (P=1 atmosphere), it is convenient to introduce a new function called
enthalpy or heat change which is denoted by H.
The energy contained in a chemical bond that can be converted into heat is
known as enthalpy. Enthalpy is a Greek word meaning ‘to warm’. Enthalpy is
related to internal energy (E) and is given by:
H = E + PV
Where E is internal energy, P is the pressure and V is the volume of the system.

Change in enthalpy (∆H)

Enthalpy cannot be measured directly, however we can measure the enthalpy
change in a thermochemical reaction, upon converting reactant into a product
at constant pressure and temperature. If HR and HP are the enthalpy of reactants
and products respectively, then the change in enthalpy, ∆H is given as:
DH = H P - H R
The change in the heat content, in a chemical reaction that is carried out at
constant pressure is referred to as change in enthalpy. Thus, enthalpy change
is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction carried out at constant
pressure and temperature. It is assumed that the work done is only of pressure-
volume type.
Sign of ∆H depends on the fact whether HR is greater or smaller than HP. Both
positive and negative value of change in heat content is possible. For example:
c) When H R < H P, DH = (H P - H R) will have a positive value (Figure 6.2). In
this case heat energy will be absorbed in a reaction, i.e. the reaction will
be endothermic. Thus, for all endothermic reactions that take place at
constant pressure and temperature, ∆H will have a positive value. Positive
value of ∆H means that the heat content of the reaction will be raised.
d) When H R > H P, DH = (H P - H R) will have a negative value (Figure 6.4). In

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

this case heat energy will be released in a reaction, i.e., the reaction
will be exothermic. Thus, for all exothermic reactions that take place at
constant pressure and temperature, ∆H will have a negative value and
have a tendency to proceed spontaneously. It also means that the heat
content of the reaction will be lowered.

6.2.4 Heat (enthalpy) of reaction

The heat of reaction is defined as the amount of heat released or absorbed in a
chemical reaction when numbers of moles of reactants completely react to form
the products. It is also called enthalpy of reaction, and is denoted by ∆H. The
quantities of heat shown with the balanced chemical equations are all heats of
the corresponding reactions. For example, the thermochemical equation below
shows that the heat of reaction involving the combination of 1 mole each of
carbon and oxygen gas is ‒94.00 k.cal.
C (s) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) DH = -94.00 k.cal
The heat of reaction is generally referred to as the difference between the total
heat content of the reactant and the total heat content of the product. This
relationship between the heat of reaction and the difference between the heat
content of the products and reactants can be mathematically expressed as:
Sum of the change in enthalpy = (sum of the enthalpies of product) – (sum of
the enthalpies of reactant).
RDH = RH P - RH R
Every chemical reaction is represented by an equation and has a heat of reaction.
The reaction may involve the combustion of substance, neutralization of an acid
by a base, dissolution of a salt, formation of a compound, etc. Thus, the heat
(enthalpy) of reactions are of following types:

i. Heat or Enthalpy of combustion

Combustion or burning is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly
with oxygen and gives off heat. The amount of heat released when 1 mole of a
substance undergoes complete combustion in the presence of excess of O2 or
air at a given temperature is called heat of combustion of that substance. For
example, the heat of combustion of propane in air is ‒530.60 k.cal as shown in
the equation below:
C 3 H 8 (g) + 5O 2 (g) $ 3CO 2 (g) + 4H 2 O (g) DH = -530.60 k.cal
It should be noted that the combustion reactions are exothermic and hence,
the heat of combustion has negative value.

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 ii. Heat or Enthalpy of neutralization
Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base. Heat is
evolved when in aqueous solution an acid is neutralized by a base, or vice versa.
The amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of an acid is neutralized by 1 mole of
a base in dilute solutions is called the heat of neutralization. For example, heat
of neutralization of HCl by NaOH in dilute solution at 25°C, is ‒13.7 k.cal.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) $ NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l) DH = -13.7 k.cal
iii. Heat of solution
When a solute dissolves in a solvent, heat is either absorbed or released. For
example, when potassium iodide (KI) dissolves in water with absorption of heat,
the solution becomes colder than the water taken. On the other hand, when
lithium chloride (LiCl) dissolves in water with evolution of heat, the solution
becomes hotter than the water taken.
The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of solute dissolves in
solvent that further addition of solvent to the solution produces no further change
in heat content is called the heat of solution. When dilute solutions are made
in water, it is indicated by using the symbol ‘aq’ for aqueous. Thus, from the
equation for the dissolution of salt in water,
NaCl (s) + (aq) $ NaCl (aq) DH = +1.2 k.cal
the heat of solution (∆H) of NaCl is 1.2 k.cal. This would mean that 1.2 k.cal of
heat is absorbed when 1 mole of NaCl (= 58.5 g) is dissolved in excess of water.
Now consider the following reaction:
HCl (g) + 50H 2 O (l) $ HCl.H 2 O (aq) DH = -17.51k.cal
The heat of solution (∆H) of HCl in water is ‒17.51 k.cal. This would mean that
17.51 k.cal of heat is released when 1 mole of HCl (= 36.5 g) is dissolved in
excess of water.

iv. Heat of formation and stability

The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of substance is formed
from its element at STP is called the heat of formation. Here the standard state
(i.e., STP) of any substance is taken at 25°C and at 1 atmospheric pressure. Thus,
it is also known as standard heat of formation. The standard heat of formation
is represented by ∆H°f. For example, the standard heat of formation of H2O (l)
is given by the equation
1
H 2 (g) + 2 O 2 (g) $ H 2 O (l) DHc f = -68.3 k.cal
is equal to ‒68.3 k.cal. It is the amount of heat evolved in the formation of 1 mole
of H2O(l) from its element namely H2(g) and O2(g).

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In a similar manner, the standard heat of formation of HI (g) as given by the

equation:
1 1
2 H 2 (g) + 2 I 2 (s) $ HI (g) DHcf = +6.2 k.cal
is equal to +6.2 k.cal, since it is the amount of heat required in the formation of
1 mole of HI(g) from its element namely H2(g) and I2(s) . Note that the standard
heat of formation of HI(g) is not equal to +12.4 k.cal as shown by the equation as
+12.4 k.cal is the amount of energy required for the formation of 2 moles of HI(g) .
H 2 (g) + I 2 (s) $ 2HI(g) DHcf = +12.4 k.cal
12.4
Consequently, heat of formation (∆H°f) of 1 mole of HI(g) = +
2 k.cal = +6.2 k.cal
The negative value of the heat of formation indicates that the energy is released
when the compound is formed from its elements. The higher is the value of
negative heat of formation, greater is the amount of energy required for the
decomposition of the compound, and more stable the compound is. Thus,
carbondioxide with ∆Hᵒf = ‒94.00 k.cal is more stable than water (liquid) whose
∆Hᵒf = ‒68.3 k.cal.
When a compound is formed with positive value of heat of formation, energy is
absorbed. The positive value of ∆H°f, indicates that the enthalpy of a compound
formed is greater than the sum of enthalpies of the elements from which the
compound is formed. Such a compound is relatively less stable than its elements.
For example, the heat of formation of HI, is +6.2 k.cal. It decomposes to some
extent even at room temperature producing violet vapour of iodine. They have
positive heat of formation and are not stable. Some other examples of such
compounds are hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), acetylene (C2H2), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), etc.

6.2.5 Thermochemical reactions

Every thermochemical reaction is accompanied by thermochemical equation
which indicates the heat lost or gained during a change. A chemical equation
that includes the quantity of heat released or absorbed during a reaction is
called thermochemical equations. Based on evolution and absorption of the
heat during a reaction, thermochemical reactions are of two types:

i. Endothermic reactions
A reaction in which the energy is supplied to the reactants from a surrounding
to obtain products is called endothermic reaction. It can be represented as:
Reactant + Energy absorbed by reactants $ Product

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 Activation complex
Potential Energy

Products
Activation Ea System
energy
Energy absorbed Endothermic
ΔH > 0
Reactants

Reaction Progress
Figure 6.1 Energy diagram for endothermic reaction

If an endothermic reaction is carried out at constant volume and constant

temperature, then ∆E = (EP – ER) will have a positive value.
And also, if an endothermic reaction is carried out at constant pressure and
constant temperature, then the sum of enthalpies of reactants (HR) is less than
products (HP) and hence the enthalpy change, ∆H is given by
DH = RH P - R H R
will have a positive value. Thus, for any endothermic reaction, ∆H is positive
(Figure 6.2). The positive value of ∆H indicates that endothermic reactions are
accompanied by the absorption of heat energy in which the heat content of the
reaction is raised.

Products
HP
Energy

Heat
ΔH + Ve absorbed

HR
Reactants

Course of reaction
Figure 6.2. ∆H in endothermic reaction.

Some of the thermochemical equations for endothermic reactions are discussed

below:

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a. Reaction between nitrogen and oxygen

It is one of the reactions that take place when fuel is burnt in car engines. The
equation for this reaction is:
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) $ 2NO (g) DH = +43.3 k.cal
Here the bonding in the reactants is stronger than the product. Therefore, energy
is consumed in by the reactants.
b. Decomposition of HgO
HgO (g) $ 2Hg (l) + O 2 (g) DH = +43.2 k.cal
Dissociation of molecules into atoms, removal of electron to form ions (ionization),
melting of solids, fusion, vaporization of liquids, sublimations, synthesis of protein
in living bodies, etc. are some of the other examples of endothermic change.

ii. Exothermic reactions

A reaction in which the energy is evolved or released to the surrounding along
with the products is called exothermic reaction. It can be represented as:
Reactant $ Product + Energy released

Activation complex

Activation
Potential Energy

energy (Ea)
System

Reactants Energy released

Exothermic
ΔH < 0

Products

Reaction Progress
Figure 6.3. Energy diagrams for exothermic reaction

If an exothermic reaction is carried out at constant volume and constant

temperature, then ∆E = (EP – ER) will have a negative value.
And also, if an endothermic reaction is carried out at constant pressure and
constant temperature, then the sum of enthalpies of reactants (HR) is greater
than products (HP) and hence the enthalpy change, ∆H is given by
DH = RH P - R H R

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 will have a negative value. Thus, for any exothermic reaction, ∆H is negative
(Figure 6.4). The negative value of ∆H indicates that exothermic reactions are
accompanied by the release of heat energy in which the heat content of the
reaction is lowered.

Reactants
HR

Heat
ΔH - Ve
Energy

released

HP
Products

Course of reaction
Figure 6.4. ∆H in exothermic reactions
The thermochemical equations for some exothermic reactions are discussed
below:
a. Burning of some of the substances like Zn, C and S in air:
These processes result in the evolution of heat energy as the reactions proceed.
2Zn (s) + O 2 (g) $ 2ZnO (s) DH = -166.5 k.cal
C (s) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) DH = -94.4 k.cal
S (s) + O 2 (g) $ SO 2 (g) DH = -71.1k.cal
The other examples of exothermic reactions are hydration process, formation
of MX (M is metal and X is halogen), formation of anion by gaining electron
(reduction), etc.
b. Burning of methane (CH4)
Methane is the hydrocarbon molecule which is commonly used as fuel. When
it is burnt, it reacts with oxygen and produce carbondioxide and water vapour.
CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (g)
During this reaction, bonds are first broken and the new bonds are formed. In
CH4 the carbon atom is covalently bonded with hydrogen atoms. Similarly, the
oxygen atoms in oxygen molecule are held together by covalent bond. During
the chemical reaction all the bonds are needed to be broken. The energy is
required to break these bonds by pulling the atoms apart. Thus, the energy has
to be absorbed from the surrounding and hence, the process is endothermic.
The new bonds are formed between carbon and oxygen to form CO2 and,

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hydrogen and oxygen to form H2O. In this case the energy is released to the
surrounding and hence, the process is exothermic.
CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g)

DH 2 = -802 kJ
Enthalpy

DH 1 = -890 kJ
CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (g)

DH 3 = -88 kJ

CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)
Figure 6.5. Combustion of methane gas
When methane reacts with oxygen, the total energy released is greater than
the total energy absorbed. Thus, the overall reaction is exothermic. The energy
is released as heat.

Activity 6.1 Investigating endothermic and exothermic reaction.

Materials required
Apparatus
Test tubes, beakers, measuring cylinder, spatula, test tube stand, scissor/sharp
knife, glass rod and thermometer (‒10ᵒC to 110ᵒC).
Chemicals
NaOH pellets, NaHCO3 solution, NaOH solution, HCl, water, magnesium ribbon,
citric acid, zinc powder and sulphuric acid.
Procedure

Sl. Procedure Observation

No.
Initial Final
Temperature Temperature
(°C) (°C)
1 i. Measure 5 mL water and pour it in a
clean dry test tube. Place it on a stand
or in a beaker. Measure the tempera-
ture of water (Initial temperature)

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 Sl. Procedure Observation
No.
Initial Final
Temperature Temperature
(°C) (°C)
ii. To it add about 3 pellets of NaOH. Stir
well with a glass rod. Measure tem-
perature of the solution. (Final tem-
perature)
2 i. Take 5 mL NaOH solution in a clean
and dry test tube and place it on a test
tube stand or in a beaker. Record the
temperature of NaOH solution (Initial
temperature)
ii. Measure 5 mL of HCl and carefully add
this to NaOH solution. Stir well with the
glass rod and record the temperature
(Final temperature)
3 Follow the same procedure and
investigate the temperature change
with the following:
i. 5 mL H2SO4 and 2 cm piece of Mg
ribbon.
ii. 5 mL NaHCO3 solution and 4 spatula
of citric acid.
Or
Mix one spatula of citric acid and
one spatula of sodium hydrogen
carbonate in a dry test tube or watch
glass, and add this mixture to 2 mL
water in another test tube.
iii. 5 mL CuSO4 solution and 1 spatula of
Zinc powder.
Note: Need to wait as you record
the temperature until the reaction is
complete.
Safety Precaution

• Concentrated sodium hydroxide and acids (HCl and H2SO4) are

corrosive in nature.
• Use scissor/sharp knife to cut magnesium ribbon.

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

Questions
1. Indentify endothermic and exothermic reactions from the investigation.
2. Which two substances can be used in a cold pack?
3. Golfers need a hand warmer to keep their hands warm on a cold day. Which
chemicals could be used in these warmers?

6.2.6 Applications of energy change

The energy changes accompanying chemical reaction have numerous practical
applications in day to day life. Some of them are discussed below:
1. Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule used as fuel gas. When a
mixture of natural gas, CH4 and air is burnt in the kitchen, it produces heat
which is used for cooking.

CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (g) + Heat energy

2. When coal, a fossil fuel is burnt in air, it gives heat which is used as fuel.
C (s) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) + Heat energy

3. Burning of candle (wax) gives heat and light energy.

C 15 H 32 (s) + 23O 2 (g) $ 15CO 2 (g) + 16H 2 O (g) + Heat energy + Light energy

4. During photosynthesis, the formation of glucose (C6H12O6) takes place with

the absorption of light energy.
Light energy
6CO 2 (g) + 6H 2 O (l) C 6 H 12 O 6 (s) + 6O 2 (g)

5. When electric current is passed through acidified water, it is decomposed

into its constituent elements, namely H2 and O2.
Electric energy
2H 2 O (aq) 2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g)

6. The combustion of diesel and petrol (C8H18) give mechanical energy which
is used as motor fuel.
C 8 H 18 (l) + 12.5 O 2 (g) $ 8 CO 2 (g) + 9 H 2 O (g) + Heat
7. The chemicals in a car battery undergo reaction to produce electrical
energy, which is used in running the engine.
Zn (s) + CuSO 4 (aq) $ ZnSO 4 (aq) + Cu (s) + Electrical energy

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 8. Energy change also plays vital role in some important biochemical
reactions. There are many chemical reactions which take place in the living
bodies, both in plants and animals. Such reactions are called biochemical
reactions. Heat is invariably produced in all biochemical reactions. Some
of the examples are:
a) The slow burning down of food (respiration) comprising of carbo-
hydrates and fats, results in the formation CO2 and H2O. During this
process, the heat is produced which maintains the normal body
temperature and also provide energy to the body in carrying out
various activities.
b) The fermentation reaction which occurs with the help of bacteria
and enzyme also produce heat.

Self Evaluation
1. Identify whether following reactions are endothermic or exothermic reaction.
1
(a) C (s) + 2 O 2 (g) $ CO (g) DH = -26.4 k.cal
(b) H 2 (g) + I 2 (s) $ 2HI(g) DH = +12.4 k.cal
(c) H 2 O (g) + C (s) $ CO (g) + H 2 (g) DH = +31.4 k.cal
1
(d) CO (g) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) DH = -67.6 k.cal
2
(e) HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) $ KCl (aq) + H 2 O (l) DH = -13.8 k.cl
(f) C (s) + 2S (s) $ CS 2 (l) DH = +21.0 k.cal
(g) CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) DH = -210.8 k.cal
2. State various types of heat of reactions.
3. State whether each statement is true or false.
(a) Breaking chemical bond takes in energy from the surrounding.
(b) For an exothermic reaction at constant volume and temperature, its
∆E = (EP – ER) will be positive.
(c) Energy is evolved during the formation of chemical bond.
(d) For an endothermic reaction, ∆H is negative.

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

Summary
1. Chemical reactions involve changes in energy.
2. Chemical energetic deals with the energy changes and thermochemistry
deals with quantities of heat released or absorbed during the chemical
reactions.
3. The energy stored in a substance by virtue of its molecules is called its
internal energy which is denoted by E.
4. Total internal energy of a substance is the sum of all the energies such as
vibrational, rotational, translational, potential energy and kinetic energy
from intermolecular forces. i.e. E = Ev + Er + Et + Ep
5. For all endothermic reactions taking place at constant volume and
temperature, ∆E will have a positive value.
6. For all the exothermic reactions that take place at constant volume and
temperature, ∆E will have a negative value.
7. According to the law of conservation of energy ‘energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but it can be converted from one form into another’.
8. The energy contained in a chemical bond that can be converted into heat
is known as enthalpy.
9. The enthalpy change is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction
carried out at constant pressure and temperature which is given as,
∆H = HP – HR
10. Negative value of ∆H indicates that endothermic reactions are accompanied
by the release of heat energy in which the heat content of the reaction is
lowered.
11. Positive value of ∆H indicates that exothermic reactions are accompanied
by the absorption of heat energy in which the heat content of the reaction
is raised.
12. The reactions which absorb energy from their surroundings, usually in the
form of heat are called endothermic reaction.
13. The reactions which release energy to their surroundings, usually in the
form of heat are called exothermic reaction.
14. The amount of heat released when 1 mole of a substance undergoes

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 complete combustion in the presence of excess of O2 or air at a given
temperature is called heat of combustion of that substance.
15. The amount of heat evolved when 1 gram equivalent of an acid is neutralized
by 1 gram equivalent of a base when both of them are present in dilute
aqueous solutions is called heat of neutralization.
16. The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of solute dissolves
in so much amount of solvent that further addition of solvent to the solution
produces no further change in heat content is called heat of solution.
17. The heat is absorbed during the dissolution of KI and on the other hand
heat is evolved during the dissolution of LiCl in water.

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. The energy stored in a substance by virtue of its molecules is termed as
_____
2. In a reaction where HR < HP, the heat energy is _____
3. The change in the heat content, during a chemical reaction at constant
pressure is referred to as _____
4. The heat content of a chemical reaction during exothermic reaction is
______
5. In a reaction where HR > HP, the value of ∆H will be _____

II. State whether each of the statement is True or False.

1. For an exothermic reaction taking place at constant volume and
temperature, ∆E will have a negative value.
2. The heat content of a reaction is raised during endothermic reaction.
3. The positive value of ∆H indicates that the reaction is exothermic.
4. Enthalpy is the energy contained in a chemical bond that can be converted
into heat.
5. The amount of heat change, when 1 mole of solute dissolves in its solvent
is called as the heat of formation.
6. The positive value of ∆H favours spontaneous reaction.

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

III. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. Stable compounds a. H2O2 and C2H2
2. Formation of nitrogen oxide b. ∆E = EP – ER
3. Change in internal energy c. endothermic reaction
4. Dissolution of LiCl d. CO2 and H2O
5. Unstable compounds e. ∆H = HP – HR
f. exothermic reaction
IV. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options in
following questions.
Refer the Figure 6.6 and answer the questions (1 to 5) that follow.

Activation
Activation energy with
energy catalyst
without
Energy

catalyst Products
Heat
Reactants absorbed

Course of reaction
Figure 6.6 Thermochemical reaction
1. When catalyst is used, the activation energy of the reaction
A increases. C escalates.
B decreases. D is constant.
2. The type of thermochemical reaction is
A endothermic reaction. C biochemical reaction.
B exothermic reaction. D redox reaction.
3. The value of ∆H is
A negative. C zero.
B positive. D neutral.
4. The value of ∆E is
A negative. C neutral.
B positive. D zero.

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 5. When the chemical bonds are broken, the energy is
A evolved. C released.
B stored. D absorbed.
V. Write answers for the following questions
1. Identify the following process as exothermic or endothermic reaction.
A Dissociation of molecules F Sublimation of naphthalene
into ions ball
B Formation of cations G Formation of halides acids
C Formation of anions H Dissolution of KI in water
D Neutralization of acid by a I Decomposition of HgO
base
J Evaporation of water
E Melting of ice
K Protein synthesis
2. Explain with an equation why combustion of methane is an exothermic
reaction, although it involves both breaking and making of the bond.
3. Describe at least five applications of energy changes that take place in
chemical reaction.
4. Differentiate the following;
(a) Change in internal energy and change in enthalpy of a substance.
(b) Endothermic reaction and exothermic reaction.
(c) Chemical energetic and chemical kinetics.
5. What sign is given to ∆E and ∆H values for endothermic and exothermic
reaction? Use proper illustration to explain them.
6. Explain the following heat of reaction with an example each.
A Heat of combustion C Heat of neutralization
B Heat of formation D Heat of solution.
7. What is the standard heat of formation? What information is given by
positive and negative value of standard heat of formation regarding the
stability of the compound?
8. How is internal energy of a system related to an enthalpy?
9. Write down any two practical applications of endothermic and exothermic
reactions in our day to day life.
10. What is the effect of endothermic and exothermic reaction on the
surrounding?

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 Chapter 6 Chemical Energetics

VI. Solve the cross word puzzle

Across
1. The branch of Chemistry which deals with the energy changes in
chemical reactions.
2. The heat contained within a molecule.
3. The branch of Chemistry which deals with the heat changes in
chemical reactions.
4. The ∆H of an exothermic reaction is____.
Down
1. The ∆H of an endothermic reaction is______.
2. In exothermic reactions heat content of the reaction is_______.
3. The reaction in which the heat energy is released.
4. The energy stored in substances.
5. The reaction between acid and base to form salt and water.
6. The reaction in which the heat energy is absorbed.
7. The standard heat of formation has strong influence on the_____of
substances.
8. In endothermic reactions heat content of the reaction is____

1 5

3 3 7
4 8

1 2 6

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 7
7.1
Reversible
Reaction
Introduction
In many chemical reactions, reactants are transformed entirely into the reaction
products. For example, a burning fuel results in new products as one of the
reactants is completely used up. The reactions cannot be reversed as the
resulting product does not react to form original substance. A reaction in which
the reactants are completely converted into the products and the change cannot
be reversed is called an irreversible reaction. However, all chemical reactions do
not proceed to completion. Those chemical reactions in which the reactants are
not completely used up have tendency to reverse the reaction. Thus, reversible
reactions are those chemical reactions where the reactants form products,
which in turn react together to give the
reactants back.
In a reversible reaction, both forward and
backward reaction occurs simultaneously
to reach a stage where the rate of forward
and backward reaction becomes equal.
Thus, at this stage, the reaction is said
to have attained a state of chemical
equilibrium. A chemical equilibrium is
an apparent state of rest at which the
forward and the backward reactions
are proceeding at the same rate. On
changing the concentrations, temperature
or pressure of the reaction, reversible
reaction undergoes a shift to re-establish
its equilibrium. The influence of various Figure 7.1 Le Chatelier
factors on a system was generalized by Le
Chatelier and is known as Le Chatelier’s Principle. The chemical industry makes
use of Le Chatelier’s Principle to increase the yield of product in a reaction.

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

7.2 Reversible reactions and equilibrium

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain reversible and irreversible reaction with examples.
»» define chemical equilibrium.
»» explain the factors influencing the direction of an equilibrium reaction.
»» explain Le Chatelier’s Principle in manufacturing processes.
»» give some examples of equilibrium reactions in manufacturing processes.
»» apply Le Chatelier’s Principle to make and test predictions about how dif-
ferent factors affect a chemical system at equilibrium.
»» explain Haber’s process to manufacture ammonia.

In an irreversible reaction, chemical reaction proceeds to completion by

converting entire amount of the reactants into products. In such chemical
reactions, reactants no longer retain their chemical identity. Few examples of
such reactions are:
• Neutralisation reaction between strong acid and strong base.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) $ NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l)

• Double decomposition reactions or precipitation reactions.

BaCl 2 (aq) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) $ BaSO 4 (s) . +2HCl (aq)

• Redox reactions.
AgNO 3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) $ NaNO 3 (aq) + AgCl (s)

A chemical reaction that proceeds in both forward and backward direction is

a reversible reaction. In such chemical reactions, reaction reverses as entire
amount of the reactants are not converted into products. The reaction which
reverses automatically without any change is said to be in equilibrium. In most
situations, chemical reactions exist in equilibrium when products and reactants
are formed at the same rate and no further net chemical change occurs. Such
a system in which the forward and the backward reactions are taking place at
the same rate is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium as shown in the
Figure 7.2.

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 Rate decreases with time.
Forward reaction N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g)

Equilibrium state Equilibrium state

Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction
Rate increases with time.
Reverse reaction
2NH 3 (g) ? N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g)

Time Time
Figure 7.2 Attainment of equilibrium in reversible reaction.

At equilibrium, there is a constant ratio between the concentrations of the

products and the reactants in any change. One example of a reversible reaction
that reaches equilibrium is the formation and the decomposition of ammonia
as explained in the Figure 7.2.
2NH 3 (g) ? N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g)
In above reaction the double arrow indicates that the reaction can go in either
direction. NH3 decomposes into N2 and H2 and the products formed, N2 and H2
combines to form NH3.
Some examples of reversible reactions are:
CH 3 COOH (l) + NaOH (l) ? CH 3 COONa (l) + H 2 O (l)
FeCl 3 (l) + 3H 2 O (l) ? Fe (OH) 3 (s) + 3HCl (l)
CaCO 3 (s) ? CaO (s) + CO 2 (g)
H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) ? 2HI(g)
NH 4 Cl (s) ? NH 3 (g) + HCl (g)
3Fe (s) + 4H 2 O (g) ? Fe 3 O 4 (s) + 4H 2 (g)
CH 3 COOH (l) + C 2 H 5 OH (l) ? CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 (l) + H 2 O (l)

Activity 7.1 Action of heat on hydrated copper sulphate.

Materials required
Test tube, test tube holder, delivery tube, one hole cork, beaker, spirit lamp or
Bunsen burner, match box, copper sulphate, cold water and clamp stand.
Procedure
1. Add one spatula of powdered hydrated copper (II) sulphate in the test-tube

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

and set up the apparatus as shown in the Figure 7.3.

2. Heat the copper (II) sulphate until its colour changes completely.
3. Allow the content to cool and add the condensed water on to it.
4. Observe the changes.

Test Copper sulphate Cork Delivery tube

tube

Test
tube
Clamp
Heat Beaker
stand
Bunsen
burner
Condensed
water Cold
water

Figure 7.3 Action of heat on hydrated copper sulphate

Precaution

Ensure that the mouth of the delivery tube does not touch
on the condensed liquid during heating. This is to prevent
back suction.
Questions
1. Write observations when:
(a) hydrated copper sulphate is heated.
(b) water is added to heated copper sulphate.

2. Write the chemical equation to show the action of heat on hydrated copper
sulphate.
3. What type of reaction is this?

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 Activity 7. 2 Action of acid and base on copper sulphate solution.
Materials required
Test tube, copper sulphate solution, concentrated hydrochloric acid, and
ammonia solution.
Procedure
1. Add about 5 mL of copper sulphate solution into the test tube.
2. Slowly add the concentrated hydrochloric acid into the test tube containing
copper sulphate and shake the solution until yellow green colour is obtained.
3. Now carefully add the ammonia solution into the test tube without shaking
and observe the colour change.
4. Continue to add the ammonia solution with gentle shaking until the colour
changes to dark blue.
5. Now slowly add concentrated hydrochloric acid to the dark blue solution
with gentle shaking and observe the colour change.
Precaution

Both concentrated HCl and NH4OH are corrosive in nature. The

experiment should be carried out under the supervision of a teacher.
Use PVC gloves and safty goggles.
Questions
1. What happened to the colour of dark blue solution on adding HCl?
2. Write the balanced chemical equation between copper sulphate and
hydrochloric acid.
3. What type of reaction is this?

7.3 Le Chatelier’s Principle

The qualitative influence of various factors on a system in equilibrium was
generalized by Le Chatelier and is known as Le Chatelier’s Principle. It states
that when a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in temperature,
pressure or concentration of a component, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
of the reaction opposing the change. Some examples of equilibrium reactions
in manufacturing processes using Le Chatelier’s Principle are:
i. In Haber’s process
The process combines nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia. The reaction
is reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic. On adding energy,

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

the system responds to the stress by shifting the equilibrium to the left, and
favours the formation of nitrogen and hydrogen. Thus, temperature must be
carefully controlled in order to form more ammonia.
N 2 (g) + H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g) + Energy
ii. In Contact process
The process is employed in manufacturing of sulphuric acid from the reaction
between sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur trioxide. The reaction is
exothermic and reversible. The reaction proceeds with decrease in volume.
Thus, low temperature favours the formation of sulphur trioxide.
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) ? 2SO 3 (g) + Energy
iii. In Birkland and Eyde process
When nitrogen and oxygen reacts to form nitric oxide by this process,
endothermic reversible reaction proceeds with no change in volume. The change
in pressure will not affect its equilibrium as there is no change in volume during
the reaction. The higher temperature will shift the equilibrium to the right in the
direction of endothermic reaction.
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) ? 2NO (g) - Energy
Le Chatelier’s Principle is equally applicable to physical equilibria such as melting
of ice, vaporization of water and solubility of substances.
Analogy for equilibrium reaction.
Dawa Suppose two brothers, Nima and Dawa
played a bet of balancing themselves on
the see-saw.
Nima
When Nima and Dawa have maintained
equilibrium, the see-saw does not slant
on either side.
If Dawa shift towards the fulcrum, then
Nima too has to shift towards the fulcrum
so as to maintain equilibrium.
Here, Dawa’s shift can be compared to
the stress or disturbance to a system in
equilibrium and Nima’s shift as the change
to minimize the effect.

Self Evaluation
1. What is a chemical equilibrium?
2. State Le Chatelier’s Principle.
3. What are the factors that affect the chemical equilibrium of a reaction?

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 4. Give reasons for the following:
(a) Low temperature favours the formation sulphur trioxide in Contact
process.
(b) High temperature favours the formation of nitric oxide in Birkland and
Eyde process.

7.4 Factors affecting the systems at equilibrium

Chemical equilibria respond to three kinds of stresses; changes in the
concentrations of reactants or products, changes in temperature and changes
in pressure. When a stress is first applied to the system, chemical equilibrium
is disturbed. As a result, rates of the forward and the backward reaction in the
system are no longer equal. A system responds to the stress by forming either
more products or more reactants. The following are the factors affecting the
system at equilibrium.
i. Concentration
On increasing the concentration of reactants, system undergoes a stress. The
system tends to decrease the concentration of the reactant by converting some
of the reactant into product. Therefore, the rate of the forward reaction is greater
than the rate of the reverse reaction. As the rate of forward reaction increases,
the equilibrium shifts to the right. The reactant concentration will continue to
drop until the reaction attains the state of equilibrium. For example, in a reaction
A+B ? C+D
any increase in the concentration of A or B at equilibrium will shift the reaction
in forward direction and any increase in the concentration of C or D will shift
the equilibrium in a reverse direction.

Activity 7.3 Action of ammonium hydroxide on copper sulphate solution.

Material required
Test tube, dropper, ammonium hydroxide, hydrated copper sulphate and water.
Procedure
1. Take about 5 mL of copper sulphate solution in a test tube.
2. Add 1 or 2 drops of ammonium hydroxide to it and observe the colour
change.
3. To the above solution add excess of ammonium hydroxide and observe
the colour change.
Questions
1. What change is observed when one or two drops of ammonium hydroxide

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

is added to copper sulphate solution. Explain.

2. Give balanced chemical equation for the reaction between copper sulphate
and ammonium hydroxide.

On adding one or two drops of aqueous solution of ammonium hydroxide to a

solution of copper sulphate, a sky blue precipitate of copper hydroxide is formed.
The precipitate is soluble in excess of ammonium hydroxide to form deep blue
solution forming tetramine copper (II) hydroxide.
On adding one or two drops of ammonium hydroxide solution, chemical
equilibrium favours the formation of product. As the concentrations of the
products increase, they begin to react together and favour the backward
reaction. Eventually, the rate of forward and backward reactions reaches the
equilibrium. When excess of ammonia solution is added at this stage, the system
responds to the increase in the concentration of the reactants by forming more
products. This can be observed by noticing the change in colour of a solution
from sky blue to deep blue.
CuSO 4 + 2NH 4 OH $ Cu (OH) 2 . + (NH 4) 2 SO 4
(blue)
Cu (OH) 2 + 4NH 3 ? [Cu (NH 3) 4] (OH) 2 .
(deep blue)
The equilibrium in a bottle of a carbonated liquid is explained in the equation.
H 3 O + (aq) + HCO -3 (aq) ? 2H 2 O (l) + CO 2 (aq)
On removing the cap of a carbonated liquid bottle, the dissolved carbon dioxide
leaves the solution and enters the air. The forward reaction rate of this system
will increase to produce more CO2. This increase in the rate of forward reaction
decreases the concentration of H3O+ (H3O+ ions make soda taste sharp) in
the carbonated liquid. As a result, the drink tastes flat. If we increase the
concentration of CO2 in the bottle, the reverse reaction rate would increase to
form [H3O+] and [HCO3−].
ii. Temperature
The effect of temperature on a system at equilibrium depends on whether the
reaction is endothermic or exothermic. In endothermic reaction, the system
absorbs energy from the surrounding to proceeds the reaction from left to right.
On contrary, the exothermic reaction proceeds from right to left by releasing
the energy from the chemical system. For example,
2SO 3 (g) ? 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) + Energy DH = +197 kJ
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g) + Energy DH = -92 kJ

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 the reaction to produce sulphur dioxide and oxygen is endothermic, because the
reactant absorbs heat to proceeds its reaction from left to right. On other hand,
the reaction to produce ammonia is exothermic as the reaction releases the heat.
More ammonia is produced if heat is removed by decreasing the temperature.
The effect of temperature on the position of equilibrium can be summarized as:
a) Endothermic change (ΔH > 0). An increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium to the right, thereby forming more products. A decrease
in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left, thereby forming more
reactants.
b) Exothermic change (ΔH < 0). An increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium to the left, thereby forming more reactants. A decrease in
temperature shifts the equilibrium to the right, thereby forming more
products.
iii. Volume and pressure
Increase of pressure decreases the volume of the gases. Le Chatelier’s principle
predicts a shift in equilibrium to relieve this change. Therefore, the shift must
reduce the pressure of the gases.
2SO 3 (g) ? 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)
There are two gas molecules on the left side of the equation and three gas
molecules on the right side. If the equilibrium shifts to the left, the pressure
of the mixture will decrease due to less gas molecules. Increase in pressure
shifts the equilibrium in the direction in which there is decrease in volume so
that the product of pressure and volume remains constant. The equilibrium will
shift to the right at constant temperature. If there is the same number of gas
molecules on both sides of the reaction equation, it has no effect on the position
of equilibrium as long as there is no change in temperature.
In the conversion of nitrogen and hydrogen to ammonia by Haber’s process:
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g)
The four moles of reacting gases occupy a larger volume than two moles of
ammonia. If pressure on the reacting system is increased, the system will tend
to reduce the pressure by reducing the number of particles. Increasing the
pressure on the reaction increases the concentration of the gas molecules, so
the reaction will go faster and more ammonia is formed.
iv. Catalyst
A catalyst usually speeds up the rate of a reaction, either by allowing a different
reaction mechanism or by providing additional mechanisms. The overall effect
is to lower the activation energy which increases the rate of reaction. The
activation energy is lowered in same amount for forward and reverse reactions,

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

and there is the same increase in reaction rates for both the reactions. As a
result, a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium. It only affects the
time to achieve equilibrium. So, a catalyst does not affect the concentration of
the reactants but the reaction takes less time to reach equilibrium.
Table 7.1 The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium.

Type of reaction Change to system Direction of change

All reactions increasing any reactant toward products.
concentration, or decreasing
any product concentration
decreasing any reactant toward reactants.
concentration, or increasing
any product concentration
using a catalyst no change.
Exothermic increasing temperature toward reactants.
decreasing temperature toward products.
Endothermic increasing temperature toward products.
decreasing temperature toward reactants.
Equal number of changing the volume of the no change.
reactant and product container, or adding a
gas molecules non-reacting gas
More gaseous decreasing the volume toward reactants.
product molecules of the container at constant
than reactant temperature
gaseous molecules
increasing the volume of the toward products.
container at constant
temperature,
or adding a non-reacting gas at
constant pressure
Fewer gaseous decreasing the volume of the toward products.
product molecules container at constant
than reactant temperature
gaseous molecules
increasing the volume of the toward reactants.
container at constant
temperature

Self Evaluation
1. Predict the effect of each of the following on the indicated equilibrium system
in terms of which reaction (forward, reverse or neither) will be favoured.

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 H 2 (g) + Cl 2 (g) ? 2HCl (g) + 184 kJ
(a) addition of Cl2 (e) removal of H2
(b) removal of HCl (f) decreased pressure
(c) increased pressure (g) increased temperature
(d) decreased temperature (h) decreased system volume

7.5 Application of Le Chatelier’s Principle.

This principle is applied
1. in the study of the physical equilibrium such as effects of temperature
and pressure on solubility of solids on dissolution, melting of ice and
vaporisation of water.
2. in the study of the chemical equilibrium during the formation of ammonia
by Haber’s process, nitric oxide by Birkland and Eyde process, sulphur
trioxide by contact process, oxidation of carbon monoxide by steam etc.
In Haber’s process, nitrogen from air and hydrogen from natural gas combines
to produce ammonia with the evolution of heat.
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g) + Heat
In this process, forward reaction is favoured by high pressure, low temperature
and excess of nitrogen and hydrogen as discussed in the Figure 7.4.

Nitrogen from air

400°C - 500°C
Nitrogen and Hydrogen (1:3 volumes) 200 atm
Iron as catalyst
Molybdenum as promoter
Hydrogen from Unreacted
natural gas gas recycled

Gases are cooled and

ammonia turns to liquid

Liquid ammonia

Figure 7.4 Haber’s process

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

Self Evaluation
1. For the reaction
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g)
which direction will the equilibrium shift? Explain your answer in each case.
(a) If more nitrogen is added to the system.
(b) If the temperature is decreased.
(c) If the pressure is increased.
(d) If the volume of reactant is increased.
(e) If hydrogen is removed from the system
(f) If temperature is reduced and pressure is increased.
(g) If catalyst is not used.

Summary
1. During irreversible reactions, products do not significantly reform reactants.
2. During reversible reactions, products reform the original reactants.
3. Reversible reactions can reach equilibrium.
4. The forward and reverse reaction rates are equal at chemical equilibrium.
5. Chemical reactions in which a reaction automatically reverses and there is
no net overall change are said to be in equilibrium.
6. At chemical equilibrium, reactant and product concentrations remain
unchanged.
7. Chemical equilibria are dynamic equilibria.
8. Le Chatelier’s Principle states that chemical equilibria adjust to relieve
applied stresses.
9. Stresses in a chemical reaction are changes in concentration, temperature,
and pressure.
10. Temperature changes affect the values of equilibrium constants.
11. Chemical equilibria respond to three kinds of stress; changes in the
concentrations of reactants or products, changes in temperature, and
changes in pressure.
12. When a stress is first applied to a system, chemical equilibrium is disturbed.
13. Pressure changes have almost no affect on equilibrium reactions in solution.
14. Pressure changes can affect equilibrium reactions in the gaseous phase.
15. In endothermic change (ΔH > 0). An increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium to the right, forming more products. A decrease in temperature

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 shifts the equilibrium to the left, forming more reactants.
16. In exothermic change (ΔH < 0). An increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium to the left, forming more reactants. A decrease in temperature
shifts the equilibrium to the right, forming more products.
17. The Haber process involves a synthesis reaction.

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. When a stress is first applied to a system _______ is disturbed.
2. ________ principle states that chemical equilibria adjust to relieve applied
stresses.
3. Increase of pressure decreases the volume of the ______ .
4. In equilibrium, reactants are never fully used up because they are constantly
being formed from _____.
5. The energy required to get a reaction started is called the ______.
II. State whether the following statements are True or False. Correct the
false statements.
1. If products are removed from a reaction at equilibrium, more reactants
will go on to form products.
2. The reaction shifts towards left on decreasing temperature in an exothermic
reaction.
3. At chemical equilibrium, reactant and product concentrations remain
unchanged.
4. The volume changes when inert gas is added to equal number of reactant
and product of gas molecules.
5. When one product is a gas and other products and reactants are solid or
liquid, it is easy to remove the gas from the reaction.
III. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. In which of these reactions is the formation of the products favoured by
an increase in pressure?
A 2O 3 (g) $ 3O 2 (g)
B C (s) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g)
C 2NO (g) + O 2 (g) $ 2NO 2 (g)
D CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l) $ H 3 O + (aq) + HCO -3 (aq)

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

2. What is the effect of an increase in temperature on an exothermic reaction

at equilibrium?
A It has no effect on the equilibrium.
B It shifts the equilibrium in favour of the forward reaction.
C It shifts the equilibrium in favour of the reverse reaction.
D It shifts the equilibrium in favour of both the forward and reverse
reactions.
3. Which of the following factors does not affect the equilibrium of a solution?
A Temperature. C Concentration.
B Pressure. D Catalyst.
4. Which of the following conditions are applied in Haber’s process to
manufacture ammonia?
I By increasing the concentration of reactant.
II By decreasing the concentration of reactant.
III By increasing the temperature.
IV By increasing the pressure.
A I and II. C I and IV.
B II and IV. D II and III.
5. Chemical reactions in which a reaction automatically reverses and there
is no net overall change is said to be
A equilibrium. C exothermic.
B endothermic. D completion.
6. Which type or types of change, if any, can reach equilibrium?
A A chemical change only
B A physical change only
C Both a chemical and a physical change
D Neither a chemical nor a physical change
7. Which statement correctly describes an endothermic chemical reaction?
A The products have higher potential energy than the reactants, and
the ∆H is negative.
B The products have higher potential energy than the reactants, and
the ∆H is positive.
C The products have lower potential energy than the reactants, and
the ∆H is negative.
D The products have lower potential energy than the reactants, and
the ∆H is positive.

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 8. Given the equation representing a reaction at equilibrium:
N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) ? 2NH 3 (g)
What happens when the concentration of H2(g) is increased?
A The equilibrium shifts to the left, and the concentration of N2(g)
decreases.
B The equilibrium shifts to the left, and the concentration of N2(g)
increases.
C The equilibrium shifts to the right, and the concentration of N2(g)
decreases.
D The equilibrium shifts to the right, and the concentration of N2(g)
increases.
IV. Write answers for the following questions
1. Chickens do not have sweat glands. Thus, when the temperature rises
they tend to breathe faster which results into lowering the concentration
of carbonate ions in their blood. Since, the eggshells are mostly calcium
carbonate, faster breathing chickens lay eggs with thinner shells. To solve
the issues of high surrounding temperature, farmer supply carbonated
water for their chickens rather than installing air conditioner. How does
this relate to Le Chatelier’s Principle?
2. Hydrogen and iodine gas combines in a reversible exothermic reaction to
form hydrogen iodide gas.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
(b) If more iodine gas is added after the reaction reaches equilibrium,
will the reaction be shifted to the left or the right?
(c) If heat is added after the reaction reaches equilibrium, will the
reaction be shifted to the left or the right?
3. Explain whether an exothermic reaction that is at equilibrium will shift to
the left or to the right to readjust after each of the following procedures
is followed.
(a) Products are removed.
(b) More reactants are added.
(c) More heat is added.
(d) Heat is removed.
4. The following equilibrium takes place in a close rigid container for the
following reaction.
CO (g) + 3H 2 (g) $ CH 4 (g) + H 2 O (g)
The volume and temperature are kept constant, but the pressure on the
system is increased. Explain how this affects the concentration of the

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 Chapter 7 Reversible Reaction

reactants and products, and the direction in which the equilibrium shifts.
5. The following reaction is at equilibrium.
2SO 3 (g) $ 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) + Heat
Which condition will shift the equilibrium to the right, a decrease in volume
or a decrease in temperature? Explain.

6. Why are industrial processes operated at high temperature?

7. The reaction speeds up in forward direction on increasing the pressure
in Haber process. Explain.
8. Several steps are involved in the industrial production of sulphuric acid.
One step involves the oxidation of sulphur dioxide gas to form sulphur
trioxide gas. A catalyst is used to increase the rate of production of sulphur
trioxide gas. In a rigid cylinder with a movable piston, this reaction reaches
equilibrium as represented by the equation below.
2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) $ 2SO 3 (g) + 392 kJ
(a) Increase in the pressure of gases increases the rate of forward
reaction. Explain in terms of collision theory.
(b) What is occurred when more oxygen gas is added to the reaction at
equilibrium? State in term of the concentration of sulphur trioxide.

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 8
8.1
Rate of
Reaction
Introduction
A chemical reaction is a process in which the reactants are converted into
product(s) through the rearrangement of atoms. How fast or slow a chemical
reaction occurs can be determined by its rate of reaction. The rate of chemical
reaction is either the speed at which the reactants are used up or the products
are formed. The rate of chemical reaction changes continuously with time. The
rate of many chemical reactions can be altered by changing the conditions such
as temperature, pressure, concentration, presence of catalyst, enzymes etc.
In living organisms almost all chemical reactions takes place with the help
of enzymes. Enzymes are bio-catalyst found in nature and are used in
biotechnology. The activity of an enzyme is affected by change in pH and
temperature. Chemical industries apply the optimum conditions for various
chemical reactions to maximise the yield. Some of the important and useful
chemical reactions are, burning of fuel, cooking of food, respiration, digestion
of food, ripening of fruits, photosynthesis etc.

8.2 Collision theory

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain collision theory.
»» explain the conditions for effective collision.
»» define activation energy in a chemical reaction.

How do reactions occur? What are the factors responsible for the rate of
reaction? This can be explained by the collision theory which is based on the
following features:

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1. A chemical reaction takes place only when the particles of reactants collide
with each other. Higher the frequency of the collision, faster will be the
rate of reaction.
2. Only the colliding particles with sufficient energy react to form product,
while others remain unchanged.
3. Only the effective collisions bring about the chemical reaction.
4. For effective collision to take place, reactant molecules should
(a) posses energy greater or equal to threshold energy and
(b) must have proper orientation.

8.2.1 Threshold energy and activation energy

The reactants must collide with sufficient energy to break the bonds and to form
the new bonds in the products. When the colliding particles do not possess
sufficient energy, the bonds are not broken and new bonds are not formed. For a
collision to be effective, the colliding molecules must possess a certain minimum
amount of energy called threshold energy. If the reacting molecules have energy
less than their threshold energy, there will be no effective collision between them
and no product will be formed. Thus in order to form the product, combining
molecules or atoms must possess energy equal to threshold energy either of its
own or by supplying heat or light. The extra amount of energy which the reactant
molecule has to absorb is called the activation energy and it must be equal
to the threshold energy. Consider the burning of fuel as an example. For the
fuel to burn, it needs
a certain amount of Threshold energy (Eth)
heat to ignite. The heat Activated
provides the activation complex
energy for this reaction.
So activation energy is Activation
the minimum amount energy (Ea)
of energy which the
reacting species must Eth
possess to start a Er
Reactants
Energy

chemical reaction. Energy

of the
The energy level ΔH reaction
diagram shown in Er
the Figure 8.1 is an
exothermic reaction. Ep
The energy curve goes Ep Products
up from the reactants
energy level to begin Reaction Progress

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 with and then drops to the products energy level. This is because many reactions
need activation energy to start the reaction. As the reaction proceeds, the heat
content of the reaction is decreased. In an endothermic reaction, the energy is
supplied to the reactants from the surrounding to obtain products and the heat
content of the reaction is raised.
The collision energy depends on the kinetic energy of the colliding particles.
When the molecules with less energy collide, they move apart unchanged. When
the molecules having the necessary activation energy collide, their atoms are
rearranged to form intermediate, a temporary product called activation complex.
It is short lived and may reform the original bonds to form reactant molecules
or it may form new bonds to give product.

8.2.2 Orientation of reactants

A large number of collisions become ineffective, if the colliding molecules are
not properly oriented during collision. The proper orientation for the collision
of the reacting molecules favours the formation of product. This is also known
as having the correct collision geometry.
The Figure 8.2 illustrates the proper orientation for effective collisions between
nitrogen atoms of one molecule with the nitrogen atom of another molecule. If
nitrogen atoms of both NO2 are properly oriented, it results in the formation of
dinitrogen tetra oxide. However, no product is formed if a nitrogen atom of one
NO2 collides with oxygen atom of another NO2.

Collisions not properly oriented form no product

O O O O O
Molecules Molecules
N N approach N O N separate N N
O O O O O
O
NO2 NO2 collision NO2 NO2
No product

Properly oriented collisions form product

O O Molecules
O O O O
Bond
N N approach N N formation N N
O O O O O O
NO2 NO2 collision N2O4
Product
Figure 8.2 Effective and ineffective collisions of NO2 molecules

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

Table 8.1 Conditions that alters the rate of reaction.

Condition Explanation
Temperature As the temperature increases, the reactant molecules possess
energy greater than the threshold energy to bring about
effective collision per unit of time.
Concentration Higher the concentration of reacting molecules, greater is the
number of collision.
Area The greater the surface area of a solid reactant, greater is the
area available for the reaction to occur.
Catalyst The presence of catalyst lowers the activation energy of the
reactants by providing alternative pathway for reaction.

Self Evaluation
1. Explain collision theory of reaction.
2. Identify the condition(s) that increases the rate of reaction for the following
(a) Digestion of food. (d) Photosynthesis.
(b) Burning of wood. (e) Reaction between HCl and
(c) Making cheese from curd. magnesium.
(f) Ripening of fruits.
3. Define the term activation energy?
4. Why all collisions do not result into chemical reactions?
5. Which of the following two illustration; (A) and (B) lead to form required
products? Give reason.

NO + O3 NO + O3
Illustration A

NO + O3 NO2 + O2
Illustration B

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 8.3 Reaction rates
Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain the rate of reaction.
»» write the expression for the rate of reaction.
»» illustrate the factors affecting the rate of reaction.

All chemical reactions proceed at different rates. The rates are always measured
in a unit per time interval. The rate of a chemical reaction measures how fast
reactants are converted into products. The rate decreases gradually as the
reaction proceeds and become zero when the reaction is complete. Reactions
can be slow or fast depending on the conditions such as temperature, pressure,
concentration, presence of catalyst, etc. The speed of reaction can be determined
by measuring its reaction rate.

8.3.1 Expressing reaction rates

The speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds is called the reaction rate.
This can be expressed as a change in the amount of reactant consumed or
product formed per unit change of time. So, the rate of a chemical reaction is
expressed quantitatively in terms of the change in concentration of one of the
reactants or products per unit change of time.
change in concentration of reactant
Rate of reaction = change in time
change in concentration of product
= change in time
Reaction rates are always positive by convention. A rate that is expressed as
the change in concentration of a product is the rate at which the concentration
of the product increases. The rate that is expressed in terms of the change in
concentration of a reactant is the rate at which the concentration of the reactant
decreases.

8.3.2 Factors affecting the rate of reaction

There are many factors which influence the rate of a chemical reaction. The
reaction rate may depend on the nature of reactant, the structure of molecules,
the collision between the molecules and the energy possesed by the reacting
molecules. For example, the reactions of ions are usually fast as they have
attraction for each other, while the reaction of covalent molecules is usually
slow. It is important to note that a reaction does not have a single specific rate.

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

Reaction rates depend on the following four main factors as discussed below:
i. Temperature
Most reactions are favoured at higher temperatures. For example, in the kitchen
we increase the temperature to speed up the chemical processes of cooking
food. Baking a cake speeds up the reactions that change the liquid batter
into a spongy product. Lowering the temperature slows down most reactions.
Photographic film and batteries stay longer if they are kept cool because the
lower temperature slows the reactions to form products. Most manufacturing
industries use either heating or cooling to control their processes for optimal
performance. Adding heat to the reactants breaks the bonds and increases
the speed of molecules or atoms. The faster they move, the more likely they
will collide and react to form product. Removing heat decreases the rate of
reactions. Thus, it is for this reason that the food does not get spoilt at faster
rate on freezing.
At low temperature, the reactant particles move slowly and less collision
occurs resulting into less products. Increase of temperature increases the
kinetic energies of particles and they move faster and increase the frequency of
collision. So, the number of effective collisions that form the products increases.
Therefore, a rise in temperature increases reaction rate by increasing the collision
frequency as well as the energy of the colliding particles. The rate of many
reactions at room temperature is approximately doubled for every 10°C increase
in temperature. Pressure has almost no effect on reactions taking place in the
liquid or solid states. However, it does change the rate of reactions taking place
in the gas phase.

Activity 8.1 Investigating the reaction rate at different temperature.

Materials required
Large test tube, test tube holder, measuring cylinder, water bath, acetic acid
and calcium carbonate
Procedure
1. Take two large test tubes and label them as A and B.
2. Add 5 mL of acetic acid in both the test tubes.
3. Warm the acetic acid of the test tube A by placing it in water bath.
4. Remove the test tube A from the water bath and add one gram of calcium
carbonate in each of the test tube A and B.
5. Observe what happens.

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 Questions
1. Based on your observation, in which acetic acid solution did the calcium
carbonate react faster? Why?
2. What may happen on the reaction rate if sodium bicarbonate is used instead
of calcium carbonate?
3. What can you conclude from the experiment?

ii. Concentration

Activity 8. 2 Investigating the reaction rate in different concentration.

Materials required
HCl, two large test tubes, two small magnesium ribbons of equal size, measuring
cylinder and a stop watch.
Procedure
1. Take two labelled large test tube, add 2 mL of Conc. HCl in one test tube
and 2 mL of dil. HCl in another test tube.
2. Start a stopwatch at the moment you drop a small piece of magnesium
ribbon into the first test tube.
3. Stop the stopwatch when the magnesium has finished reacting.
4. Repeat steps 2–3 with a second magnesium piece of same length or weight
using the second test tube.
Questions
1. In which hydrochloric acid solution did the magnesium piece dissolves
faster? Explain your observation.
2. Provide evidences to prove that the chemical reaction have occurred?
3. Name the gas produced during the reaction and write the balanced chemical
equation for the reaction.
4. What conclusion can you draw from the experiment?

Changing the concentration of reactants can alter the rate of reaction. More the
concentration of the reactants, the greater is the number of reactant particles
in a unit volume which collide with each other. Therefore, if the solutions of
reactants are concentrated, the reaction proceeds at faster rate giving more

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

products. For example, if a fire is burning slowly, fanning the flames increases
the concentration of oxygen and the fire burns faster.
In case of the gaseous reactant, concentration may be increased by increasing
the pressure. Increasing of pressure does not increase the number of particles,
but it brings the particles closer thereby increasing the collision frequency. For
example, the Haber’s process uses high pressure to increase the rate of reaction
between hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia. Lowering the concentration
decreases the rate of reaction.
iii. Surface area
Chemical reaction involving a liquid and a solid reactants take place at the
surface of the solid. The surface area of a solid can be increased by grinding
them into small powder. When the surface area of reactants is increased, the
frequency of collision between the reactant particles is also increased. This
explains why campfires are started with paper and small twigs rather than logs,
and salt dissolves faster in water when the mixture is stirred. Can you guess
why our intestine is long?
iv. Catalysts
A chemical reaction occurs only when the reactant molecules collide and attain
the activation energy. A catalyst lowers activation energy by providing alternative
pathway for reaction thereby allowing the larger portion of the reactant particles
to collide. Adding catalyst to a reaction mixture increases the reaction rate,
without itself undergoing any permanent changes. The process is called catalysis
and it is widely used in the chemical industries.

Analogy for catalysis

Suppose there is a mountain between two valleys

such that the only route for people to get from one
valley to the other is over the mountain. In such
case, only the most active people will manage to
get from one valley to the other.
If a tunnel is cut through the mountain, more
people will now manage to get from one valley
to the other by this easier route. In this case, the
tunnel has lower activation energy than going over
the mountain.
Here, the tunnel has provided an alternative route
without lowering the mountain.

Figure 8.3 Illustration for catalysed reaction

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 Activity 8. 3 Investigating the role of catalyst
Material required
Hydrogen peroxide, test tube, measuring cylinder and manganese dioxide.
Procedure
1. Take two test tubes and label them as A and B.
2. Add 1 mL of hydrogen peroxide to each of the test tube.
3. Add few crystals of manganese dioxide to test tube B.
4. Observe the reactions in both test tubes and answer the following questions.
Questions
1. In which test tube the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is violent?
2. In which test tube the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is negligible.
Why?

Hydrogen peroxide solution is commonly used as a mild antiseptic and as a

bleaching agent. It decomposes very slowly when stored in a bottle, forming
oxygen as shown in the equation.
MnO 2
2H 2 O 2 (aq) 2H 2 O (l) + O 2 (g)
Adding few crystals of manganese dioxide MnO2(s) to hydrogen peroxide causes
a violent decomposition. The manganese dioxide is one of the catalysts for the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Uncatalysed
reaction pathway
Activation energy
without catalyst
Activation energy
with catalyst
Energy

Reactants
Catalysed
reaction pathway Products

Reaction Progress

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

Self Evaluation
1. State the conditions that influence the rate of reaction.
2. What does the rate of a reaction indicate?
3. How is the reaction rate expressed?
4. Answer the following using the collision theory:
(a) Why are catalyst used in a chemical reaction?
(b) Explain the role of concentration of reactant in the reaction rate.
(c) Increase in temperature increases the reaction rate. Explain the
statement.
(d) How does pressure influence the rate of a reaction in gas? Explain.
(e) Could a catalysed reaction pathway have activation energy higher than
the uncatalysed reaction? Explain.

8.4 Biological catalyst

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain enzyme catalysed reaction.
»» explain the affect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
»» state the importance of enzymes and their uses in biotechnology.

Enzymes are proteins produced by the living cells. They are called biological
catalysts as they enhance the rate of vital biochemical reactions such as
breathing, digestion, pumping of heart, cell division, contraction of muscles,
electrolyte balance etc. Enzymes function in a mild environment similar to a
body temperature of a living organism to support a life. They are inactive at
0°C and destroyed by heat at 100°C. Enzymes are highly specific and can act
on a single or a small group of closely related substances. These substances
on which the enzymes act are called substrates. During catalytic action, the
enzymes do not undergo any permanent modification and are regenerated at
the end of the reaction. The general enzyme catalysed reaction takes place as
per the equation:
Enzyme + Substrate $ Enzyme - Substrate complex
Enzyme - Substrate complex $ Enzyme + Product

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 Enzyme-substrate complex is an unstable complex. For example, amylase acts
on starch and produce maltose units. In a given reaction amylase is the enzyme,
starch is the substrate and maltose is the product.
amylase + starch $ amylase - starch
(E) (S) (ES)
amylase - starch $ amylase + maltose
(ES) (E) (P)

Where; E = Enzyme; S = Substrate; ES = Enzyme-substrate complex; P =

product.
Emil Fischer, in 1894 postulated a lock and key analogy to explain the specific
action of an enzyme with a single substrate. In his analogy, the lock is the enzyme
and the key is the substrate. Only the correct size key (substrate) fits into the key
hole (active site) of the lock (enzyme) as shown in the Figure 8.5 with respect to
mechanism of an enzyme action.

Substrate

Active
site

Enzyme Enzyme-substrate Enzyme Product

complex
Figure 8.5 Mechanism of an enzyme action.

8.4.1 Factors influencing enzyme activity

Like all catalyst, enzymes take part in the reaction and alter the rate of reaction,
but not the position of the equilibrium. The activity of an enzyme is affected
by several factors like temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate
concentration, metal ions (activators), inhibitors, etc. However, the pH and
temperature have significant influence on enzyme activity.
i. pH
Enzymes are affected by changes in pH. All the enzymes have a particular pH at
which their activity is maximum. The pH at which the enzyme shows maximum

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activity is known as optimum pH. Extremely high or low pH generally results

in complete loss of activity for most enzymes because the changes in pH can
make and break intra and intermolecular bonds, changing the shape and, its
effectiveness. The optimum pH value will vary from one enzyme to another. Only
in this optimum pH, ionisation of active amino acids in enzymes and substrate
are favoured for enzyme – substrate complex formation. So at optimum pH, the
rate of reaction is at an optimum. Any change in pH above or below the optimum
pH will cause decrease in the rate of reaction.
ii. Temperature
Rise in temperature causes increase in the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions
up to a certain temperature of about 45°C. Above this temperature the activity
declines due to denaturation of enzymes. Denaturation is the alteration of protein
shape and structure due to an external stress such as temperature, high pH,
etc. As the enzyme is denatured at high temperature and inactivated at low
temperature, the reaction which it catalyses slow down and ultimately stops.
So the temperature at which the enzyme shows maximum activity is known as
optimum temperature. The optimum temperature of most of the enzymes is
found to be 37°C. Every enzyme has optimum conditions at which its reaction
rate is the fastest. A 10°C rise in the temperature will increase the activity of
most enzymes by 50 to 100% because of increased kinetic energy. Why do you
think it is advisable to drink warm water?

8.4.2 Importance of enzymes in biotechnology

a) Almost all reactions that take place in the human body are catalyzed by
enzymes.
b) During digestion, enzymes speed up the breakdown of foods into smaller
particles from mouth till the intestine which is absorbed by the cells.
c) Enzymes are even involved in the production of other enzymes in cells.
d) Enzymes are now used in medicine to treat disorders that result from
their deficiency. For example, lactase pills are taken along with the dairy
products to prevent from bloating and diarrhoea.
e) Enzymes catalyse many biological reactions and enhance the rate of
product formation in metabolic pathways.
f) Some enzymes in blood are used as diagnostic indicators of various
diseases. For example, the level of transaminase increases in blood during
jaundice, a liver disorder. The level of transaminase in blood is used to
determine liver function.
g) Some enzymes are used for therapeutic purposes like Penicillinase to treat
patients allergic to penicillin, Asparaginase to treat leukaemia, Diastase
to treat indigestion, Collagenase in treating skin ulcers etc.

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 8.4.3 Enzymes and their functions.
Some of the enzymes and their important functions are discussed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Enzymes and their functions

Enzyme Function
Salivary amylase Breaks down starch into smaller polysaccharides.
Pepsin Breaks down proteins into small polypeptides
Pancreatic amylase Breaks down starch and polysaccharides into
disaccharides.
Lipase Breaks down fats into glycerol, fatty acids.
Amino peptidase Breaks down polypeptides into amino acids.

Self Evaluation
1. What are biological catalysts? Give examples.
2. Why are enzymes highly substrate specific?
3. What happens to enzymes if they are heated above the optimum
temperature?
4. Explain the role of pepsin in human body.
5. How do enzymes differ from other catalysts?

Summary
1. A chemical reaction takes place only when the particles of reactants
approach and collide with each other.
2. Only the colliding particles which possess sufficient energy react to
form products. Other colliding particles simply rebound from each other
unchanged.
3. The rate of a chemical reaction measures how quickly reactants are
changed into products.
4. Reaction rates depend on factors such as temperature, pressure,
concentration and the presence of catalyst.
5. Reaction rates generally increase with reactant concentration or, in the
case of gases, pressure.
6. Increase of temperature increases the kinetic energies of particles and they

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

move faster and increase the frequency of collision.

7. The minimum amount of energy that the reacting molecule must possess
for the collision to result in a chemical reaction is threshold energy.
8. Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rates of reactions
important to an organism.
9. Enzymes catalyse many biological reactions and enhance the rate of
product formation in metabolic pathways.
10. Some enzymes in blood are used as diagnostic indicators of various
diseases.
11. Catalysts provide a pathway of lower activation energy.
12. pH and temperature has significant influence on enzyme activity.

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
1. _____ provide a pathway of lower activation energy.
2. Enzymes are _____ that increase the rates of reactions.
3. When the surface area is increased the ____of collision between the
reactant particles is increased.
4. The colliding molecules must possess a certain minimum amount of
energy called_____.
5. Pressure has almost no effect on reactions taking place in the liquid or
_____ states.
II. State whether the following statements are true or false. Rewrite the
false statements correctly.
1. The change in the amount of reactants or products over time is called the
chemical kinetics.
2. The decrease in surface area of the reactants increases the rate of reaction.
3. The rate of a chemical reaction is increased by lowering the concentration
the reactant.
4. Enzymes are affected by changes in pressure.
5. Heating the reactants breaks the bonds and increases the speed of
molecules or atoms.

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 III. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. Which one of the following sets of reactants is most likely to have the
slowest rate of reaction?
A Two covalent compounds in solution.
B Two ionic substances in solution.
C Two solid ionic substances.
D A covalent compound in solution and an ionic substance in solution.
2. The Figure 8.6 shows the volume of oxygen gas collected over the time
for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. At which point on the graph
has the reaction stopped?

M
Vol of oxygen (cm3)

K
Time (s)
Figure 8.6
A K. C M
B L. D N.
3. An enzyme called diastase is use to treat
A allergy. C leukaemia.
B jaundice. D indigestion.
4. In solid and solution, the rate of a reaction is not affected by
A catalyst. C pressure.
B temperature. D concentration
5. Given the balanced equation representing a reaction:
Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ FeCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
This reaction occurs more quickly when powdered iron is used instead of
a single piece of iron of the same mass because the powdered iron
A acts as a better catalyst than the single piece of iron.
B absorbs less energy than the single piece of iron.
C has a greater surface area than the single piece of iron.
D is more metallic than the single piece of iron.

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

6. In a biochemical reaction, an enzyme acts as a catalyst, causing the

A activation energy of the reaction to decrease.
B potential energy of the reactants to decrease.
C kinetic energy of the reactants to increase.
D heat of reaction to increase.
7. A catalyst is added to a system at equilibrium. If the temperature remains
constant, the activation energy of the forward reaction
A decreases. C remains the same.
B increases. D slightly increases.
8. Which one of the following is most likely to have the fastest rate of reaction?
A Boiling of egg. C Burning of match stick.
B Setting of cement. D Paint drying.
9. Which items correctly complete the following statement? A catalyst can
act in a chemical reaction to
I increases the equilibrium constant.
II lower the activation energy.
III decrease energy of the reaction.
IV provide new path for the reaction.
A Only I and II. C Only III and IV.
B Only II and III. D Only II and IV.
10. Which of the following reactions will start with the highest rate?
A 2g of limestone powder in 100mL of 0.1M HCl at 55°C.
B 2g of limestone chips in 100mL of 0.1M HCl at 25°C.
C 2g of limestone powder in 100mL of 0.1M HCl at 25°C.
D 2g of limestone chips in 100mL of 0.1M HCl at 55°C.
IV. Write answers for the following questions
1. A student wishes to investigate the change in reaction rate with the change
in concentration of HCl (aq). Given the reaction:
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ H 2 (g) + ZnCl 2 (aq)
(a)Identify one variable that might affect the rate and should be held
constant during this investigation.
(b) Describe the effect of increasing the concentration of HCl(aq) on the
reaction rate and justify your response in terms of collision theory.
2. How does pressure affect the rates of reactions in gas?
3. CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l) + 890.4 kJ

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 Explain, in terms of collision theory, why a lower concentration of oxygen
gas decreases the rate of this reaction.

4. The following are the data obtained by a student while performing the
experiment on rate of a reaction. Study the data provided in the experiments
and answers the questions that follow.
Experiment 1
Solution A mL Solution B mL Water mL Time in second
10 10 0 16
9 10 1 20
8 10 2 22
7 10 3 24
6 10 4 26

Experiment 2
Trial Temperature °C Time in second
1 5 25
2 15 19
3 25 15
4 35 11
5 45 9

(a) Plot the data in a graph and draw line through the plotted point using
time as ‘y’ axis and concentration of solution as ‘x’ axis.
(b) Based on the experimental data make a hypothesis about the effect
of concentration of the reactants on reaction rate.
(c) Plot the data in a graph and draw line through the plotted point using
time a ‘y’ axis and temperature as ‘x’ axis.
(d) Based on the experimental data make a hypothesis about the effect
of temperature on the reaction rate.
(e) How does the collision theory relate to the rate of chemical reaction?
(f) What other factors affect the rate of reaction?
5. When lumps of calcium carbonate react with hydrochloric acid, carbon
dioxide gas is released according to the equation
CaCO 3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)
What effect will the following have on the rate of the reaction?

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

(a) Increasing the temperature.

(b) Adding water to the acid.
(c) Using powdered calcium carbonate instead of lumps.
6. What are catalysts and how do they function?
7. Give an example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
8. When hydrogen peroxide solution, used as an antiseptic is applied to a
wound, it often bubbles. Explain.
9. Figure 8.7 shows activation energies for the decomposition of HI and HBr.
Use the diagram to answer the questions that follow.

Activated complex Activated complex

Ea H2 + Br2
2HI

Ea
Energy
Energy

2HBr
H 2 + I2

Reaction progress
Reaction progress
Figure 8.7 Activation energy diagram

(a) Which of these decomposition reactions is endothermic?

(b) Which of these reactions requires an input of energy to initiate the
decomposition?
(c) Why does hydrogen bromide decompose more quickly than
hydrogen iodide?
(d) How would each curve above change if a catalyst were added?
10. Explain why, even though a collision may have energy in excess of the
activation energy, reaction may not occur.
11. Unlike gas-phase reactions, a reaction in solution is hardly affected by
pressure. Explain.
12. Explain on each of the following statements by relating the factors that
influences the rates of chemical reactions.
(a) Colours in the fabric of curtains in windows exposed to direct
sunlight often fade.

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 (b) Meat is preserved longer when stored in a freezer rather than a
refrigerator.
(c) Taking one or two aspirin will not harm most people, but taking at
once can be fatal.
V. Solve the crossword puzzle.
Across
4. Some enzymes in the blood are used as diagnostic indicators of
various ____.
5. Particles have this kind of energy.
6. This helps reactions go faster.
7. This process uses high pressure to increase the rate of reaction of
hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia.
8. In this reaction the energy is supplied to the reactant from the
surrounding to form product
10. Enzymes are the proteins produced by the living _____.
11. The enzyme diastase is used to treat _____.
13. This has almost no effect on reaction taking place in the liquid or
solid states.
18. Increasing this usually makes the reaction go faster.
20. Biological catalyst.
21. Particles must do this before they react.
Down
1. Catalyst provides the alternative pathway by lowering the activation
energy of the ____.
2. When the reaction is complete the rate of reaction becomes ____.
3. At high temperature the enzymes are ______.
6. Increasing this usually causes a greater chance of collision.
9. The particles must have this energy to react.
12. The colliding molecules must possess minimum amount of this
energy.
14. All chemical reactions proceed at different _____.
15. Chemical reactions involving a solid reactant take place at the _____.
16. Increasing the temperature gives the particles more ____.
17. This breaks down proteins into small polypeptides.
19. Reactions are like this at low concentration.

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 Chapter 8 Rate of Reaction

1 2
3

8 9

10

11

12

13 14 16 16

17

18

19

20

21

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 9
9.1
Alcohol
Introduction
An alcohol constitutes a member of organic compound in which a hydroxyl
group (–OH) is bonded to a carbon atom of hydrocarbon chain. Therefore,
alcohols are hydroxy derivates of alkanes, obtained by replacing the hydrogen
atoms of alkanes by a hydroxyl group. The –OH is a functional group of alcohol.
Alcohol, especially ethanol is prepared from starchy grains by fermentation both
at small and large scale.
Alcohol and its properties have offered wide range of applications in industries
and in daily life as an antiseptic, biofuel, solvent, paints and many more. The
commercial production of alcohol, for example ethanol, in distilleries can boost
up the nation’s economy and mitigate the unemployment issues. However, the
pattern in drinking habits can also bring negative impacts to health, society
and economy.

9.2 Alcohol – structure, classes and nomenclature.

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» write the names of alcohol in its homologous series using common and
IUPAC naming systems.
»» derive alcohols from its corresponding alkane.
»» differentiate the classes of alcohol based on number of ‒OH bonded to it.
»» apply general formula of alcohol (CnH2n+1–OH) to write their formula.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

9.2.1 Homologous series and functional group.

The term homologous series is often used for a group of compounds that
have the same functional group. Thus, a series of organic compounds with
same functional group in which the members differ by one –CH2 unit is referred
to as homologous series. The individual members of such series are called
homologues and the phenomenon is called homology. Each homologous series
or families are represented by their general formula as shown in the Table 9.1,
where ‘n’ is the number of carbon atom.
Table 9.1 General formula of some homologous series

Homologous series General formula

Alkane CnH2n+2
Alkene CnH2n
Alkyne CnH2n‒2
Alcohol CnH2n+1OH

Table 9.2 Homologous series of alcohol

Name Molecular formula (CnH2n-1OH)

Methanol CH3OH
Ethanol CH3CH2OH
Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH
Butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Pentanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
Hexanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
Heptanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
Octanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH

A functional group can be an atom or a group of atoms attached to some carbon

atom in a hydrocarbon chain, which largely determines the chemical properties
of an organic compound. Any organic compounds with same functional group
belong to the same homologous series. For example, the saturated hydrocarbon
(i.e., alkane) attached with hydroxyl (–OH) group is alcohol family. Thus, the
term functional group is defined as an atom or a group of atoms in a molecule
that gives the molecules its characteristic properties. According to IUPAC, each
functional group has a characteristic name that often carry over in naming the
individual compounds.

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 Table 9.3 Functional group of some common family

Family Functional Suffix General Example

group representation
Alkane -C-C- ‒ane Ethane
Alkene -C=C- ‒ene Ethene
Alkyne -C / C - ‒yne Ethyne
Alkanol - OH -ol R ‒ OH Ethanol
(alcohol)
Alkanoic acid C O H ‒oic acid R ‒ COOH Ethanoic
(carboxylic acid
acid) O

or -COOH
Alkanoates O ‒oates R ‒ CO2 ‒ R’ Ethyl
(ester) ethanoate
R C O R’

Aldehydes O ‒al R‒ CHO Ethanal

R C H

or -CHO

9.2.2 Alcohols – hydroxy derivates of alkane.

Alcohols are represented by the general formula (CnH2n+1‒OH or ROH), where
CnH2n+1 or R is an alkyl radical and –OH is a functional group. As represented
in the general formula, alkyl radicals are group of atoms which are obtained
by removing one hydrogen atom from its corresponding alkane. To name alkyl
radicals, the letter –ane from alkane is replaced by –yl. Table 9.4 shows a list
of alkyl group and its corresponding alkane.
Table 9.4 Alkyl and its corresponding alkane

Alkane Condensed Alkyl Condensed

(CnH2n+2) formula (CnH2n+1) formula
Methane CH3-H Methyl CH3-
Ethane CH3CH2-H Ethyl CH3CH2-
Propane CH3CH2CH2-H Propyl CH3CH2CH2-
Butane CH3CH2CH2CH2-H Butyl CH3CH2CH2CH2-
Pentane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-H Pentyl CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

The equation below shows how alcohol is derived from its corresponding alkane
molecules. If one hydrogen atom from alkane is removed and then replaced by
hydroxyl group (‒OH), alcohol is obtained.
+H +OH
C n H 2n + 2 C n H 2n + 1 C n H 2n + 1 OH
(alkane) (alkyl) (alcohol)

For example, one hydrogen atom from methane is replaced by a hydroxyl group
(‒OH) to obtain methanol.
-H +OH
CH 4 CH 3 - CH 3 OH
(methane) (methyl) (methanol)

9.2.3 Structural representation.

Usually any organic compounds can be represented by more than one types of
formula (i.e., molecular formula, graphic or structural formula and condensed
formula). The Table 9.5 shows the representation of ethanol with different formula.
Table 9.5 Representation of ethanol

Molecular Graphic or structural formula Condensed

formula formula
C2H5OH H H CH3CH2OH
Or
H C C O H
H3C - CH2 - OH
H H

H O
H O H
H
C
C H C
H
H C H H
H
(a) Methanol (b) Ethanol
Figure 9.1 3D structure of alcohol

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 Activity 9.1 Worksheet
Instruction
Copy and complete Table 9.6 in your note book. Alkane family is done for you.
Using the same table answer the questions that follow:
Table 9.6
Family Alkane Alkene Alkyne Alcohol
Property
Bond between carbon Single
chains.
Functional group C‒C
Saturated or unsaturated Saturated
General formula CnH2n+2

First four members of the CH4

family C2H6
C3H8
C4H10

Question
1. Write down the common and the IUPAC name for first two members under
each family.
2. On what basis do you classify each family as saturated or unsaturated?
State the reason.
3. Predict the molecular formula for fifth and sixth members of each family.
4. Represent
(a) butanol with its graphical formula.
(b) methanol with its condensed formula.
(c) propanol with its molecular formula.

9.2.4 Classification
Alcohols are classified as mono, di and tri hydric alcohol depending on the
number of hydroxyl group attached in a molecule. Table 9.7 shows the differences
between three classes of alcohol.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Table 9.7 Classes of alcohol

Monohydric Alcohol Dihydric Alcohol Trihydric alcohol

These alcohols contain These alcohols contain These alcohols contain three
one –OH group two –OH groups attached –OH groups attached to
attached to alkane. to alkane. alkane
It is obtained by the It is obtained by the It is obtained by the
replacement of one replacement of two replacement of three
hydrogen atom of an hydrogen atoms of alkane hydrogen atoms of alkane by
alkane by a –OH group. by two –OH group. three –OH group.

H H OH OH OH OH OH
H C C O H CH3 CH CH CH3 CH3 CH CH CH CH3
H H
Butan-2,3-diol or Pentan-2,3,4-triol or
Ethanol 2,3-butanediol 2,3,4-pentanetriol

9.2.5 Nomenclature
Generally, there are two systems of naming the alcohols as discussed below:

i. Common naming system

In this system, the lower monohydric alcohols (R‒OH) are named as alkyl alcohol.
The alkyl group present in it is named first, followed by writing ‘alcohol’ as a
separate word. Table 9.8 shows some common name for first four members of
monohydric alcohols.
Table 9.8 Common names of lower alcohols.

Alcohol Name of alkyl Common name

group in alcohol
CH3OH Methyl Methyl alcohol or wood alcohol
CH3CH2OH Ethyl Ethyl alcohol or alcohol
CH3CH2CH2OH Propyl Propyl alcohol or rubbing alcohol
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH Butyl Butyl alcohol

ii. IUPAC system.

In this system, alcohols are generally named as alkanol by replacing the ending
‘-e’ of alkane and adding the suffix ‘-ol’.

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 Basic steps in IUPAC system of nomenclature.
STEP 1: Numbering the carbon atoms in a main chain or parent chain.
Identify the longest continuous carbon chain that has –OH group attached to it
followed by numbering of the carbon atoms. The numbering is done such that
carbon chain containing –OH group gets the lowest possible number.

Substituent Functional group

CH3 OH

CH3 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH3

6 5 4 3 2 1

STEP 2: Identifying the root word, suffix and prefixes.

a) The number that indicates the position of the -OH is prefixed to the
name of the parent alkane, and the -e ending of the alkane is replaced
by the suffix -ol.
b) Name the substituent and the number that indicates the position of it is
prefixed to it.
c) If more than one -OH group appears in the same molecule, suffixes
such as -diol and -triol are used. In these cases, the -e ending of the
alkane is retained.

STEP 3: Naming the alcohol.

Use the sequence (prefix + root word + suffix) to name the alcohol.
In case of above structure, the name of alcohol is obtained as follow:

Prefix (indicates Root word (indicates Suffix (indicates

substituents) no. of C-atom in chain) functional group)

hexan (after dropping

methyl -ol
ending ‒e of ‘hexane’

Position 5th carbon chain 3rd carbon chain

Name 5 – methyl - 3 - hexanol or 5 – methylhexan - 3 - ol

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Solved examples
Name the alcohol by studying the structures (a) and (b).

CH3 OH

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH CH3 CH CH CH2 CH3

4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5

(a) (b)
Solution (a)

Prefix Root word Suffix

butan -ol
Position 1st carbon chain
Name Butanol or 1-butanol or butan-1-ol

Solution (b)

Prefix Root word Suffix

Methyl pentan -ol
Position 2nd carbon chain 3rd carbon chain
Name 2 –methyl -3-pentanol or 2-methylpentan-3-ol

Activity 9.2 Naming alcohol as per IUPAC system

Instruction
The structure given below is an alcohol. Study the structure and answer the
questions that follow:

CH3 OH

CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3

4. Name the root word and prefix for a given structure?

5. In which carbon atom is methyl group bonded? Write the carbon number.
6. Write the IUPAC name for the given structure.
7. To which class of alcohol does it belong? Explain.

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 Self Evaluation
1. Write IUPAC name for the following structures.

(a) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH

CH2 CH2 CH2
(b)
OH OH

(c) CH3CH = CH2

OH

(d) CH3 CH CH CH2 CH3

OH

CH3 C CH2
(e)
CH3

2. Write structural formula for the compounds whose IUPAC names are as
follow:
(a) 2-methylbutan-2-ol.
(b) Pentan-2,3-diol or 2,3-pentanediol.
3. How is functional group different from homologous series?
4. Define the term alkyl. Name the corresponding alkyl for butane and propane.
5. Write down the importance of homologous series.
6. Name and write the structure of one monohydric alcohol other than ethanol.

9.3 Properties of alcohol

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain the variation in physical and chemical properties of alcohols in its
homologous series.
»» apply the concept of hydrogen bonding to explain some of the properties
of alcohol.
»» state the conditions required to convert ethanol to ethene and ester.
»» relate the use of breathalyzer with oxidizing property of alcohol.
»» differentiate between denatured alcohol and spurious liquor.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

9.3.1 Physical properties

i. Physical state
The lower members of aliphatic alcohol are colourless liquid at room temperature
with a characteristic alcoholic odour and burning taste. However, the alcoholic
odour and burning taste for higher members of alcohol gradually decreases
with increase in molecular weight. The higher alcohols with more than twelve
carbon atoms are colourless, odourless and waxy solids.

ii. Density
All liquid alcohols have densities of approximately 0.8g/mL. Therefore, alcohols
are less denser than the water whose density is 1g/mL at 4°C.

iii. Hydrogen bonding

The term hydrogen bond is defined as a weak chemical bond formed between
hydrogen atom having slight positive charge and an electronegative atom having
slight negative charge. There are two types of hydrogen bonding:
a) intramolecular hydrogen bonding
b) intermolecular hydrogen bonding

Intramolecular hydrogen bonding Intermolecular hydrogen bonding

The bond is formed between hydrogen

The bond is formed between hydrogen
and electronegative atom of different
and some electronegative atom within
molecules of the same substance or
the same molecules.
different substances.

These types of bonding takes place in

These types of bonding takes place in
following compounds to form associated
aromatic compounds containing two
molecules.
functional groups.
Example; Hydrogen fluoride, Water,
Example; nitrophenol, nitro-
Ammonia, lower alcohols, carboxylic
benzaldehyde and salicylic acid.
acid.

Hydrogen bonds are responsible for bonding in water molecules in liquid and
solid state. Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van der Waal’s force but weaker
than covalent and ionic bonds. The hydrogen bonding is illustrated in the Figure
9.2 with respect to the association of several molecules of water.

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 O O δ+ δ+
H H
H H H H
O H Oδ -
δ- δ+
O H
δ+
H H
Figure 9.2 Hydrogen bonding in water molecules

In lower alcohols hydrogen bond is formed between hydrogen and electronegative

oxygen atom of other molecule as shown in the Figure 9.3. The lower alcohols
undergoing hydrogen bonding exhibits following characteristics:
• complete miscibility or solubility in water
• increased viscosity and surface tension
• higher melting point and boiling point
Lone pair H H Hydrogen bond
O
Hydrogen bond
H3C H H C C O H H H
O H H H O C C H
H CH3 H H H H
H
O H C C O
H CH3
H H

(a) Methanol (b) Ethanol

Figure 9.3 Hydrogen bonding in alcohol

iv. Boiling point and volatility

The boiling points of alcohols are higher than those of corresponding alkanes,
haloalkanes and ethers due to the presence of strong intermolecular hydrogen
bonding as shown in the Table 9.9. The hydrogen bonding results to associate
alcohol molecules into larger aggregate, thereby requiring extra heat energy to
separate the molecules from one another.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Table 9.9 BP of alcohol with respect to its corresponding molecules.

Family Alkane Haloalkane Ether Alcohol

Compound C2H6 C2H5Cl C2H5‒ O –C2H5 C2H5OH
(Ethane) (Chloroethane) (Ethoxyethane) (Ethanol)
Boiling point ‒89°C 12.3°C 34.6°C 78°C
Within the alcohol series, there is increase in boiling point and melting point
as the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol increase due to increase in its
molecular mass. Hence, the lower members of alcohol in its series will have
lower boiling point than those of higher members.
The term volatility of a substance is its tendency to convert into gaseous state
easily. The substances with lower boiling point have higher volatility. Therefore,
alcohols are less volatile than their corresponding alkane molecules due to
the presence of hydrogen bonding. However, some members of alcohol are
more volatile than the water and hence, alcohol is collected before water during
distillation. For example, during the distillation of a mixture of ethanol and water,
ethanol is collected before water.

Activity 9.3 Molecular mass versus boiling point.

Instruction
1. Use the data from Table 9.10 to plot a line graph to study the trends in
boiling point of alcohols and their corresponding alkanes.
2. Plot the boiling point on y –axis and the molecular mass on x –axis.
3. Use same grid paper to plot for both alcohol and alkane.
Table 9.10 Boiling point and molecular mass of alcohol and alkane.

Alkane Molecular mass Boiling point

Methane 16 ‒161
Ethane 30 ‒89
Propane 44 ‒42
Butane 58 ‒0.5
Pentane 72 36

Alcohol Molecular mass Boiling point

Methanol 32 65
Ethanol 46 78

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 Alcohol Molecular mass Boiling point
Propanol 60 97
Butanol 74 117
Pentanol 88 137
Questions
1. Describe the trends in boiling points of
(a) alcohol
(b) alkane family from lower to higher members in their series.
2. Why is the boiling point of ethanol higher than ethane although both have
the same number of carbon atoms?
3. Write all the possible conclusions drawn from the graph.

v. Solubility in water
The alcohols of lower members up to three carbon atoms in its homologous
series are completely miscible in water in all proportion. This is because of the
formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonding, when alcohols and water are
mixed.
However, the solubility rapidly decreases for those alcohols which have more
than three carbon atoms due to increase in molecular mass with their longer
carbon chain. With the increase in chain length, the non polar alkyl group of
alcohol dominates and hinders the formation of hydrogen bond which causes
the decrease in miscibility of alcohols.
Lone pair
H H Hydrogen bond

δ+
H C C O H
δ-
H H H O H
δ-
Figure 9.4 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding between ethanol and water

Activity 9.4 Investigating the solubility of alcohol in water

Materials required
Methanol, ethanol, propanol, test tubes, measuring cylinders and test tube rack.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Procedure
1. Place about 10 mL of methanol into test tube, and add 2 mL of water.
Repeat using 10 mL of methanol and the volume of water given in Table 9.11.
Table 9.11

Volumes of methanol in mL 10 10 10 10 10
Volumes of water in mL 2 4 6 8 10
2. Shake and examine the contents of each test tube to see whether one or
two distinct layers are present.
3. Record your observation as shown in the observation Table 9.12.
4. Repeat procedure 1 to 3 using ethanol and propanol.
Table 9.12 Observation table

Alcohol in water No of layers formed Miscible or immiscible

Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Safety precautions

Alcohols are toxic to organs.

Ensure that all ignition sources are removed from the area near the
alcohol.
Questions
1. Methanol and ethanol are miscible in water in all proportions. Do you agree
with this statement as per the result obtained from the experiment?
2. Compare the solubility of propanol with the alcohols of lower members.
3. Predict the solubility of butanol and subsequent alcohol. Give reasons for
answer.
4. What structural feature of alcohols is responsible for solubility of alcohol
in water?

vi. Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the
fluid to flow. Within alcohol series, the viscosity increases with increase in its

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 molecular size. Thus, the viscosity is high for higher members of alcohol in
homologous series due to strong intermolecular force.

9.3.2 Chemical properties of alcohol

i. Combustion
Lower alcohols like methanol and ethanol burns with a blue flame producing
carbon dioxide and water vapour in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Such
types of reactions are called combustion. During combustion, it releases a fair
amount of energy. For higher alcohols it becomes increasingly more difficult to
burn due to increase in their molecular weight.
C 2 H 5 OH (l) + 3O 2 (g) $ 2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2 O (l) DH = -1368 KJ/mol
When one mole of ethanol burns completely in air, it releases 1368 kilojoules
of heat. The negative sign in a value indicates that the reaction is exothermic.

ii. Oxidation
Alcohols on oxidation gives ethanal, commonly called acetaldehyde (a second
members of aldehyde series) which on further oxidation produces ethanoic
acid, commonly called acetic acid (a second members of carboxylic acid series).
Potassium dichromate is used as an oxidizing agent as shown in the equation.
K 2 Cr2 O 7
C 2 H 5 OH CH 3 CHO + H 2 O
(ethanol) (ethanal)
K 2 Cr2 O 7
CH 3 CHO CH 3 COOH
(ethanal) (ethanoic acid)
If a bottle of wine is opened and exposed to the air, it will, after a while, starts
to smell and taste like sour apples due
oxidation of ethanol to ethanal. Likewise,
if bottle is left open little longer, it will
start to smell and taste like vinegar,
due to further oxidation of ethanal to
ethanoic acid by atmospheric oxygen
in the presence microorganism such as
Mycoderma aceti.
A device called breathalyzer, to inspect
the drunken driving is based on oxidizing
property of ethanol. The breathalyzer
contains an orange potassium dichromate
(IV) which when reacted with ethanol
forms ethanal. The orange potassium Figure 9.5 Breathalyzer

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

dichromate (IV) itself gets reduced to green chromium compound. The presence
of alcohol in breath is confirmed by observing the change in colour of potassium
dichromate (IV) from orange to green on blowing into breathalyzer as shown in
the Figure 9.5.

iii. Esterification
The reaction in which alcohol reacts with carboxylic acid in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid to form esters is called esterification. In this reaction,
conc. H2SO4 acts as a protonating as well as a dehydrating agent.
Esters are the derivatives of organic acids which have pleasant, fruitlike odours
and are responsible for flavors and fragrances of many fruits and flowers.
O O
conc. H2SO4
CH3 C OH HO CH2CH3 CH3 C O CH2 CH3 H2O
(ethanoic acid) (ethyl ethanoate)

Esterification is an example of reversible reaction. However, the equilibrium can

be shifted in the forward direction by removing water as soon as it is formed.

Activity 9.5 Ester formation

Materials required
Test tube, sample of ethanol and butanol, acetic acid, dropper, conc. H2SO4,
water bath and cold water.
Procedure
1. Mix thoroughly about 5cm3 each of ethanol and acetic acid in a test tube.
2. Carefully add 1cm3 of conc. H2SO4 to the mixture of ethanol and acetic acid,
and warm the mixture at about 60°C in hot water bath for about 10 minutes.
3. Pour the mixture in a beaker containing ice-cold water. Record all your
observation.
4. Repeat the above procedure using butan-1-ol and record all the observation
including the smell.
Questions
1. Write equation for the reaction between ethanol and acetic acid.
2. Which substance is responsible for the production of fruity smell in the
alcohol?
3. Why is the reaction mixture poured into cold water
4. Why is conc. H2SO4 used in the experiment?

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 iv. Dehydration
The term dehydration is defined as the removal of water from a substance in
the presence of the dehydrating agents.
Case (i) When an alcohol is heated up to 170°C in the presence of conc. H2SO4,
the corresponding alkenes and water as by product are formed. For example,
propanol reacts with conc. H2SO4 at 170°C to undergo dehydration to give
propene and water as shown in the equation.
excessof conc. H 2 SO 4 at 170cC
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH CH 3 - CH = CH 2 + H 2 O
(propanol) (propene)

Case (ii) If excess of propanol is heated to 140°C in the presence of conc.

H2SO4, dipropyl ether is formed as shown in the equation. This reaction is often
referred as condensation reaction.
conc. H 2 SO 4 at 140cC
2CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 2 - O - CH 2 - CH 2 - CH 3 + H 2 O
(propanol) (dipropyl ether)

v. Reaction with alkali metals

Alcohols are slightly acidic in nature as it has tendency to liberate hydrogen with
the formation of alkoxides when it is reacted with active metals of group 1. For
example, ethanol reacts steadily with sodium to liberate hydrogen and leaves a
colourless solution of sodium ethoxide as shown in the equation.
2CH 3 CH 2 OH + 2Na $ CH 3 CH 2 ONa + H 2 -
(ethanol) (sodium ethoxide)
This is the characteristic reaction of alcohol and is often used in organic analysis
to identify the alcohol.

9.4 Denatured alcohol or Methylated spirit

Not all alcohols are safe for consumption except ethanol, after undergoing
different stages of purification. Ethanol used for making alcoholic beverages is
highly taxed, however, the ethanol supplied to industries and hardware store is
cheaper. The ethanol supplied to industries and hardware stores are made unfit
for consumption by mixing with one or more poisonous substances like methanol,
pyridine and copper sulphate. This is called denatured alcohol. The poisonous
chemical substances added to ethanol are called denaturant. Denatured alcohol
containing 5 – 10 % methanol is referred to as methylated spirit. Methylated spirit
is not even recommended to be used for making cosmetics such as perfume
or toiletries.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Figure 9.6 Denatured alcohol and its statutory warning

9.4.1 Spurious liquor or illicit alcohol

Spurious liquor is prepared by diluting the denatured alcohol with water and then
adding necessary colour and flavours. The alcohol obtained by this method is
fatal for human consumption due to presence of impurities like methyl alcohol
and acetaldehyde. Large number of deaths occurs due to consumption of
spurious liquor. Thus, such alcohol is meant to be used as solvent for paint
and varnishes.

9.4.2 Identification
It is difficult to identify the denatured alcohol from the consumption-grade
ethanol, unless the containers are labeled. Denatured alcohols are colourless, but
some are coloured by adding aniline to make it blue or purple for identification.

Self Evaluation
1. Explain the trend in boiling point of alcohols in their homologous series.
2. The solubility of alcohol decreases with the increasing number of carbon
atoms. Explain.
3. Why open flames near to ethanol can lead to serious fires?
4. What are the constituents of methylated spirit? Where it is used?
5. On which property of alcohol does breathalyzer work? State its uses.
6. Name the products obtained on dehydration of ethanol. Write the chemical
equation.
7. How can we identify the denatured alcohol from the ethanol?

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 9.5 Preparation and uses of ethanol
Although fermentation is the oldest chemical process for the preparation of
ethanol from carbohydrates, it is one of the most widely used methods for
industrial preparation even today. Fermentation is a slow decomposition of large
molecules of certain organic compounds into simpler one under the catalytic
influence of enzymes.

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» explain the principles of manufacture of alcohol in the distilleries.
»» describe the stages involved in preparation of ethanol by different
processes.
»» explain the conditions required for fermentation.
»» investigate the fermentation of glucose solution.
»» state the uses of alcohols, especially ethanol

9.5.1 Ethanol from starch by fermentation

The starch required for this process is obtained from maize, rice, barely, potato,
etc. The starches present in those raw materials are converted into maltose in
following steps:

i. Malting
Initially the moist barley is allowed to germinate in dark at 7°C to 17°C for about
two days. This germinated barley is then dried, and is called Malt which is then
heated up to about 62°C to stop further germination. It is then crushed and
extracted with water. This Malt extract contains an enzyme called diastase.

ii. Mashing
In this process the starchy substances are steamed at 140°C to150°C under
pressure to break the cell walls. The steaming of starch results to liberate a
solution containing starch which is called a Mash. A mash is a fermentable
starchy mixture from which alcohol or spirits can be distilled.

iii. Hydrolysis
In this process the mashed and the malted extract are treated together at 47°C
to 57°C to obtain maltose.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

diastase in malt extract

2 (C 12 H 10 O 5) n + nH 2 O nC 12 H 22 O 11
(starch) (maltose)

iv. Alcoholic fermentation

Once the maltose is obtained from a starch, it is then fermented in presence of
yeast. Yeast contains two enzymes (i.e., maltase and zymase) which perform
different function as shown in the equation.
maltase
C 12 H 22 O 11 + H 2 O 2C 6 H 12 O 6
(maltose) (glucose)
zymase
C 6 H 12 O 6 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2
(glucose) (ethanol)

Activity 9.6 Investigating the fermentation of a glucose solution

Fermentation is a slow process and hence, the activity is designed to complete
in three days. However, the number of days required for complete fermentation
may vary from place to place depending upon the surrounding temperature.
Day 1
Materials required
Conical flask (100 mL), measuring cylinder (50 mL), digital balance, cotton wool,
thermometer, warm water of 30°C–40°C, filter paper, 5 g of glucose and 1 g of
yeast.
Procedure
1. Prepare a glucose solution by mixing 5 g of glucose and 50 mL of warm
water in a conical flask. Ensure that the glucose is dissolved completely in
water by swirling the flask.
2. Weigh 1 g of yeast and add it to the solution. Then loosely plug the top of
a conical flask with cotton wool.
3. After completing the procedure 1 and 2, weigh the conical flask and record
its total content as the initial mass.
4. Normally, the fermentation takes place within three days depending upon
the reaction conditions. Therefore, secure the flask in a warm place, with
a temperature of approximately 37°C for three days or until fermentation
completes (as indicated when no more bubbles are released).

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 Day 2
Materials required
25 mL of lime water, beaker, conical flask, rubber stopper and rubber tube.
Procedure
1. Before the conduct of test for CO2, measure and record the mass of a flask
along with its content.
2. Then remove the cotton wool and replace with rubber stopper such that
the rubber tube passing through it is immersed into a beaker containing
lime water as shown in the Figure 9.7.
Rubber stopper Glass tube

Glucose Solution Lime water

Figure 9.7 Experimental set up for testing CO2

3. Carefully observe and record any changes in the appearance of lime water.
4. After finishing the test for CO2, close the conical flask with a cotton wool.
Secure in a place where solution is maintained at ideal temperature for
fermentation.
Procedure (Day 3)
1. Once again re-weigh and record the final mass of a conical flask.
Table 9.13 Observation table

Sl.No. Mass of flask Change in mass

Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Questions
1. Why do we measure the mass of content in flask at various times throughout
the investigation?

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2. Why is rubber tube from flask connected to a beaker containing lime water?
Write chemical equation to support your answer.
3. Why is yeast added to the glucose solution?
4. Why is temperature important factor during the process?
5. What is precipitate? What is the name of a white precipitate formed upon
passing bubbles to the lime water?
6. Why is it necessary to close the content in conical flask with cotton wool?

9.5.2 Ethanol from ethene by hydration.

Hydration is employed for commercial production of ethanol from ethene. The
ethene required is obtained by cracking of petroleum. The cases of hydration are:

i. Indirect addition of water

In this case the ethene is heated in the presence of conc. H2SO4 at 75°C, and
then treated with water to produce ethanol.
conc.H 2 SO 4, 75 o C
H 2 C = CH 2 + H - OH CH 3 - CH 2 - OH
(ethene) (ethanol)
ii. Direct addition of water
In this case the ethene and the steam are compressed at 60 ‒ 70 atmospheric
pressure and then passed over phosphoric acid.
60 - 70atm,300 o C
H 2 C = CH 2 + H - OH CH 3 - CH 2 - OH
(ethene) (ethanol)

Ethanol obtained by this method may not be a sustainable practice, since the
raw material used is non-renewable resource.

9.5.3 Ethanol from molasses ‒ commercial production

In distilleries any fruits, grains or vegetables that can be fermented are the raw
materials for alcohol production. In case of molasses and some fruits where
sugar is already present, fermentation can be started directly. However, if grains
are used as raw materials where sugar is not primarily present, fermentation
can take place only after converting the starch into sugar.
Molasses are dark coloured syrupy mass and contains about 60% of fermentable
sugars like sucrose and invert sugar (a mixture of glucose and fructose). It is

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 obtained from sugar industry after separation of cane or beet sugar crystals
from concentrated sugar cane juice. The steps employed during manufacturing
process are:

i. Dilution
The molasses is diluted with water to bring down its concentration up to 10%
and then acidified with a small amount of sulphuric acid to avoid bacterial
growth. Some nutritive solutions of ammonium salts like (NH4)2SO4 or (NH4)3PO4
are added in case of insufficient yeast.

ii. Fermentation
After dilution, yeast is added and the temperature of a mixture is maintained
at 30°C for a few days to undergo fermentation. The function of an enzyme
(invertase and zymase) in yeast is shown in the equations. The carbon dioxide
formed is allowed to escape in air by avoiding the entry of air into content as its
presence would oxidize ethanol to acetic acid.
invertase
C 12 H 22 O 11 + H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6
(sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)

iii. Distillation
Fermented liquid contains about
8 to 10% ethanol and are called
wash. It is distilled in a distillation
plant to remove water and other
impurities present in wash. The
distillate contains about 90%
ethanol and the residue left is
used as cattle feed.

iv. Rectification
The alcohol obtained after
distillation still contains
impurities other than water.
These impurities are further
removed by fractional distillation.
The process of repeated
distillation to obtain pure alcohol
is called rectification.

Figure 9.8 Exterior view

of distillation plant.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Thermometer
Stand

Fractionating Stand
Clamp
column

Water outlet

Condenser
Clamp

Ethanol and water

Cool water in

Distillate (ethanol)

Figure 9.9 Fractional distillation

9.5.4 Uses of ethanol

i. as biofuel.
When 30% ethanol is blended with petrol, the resulting mixture is called gasohol
and it is used as a fuel to power automobiles. The use of gasohol reduces our
dependence on non-renewable petroleum products and pollution to environment.

ii. in medicine.
1. for preparation of pharmaceutical products. Liquid based medicines such
as cough syrups, vitamin tonics etc., contain ethanol.
2. it is used in intravenous (IV) injection.
3. it is used for its antiseptic properties. It is often found in antibacterial
wipes and hand sanitizers as it is effective in fighting against the spread of
bacteria, fungi and viruses.

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 iii. as beverages.
1. it is main ingrident in preparation of alcoholic beverages.
2. it has great cultural and cermonial significance.

iv. as a solvent.
for fats, gums, resins and many other organic compounds.
Many covalent solutes which do not dissolve in water are soluble in ethanol.
Quick drying lacquers for example, often contain ethanol as solvent. Ethanol is
volatile, so it evaporates quickly, leaving the dry lacquer. Ethanol is used as a
solvent in perfumes.

v. as a fluid for scientific apparatus.

e.g., dyed ethanol is used as fluid in thermometer, spirit levels, etc.

vi. as a reagent.
in manufacturing of chemicals like acetyl dehyde (dye), acetic acid (manufacture
of veniger), chloroform (antiseptics), diethyl ether (anesthesia) etc.

Self Evaluation
1. Explain:
(a) Ethanol should be rectified after distillation.
(b) Ethanol is a good solvent for most of the non polar covalent substances.
2. Name the raw materials used to produce alcohol in distilleries.
3. State whether the fermentation process is a chemical or physical change
with a valid reason to support your answer.
4. Which industrial methods of preparing alcohol are more economical?
Explain.
5. Name the byproduct obtained during fermentation of glucose.
6. Ethanol is widely used in antibacterial wipes and hand sanitizer. Explain.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

9.6 Ethanol and its impacts

Learning objectives
On completion of this topic, students should be able to:
»» compare the advantages and disadvantages of ethanol production to
economy and environment.
»» interpret ethanol cycle.
»» describe the societal and health issues of drinking alcohol.

9.6.1 Impact on environment

Both ethanol and petrol undergo combustion producing CO2 and heat.
The following equations show a complete combustion of ethanol and octane
(petrol):
CH 3 CH 2 OH + 3O 2 $ 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O DH = -1367 KJ/mol
(ethanol)
C 8 H 18 + 12.5 O 2 $ 8CO 2 + 9H 2 O DH = -1367 KJ/mol
(octane)

In both the cases, carbon dioxide gas is released. However, the good thing
in using ethanol fuel is that the CO2 emitted during combustion is literally
considered as neutral to the environmental. This is because the amount of
carbon dioxide released is same as the amount absorbed by the crops grown
as feedstock for ethanol production. The principle so called ‘carbon neutral’
during burning of biofuel sounds good, but there are still some underpinning
environmental issues such as deforestation and disturbances to the ecosystem
in the process of mass cultivation of feedstock for ethanol.
When petroleum products are used as a fuel, the incomplete combustion
produces pollutants such as carbon monoxide, soot and polyaromatic
hydrocarbon which would pose a threat to the environment and the health of
people. The gasohol, a fuel which is mixture of petrol and ethanol are considered
more eco-friendly. This is because the oxygen in ethanol ensures the cleaner
and complete combustion of petrol (octane).

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 Ethanol

0 0 0 0 0

CO2

Figure 9.10 Ethanol cycle

9.6.2 Impact to economy, society and health.

Ethanol is well known alcohol in its homologous series, since it is used in the
preparation of alcoholic beverages and fuel. An alcohol based fuels are called
biofuel and are mainly obtained from the starchy agricultural produce such as
corn, potato, wheat etc. Ethanol production is not only environmental friendly
but also creates a potential for economic growth. However, the drinking pattern
among the consumers is known to bring serious threat to health and socio-
economic issues.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

Activity 9.7 Case study

This excerpt is adapted from article titled "The Myth behind Alcohol
Happiness" authored by Dr. Chencho Dorji, consultant psychiatrist and
technical advisor to the National Mental Health Programme - Bhutan.
Effect on economy
Economists have calculated direct and indirect costs of drinking in Western
countries, but it is difficult to determine a clear economic impact of alcohol
use in the Bhutanese context because of the lack of reliable information and a
database. Moreover, factors such as economic loss due to reduced efficiency
and productivity, job loss, and other social and relationship problems are really
impossible to estimate. However, given the widespread use of alcohol in the
country, the economic cost is clearly enormous. Two studies by the Ministries
of Agriculture, Trade and Industry in rural villages point out that as much as 50
percent of the grain harvests of households are used to brew alcohol each year.
These findings have prompted local governments and the National Assembly
to issue resolutions to ban the sale and consumption of homemade alcohol in
public places.
It is presumed that homemade alcohol production represents more than
industrial production since 80 percent of the population who live in rural villages
consume mainly this type of alcohol. Not only it is cheaper (no tax or excise is
payable) and readily available, it is more popular among drinkers. Some argue
that while regular drinkers spend from half to three-quarters of their earnings on
alcohol, heavy drinkers spend all their income or even borrow money to do so.
In a drive to increase domestic revenue, however, the Royal Government
liberalized the sale and cost of bar licenses in 1999. Now there is one bar for
every 250 Bhutanese and 10 bottles of alcohol per year for every man, woman
and child in Bhutan. This is an alarming news to Bhutanese, whose national goal
is to achieve Gross National Happiness. Assuming these figures are correct,
Bhutan has perhaps one of the highest per-capita alcohol consumption rates
in the developing world. While revenue from alcohol sales has reached an
unprecedented high-close to US dollars 2.5 million annually – and accounts
for one of the top 10 revenue-generating industries, increased alcohol revenues
do not cover the enormous cost of alcohol-related problems in the country
including loss of productivity, premature deaths, increased treatment costs and
other social problems.
Social impact of alcohol
At the same time, the adverse social impact of alcohol although easy to see,
is likewise difficult to measure. Unemployment, poverty, relationship problems,
divorce and parental separation, neglect and abuse of children, drunken brawls
and domestic violence, crime, accidents and deaths are commonly associated

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 with heavy drinking. Alcohol is also held responsible for high-risk behaviors such
as unsafe sex, sexual promiscuity, and use of other psychoactive substances.
Men experience more alcohol-related problems than women, but women
are often direct victims of the consequences of men’s drinking. For example,
women who live with heavy drinkers are more at risk of serious violence, when
compared to women who live without heavy drinkers. Drinking by women of
childbearing age may also increase the risk of unwanted pregnancies and other
social complications. Children are invariably affected directly or indirectly.
Alcohol-related health problems
Data from hospitals and health centres, as well as from community surveys,
indicate that alcohol is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in middle-aged
Bhutanese men and women. According to these health statistics, alcohol is one
of the five leading causes of deaths (all age groups) in Bhutan and responsible
for as many as 30 percent of deaths in the adult hospital wards. It is the number
one killer of adult men in Bhutan today.
Prevalence studies in the country show that as much as 50 percent of the
population drinks alcohol (mainly homemade), and nearly 20 percent drink
regularly, with an average consumption of five bottles per week. Up to 40 percent
of school children even admitted to drinking alcohol at least once. Police sources
further indicate that drunk driving is the top cause of motor vehicle accidents
in the country. Many people mistakenly believe that homemade alcohol is less
harmful to health than the industrial variety. Actually, scientists have found that
homemade and cheaper variety alcohol is more damaging to liver because
of its higher aldehyde content. Heavy drinkers all over the world drink mainly
cheap alcohol because of their poor economic situations. Alcohol can damage
nearly every organ and system in the body; its psychoactive action can alter
the functioning and structure of the brain. Its use contributes to more than 60
diseases, including cirrhosis of the liver, heart disease, and cancer.
Research has shown that low or moderate consumption of alcohol is beneficial to
people who are 40 years and older because of its protective effects for coronary
or ischaemic heart disease. However, the patterns of drinking, often with heavy
episodic consumption among many consumers are likely to increase rather than
decrease the occurrence of coronary heart disease. Drinking to intoxication is
a significant cause of alcohol-related injuries and accidents.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has pointed out that alcohol is one of
the most important risks to health in the world today, responsible for almost
two million deaths (3.2 percent of total deaths) and accounting for four percent
of the global disease burden in 2002. Alcohol is the leading cause of disability
among men in developed countries and the fourth leading cause of disability
in developing countries. Therefore, not only many precious lives are lost in their
prime to alcohol, but also the direct and indirect costs of treatment of alcohol

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

related health problems are staggering.

Questions
1. Why is the alcoholic beverages produced in distilleries safer for consumption
than locally brewed alcohol?
2. The import of foreign alcoholic beverages is highly taxed with respect to
those alcoholic beverages produced within Bhutan. Explain.
3. Discuss some advantages and disadvantages, assuming that the production
of alcohol in distilleries of Bhutan is stopped for a year.
4. What was basis to the statement ‘alcohol is number one killer of adult men
in Bhutan today’?
5. How many types of alcohol related diseases are known? Name at least
five diseases.
6. What can you do to minimize alcohol related issues as a responsible citizen
of GNH country?

Self Evaluation
1. Although ethanol fuel is preferred over petrol to power the automobiles,
petrol and diesel are being used extensively to run automobiles. Justify.
2. State some environmental impacts of biofuel production?
3. Can biofuels help mitigate climate change? Write your opinion.
4. How could an environmentally sustainable biofuel production be ensured?
5. What changes to agricultural land would biofuel production require?

Summary
1. An atom or a group of atoms in organic molecules that gives the molecules
its characteristic properties is called functional group.
2. Hydroxy (–OH) is a functional group of alcohol family.
3. A series of organic compounds with same functional group in which two
adjacent members are differed by one ‒CH2 unit is referred to as homologous
series.
4. Alcohols are classified as mono, di, tri and poly hydric depending upon the
number of hydroxyl group present in it.

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 5. The physical properties of alcohol such as its high melting and boiling point,
complete solubility in water, high viscosity and surface tension are due its
ability to undergo intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

6. The boiling points of alcohols are higher than those of its corresponding
alkane molecules.

7. Breathalyzer is a device used for measuring the amount of alcohol breath.

It is based on oxidizing property of alcohol.

8. Esterification is a chemical reaction resulting in the formation of at least

one ester product when alcohol reacts with carboxylic acid in the presence
of conc. H2SO4.

9. Alcohols are combustible in nature. Ethanol is widely used to power the

automobiles because of its combustible property.

10. Denatured alcohol is ethanol that has additives to make it poisonous or

nauseating, to discourage recreational consumption.

11. The term fermentation is referred to a slow decomposition of large molecules

of certain organic compounds into simpler one under the catalytic influence
of enzymes.

12. Rectification is process of purification of ethanol by repeated distillation.

13. Ethanol production and its uses as biofuel are considered as carbon neutral
to the environment.

14. Alcohol are widely use as beverages, biofuel, industrial solvent, antiseptic
in hospitals, etc.

Exercise
I. Correct the following statement by changing the letter in bold only.
1. Alkanol is common system of naming alcohols in its series.
2. An enzyme in the yeast that converts sugar to glucose is diastase.
3. Alcohols are example of non polar compound.
4. Ethene is converted to ethanol by decomposition reaction.
5. An alcohol that has its boiling point just below propanol is methanol.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

II. Match the items of Column I with the corresponding items of Column II.

Column I Column II
1. Aldehydes a. ‒OH
2. Carboxylic acid b. Ethyl ethanoate
3. Alkane c. ‒CHO
4. Alcohol d. ‒ane
5. Alkanoates e. Ethanoic acid
f. ‒ene
III. Choose the most appropriate response from the given options.
1. Which graphic formula represents an alcohol?

H O H H O
A. H C C C H B. H C C
H
H H H

H H H H O H

C. H C C C H D. H C C O C H

H OH H H H

2. What is the missing product during incomplete combustion of ethane?

A CH3OH C HCOOH
B H2 O D H2O2
3. Which pair is obtained from the fermentation of glucose?
A Cellulose and water C Carbon dioxide and water
B Ethanol and oxygen D Ethanol and carbon dioxide

4. Study the organic structures below to answer the question.

H H O H O H

i. H C C C H ii. H C C C H

H H H H

H H O H H H

iii. H C C C OH iv. H C C C H

H H H OH H

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 Which pair of structure contains alcohol and acid?
A (i) and (ii) C (i) and (iii)
B (ii) and (iv) D (iii) and (iv)
5. The chemical reaction below is an example of

O O

CH3 C OH + HOC2H5 CH3 C O C2H5 + H2O

A fermentation C saponification
B hydrogenation D esterification
6. Which substance when dissolved in water forms a solution that conducts
an electric current?
A C2H5OH C C6H12O6
B C12H22O11 D CH3COOH
7. Which general formula represents the compound, CH3CH2CCH?
A Cn H n C CnH2n
B CnH2n–2 D CnH2n+2
8. Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A Ethanol C Petroleum
B Uranium D Aluminium
9. What is the IUPAC name for a compound represented by the structure
below?

H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H OH H H

A Hexan-3-ol C Heptan-3-ol
B Hexan-4-ol D Heptan-5-ol
IV. Write answers for following questions.
1. To which homologous series does CH3CH2CH2CH3 belong?
2. Ethanol (C2H5OH) is a volatile and flammable liquid with a distinct odour at
room temperature. Ethanol is soluble in water. The boiling point of ethanol
is 78.2°C at 1 atmosphere. Ethanol can be used as a fuel to produce heat
energy, as shown by the balanced equation.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

C 2 H 5 OH + 3O 2 $ 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O + 1367 kJ
(a) State one use of ethanol based on its volatile nature.
(b) Define the term flammable substances.
(c)Identify one physical property of ethanol, stated in the passage that
can be explained in terms of chemical bonds and intermolecular
forces.
3. The incomplete equation below represents an esterification reaction.
H O H O H H H
catalyst
H C C OH + X H C C O C C C H + H 2O

H H H H H

(a) Identify and write functional groups present in the reactant and
product molecules.
(b) Write down the IUPAC name for the reactant represented by its
structure in the equation.
(c) Write condensed formula for the reactant molecule represented by
its structure.
(d) Write name and structural formula of the reactant represented by X.
4. The structures shown below are first two members in a homologous series
of alcohol. On the basis of these structures, answer the questions that
follow:

H H H

H C OH H C C OH

H H H
methanol ethanol

(a) Represent the next two succeeding members in series with its
structural formula.
(b) Name the corresponding alkanes for two members represented in
(a).
(c)Which of the two alcohols represented in (a) is more miscible in
water? Explain.
5. Petroleum and sugar cane are both raw materials used for the production
of ethanol.

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 (a) Construct separate flow diagrams for the production of ethanol from
each raw material.
(b) Compare the environmental sustainability of producing ethanol from
these two raw materials.
6. List down all the possible advantage and disadvantages of ethanol as a
fuel.
V. Complete the word puzzle.
Down
1. The chemical process in which micro organism such as yeast act on
carbohydrates to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
3. The use of breathalyzer is based on _____ property of alcohol.
4. Ethanol burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and___.
5. The functional group of alcohol family.
9. The hydrocarbon species which has single bond between carbon
atoms is called _____ hydrocarbon.
11. The enzyme complex in yeasts that catalyzes the breakdown of
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Across
2. The IUPAC name of monohydric alcohol which has three carbon
atoms.
6. Alcohol containing two replaceable atoms of hydrogen.
7. The poisonous substance added to ethanol in denaturing alcohol is
called ____.
8. The next member of alcohol after butanol in homologous series.
10. The chemical process or reaction that favors the conversion of
ethanol to ethene.
12. An alcohol with the lowest boiling point in its homologous series.

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 Chapter 9 Alcohol

2 3

4 5

10

11

12

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 Specimen Question Paper
Chemistry Time: 2 Hours
Class X Total Marks: 100
READ THE FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS CAREFULLY:
1. Do not write during first fifteen minutes. This time is to be spent on reading
the questions. After having read the questions, you will be given two hours
to answer all questions.
2. In this paper there are two sections, A and B. Section A is compulsory. You
are expected to attempt any five questions from Section B.
3. The intended marks for each question or parts of questions, are given in
a bracket [ ].
4. Read the direction to each question carefully and write all answers in the
answer sheet provided separately.

Section A (50 Marks)

Compulsory: Attempt all questions.
Question 1
a. Each question in this section is provided with four possible options.
Choose the most appropriate option. [1 × 25 = 25]
(i) The function of fluorspar in the electrolytic reduction of alumina dissolved
in fused cryolite (Na3AlF6) is, it
A lowers the rate of dissociation of ions.
B increases the temperature of the electrolytic cell.
C acts as a catalyst to speed up the reaction.
D lowers the temperature of electrolytic cell.
(ii) In the equation PV = nRT what value does the ‘R’ always have if the
pressure is measured in atmosphere and the temperature measured in
Kelvin?
A 2.66 x 1023 C 26.6
B 0.0821 D 3.14
(iii) A gas sample contains 16.0 g of CH4, 16.0 g of O2, 16.0 g of SO2 and 33.0
g of CO2. What is the total number of moles of gas in the sample?
A 2.25 moles. C 2.75 moles.
B 2.50 moles. D 3.00 moles.

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 Specimen Question Paper

(iv) Which of the following orders is not in accordance with the property stated
against it?
A F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 : electronegativity.
B F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 : oxidizing power.
C F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 : electron affinity.
D F2 < Cl2 < Br2 < I2 : boiling point.
V1 V2
The combined gas law is shown in the equation: P1 #
(v)
T1 = P2 # T2 . What
must remain constant for this to be true?
A Pressure. C Temperature.
B Number of Moles. D Volume.
(vi) A compound has an empirical formula of C2H4O. An independent analysis
gave a value of 132 g for its molar mass. What is the molecular formula
of the compound?
A C4H4O5 C C2H4
B C10H12 D C6H12O3
(vii) Which transition element has its melting point below 1000°C?
A Mercury. C Iron.
B Scandium. D Silver.
(viii) The enthalpy of formation of compounds K, L, M and N are –84.00, +24.00,
+6.00 and –16.00 k.cal mole-1 respectively. The correct order of increasing
stability of the compound is
A K < L < M < N. C L < M < N < K.
B N < M < K < L. D M < N < L < K.
(ix) Which reduction process is employed, when metals are required to be
obtained with high degree purity?
A Carbon reduction. C Aluminium reduction.
B Hydrogen reduction. D Electrolytic reduction.
(x) The equation given below represents
CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) $ 2H 2 O (g) + CO 2 (g) + heat
A exothermic reaction as it releases heat.
B endothermic reaction as it releases heat.
C exothermic reaction as it absorbs heat.
D endothermic reaction as it absorbs heat.

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 (xi) In which of reactions is the formation of the products favored by increase
in pressure?
A 2O 3 (g) $ 3O 2 (g)
B 2NO (g) + O 2 (g) $ 2NO 2 (g)
C C (s) + O 2 (g) $ CO 2 (g)
D CO 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O (l) $ H 3 O (aq) + HCO 3 (aq)
(xii) An unknown saturated hydrocarbon X has three carbon atoms in it. If
one hydrogen atom from this saturated hydrocarbon is replaced by –OH
group, product obtained is
A methanol. C propan-1-ol.
B ethanol. D butan-1-ol.
(xiii) Which are the materials mixed with the ore, before it is subjected for
smelting during the extraction of iron?
A Coke and silica. C Silica and lime stone.
B Coke and limestone. D Coke, silica and limestone.
(xiv) During the production of ethanol by fermentation, the starchy substances
are steamed at 140°C to150°C under pressure to liberate a solution
containing starch. This stage is called
A dilution. C distillation.
B malting. D mashing.
(xv) When the atoms of halogen combine with the atoms of alkali metal, the
nature of bond in a compound is
A covalent bond. C coordinate bond.
B electrovalent bond. D hydrogen bond.
(xvi) Which property is NOT common for silver and gold?
A Valence electronic configuration is 3d10 4s1.
B Cannot displace hydrogen from acids.
C Exhibit variable valency of +1 and +2.
D Weakly electropositive.
(xvii) During the formation of a chemical bond the energy is
A evolved. C increased.
B stored. D absorbed.
(xviii) The relative atomic mass of Ne is 20. Its relative molecular mass is
A 10 C 30
B 20 D 40

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 Specimen Question Paper

(xix) Given the reaction at 50°C

Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) $ ZnCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
The rate of this reaction can be increased by using 2.0 g of powdered
zinc instead of a 2.0 g strip of zinc because the powdered zinc has
A lower kinetic energy. C more surface area.
B lower concentration. D more zinc atoms.
(xx) The heat of formation of CO2 is – 394.0 kJ. What will be the heat of
combustion of carbon?
A +94.1 k.cal C -394.0 kJ
B 00.00 kJ D 394.0 kJ
(xxi) Which event must always occur for a chemical reaction to take place?
A Formation of a precipitate.
B Formation of a gas.
C Effective collisions between reacting particles.
D Addition of a catalyst to the reaction system.
(xxii) Which is the correct order for the trend in boiling point of alcohol in its
homologous series with respect to the number of carbon atom present
in the alcohol?
A methanol < ethanol < butanol < propanol.
B methanol > ethanol > propanol > butanol.
C methanol > ethanol > butanol > propanol.
D methanol < ethanol < propanol < butanol.
(xxiii) An alloy which does not contain copper is
A invar. C german silver.
B gun metal. D aluminium bronze.
(xxiv) How many litres of steam will be formed from 2L of H2 and 1 L of O2, if all
volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure?
A 1L. C 3L.
B 2L. D 4L.
(xxv) Ethanol reacts with sodium to form two products. These are
A sodium ethanoate and hydrogen.
B sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
C sodium ethanoate and oxygen.
D sodium ethoxide and oxygen .

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 b. Match each item under Column A with the most appropriate item in
Column B. Rewrite the correct matching pairs in the answer sheet
provided. [5]
Column A Column B
1. Boyles law a. Ammonia
2. Haber process b. Equilibrium
3. Avogadro’s law c. Sulphur trioxide
4. Aufbau’s Principle d. 6.023 x 1023 particles
5. Le Chatelier’s Principle e. Filling of orbitals
f. Pressure-volume relationship
g. Volume-temperature relationship
c. Fill in the blanks by writing suitable word(s). [5]
(i) An enzyme that converts glucose to ethanol during fermentation is
______.
(ii) A reaction in which the resulting product does not react to form
original substance is called _____ reaction.
(iii) As it descend down the electrochemical series, the tendency of the
cations to get discharged at cathode _____.
(iv) The catalyst used during hydrogenation of vegetable fats and oil is
_____.
(v) In a reaction where HR > HP, the heat energy is _____.
d. State whether the following statements are True or False. Rewrite the
false statements correctly. [5]
(i) The heat content of a reaction is lowered during endothermic reaction.
(ii) The oxidation state of chlorine is one and that of fluorine can be as
high as seven.
(iii) When a system is at equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is greater
than the rate of reverse reaction.
(iv) There are more atoms in 12 grams of carbon than in 12 grams of
copper.
(v) When the temperature of gas filled balloon is doubled, the volume of
balloon is doubled.
e. Answer the following questions: [5]
(i) Define Charles law.
(ii) Write two applications of electrolysis.

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 Specimen Question Paper

(iii) Suggest a reagent for conversion of ethyl alcohol to acetaldehyde.

(iv) Why is the electron affinity of fluorine lesser than the chlorine?
(v) Why does heat of combustion of an element or the compound have
a positive value?
f. Write down one difference between the following points. [5]
(i) Paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substance.
(ii) Endothermic and exothermic reaction.
(iii) Empirical and molecular formula.
(iv) Oxidation and reduction reaction.
(v) Monohydric and dihydric alcohol.

Section B (50 Marks)

Attempt any five Questions.
Question 2
a. Answer the following questions with respect to the electrolysis of CuSO4
solution using carbon electrode.
(i) Write down the cathodic reaction. [½]
(ii) Write down the anodic reaction. [½]
(iii) Draw the well labeled diagram to show the electrolysis of CuSO4.[2]
b. Write the IUPAC name for the following alcohols and indicate them as mono,
di or trihydric alcohol.

(i) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH [1]

(ii) CH2 CH2 [1]
OH OH

c. Which property of halogen makes chlorine a good bleaching agent? [1]

d. Write the electronic configuration of ( 29Cu) in s, p, d, f notation. [1]
e. A gas occupies a volume of 120.0 mL at a pressure of 0.75 atm and a
temperature of 22°C. What will the volume be at a pressure of 1.25 atm
and a temperature of 70°C? [3]

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 Question 3
a. Given the potential energy diagram for a chemical reaction:
180
160 Without catalyst
140
With catalyst
120
Potential Energy (kj)

100
80
60
40
20
0
Reaction Coordinate

(i) What is the activation energy for the forward reaction without the
catalyst? [1]
(ii) Why curves on the potential energy diagram with and without using
the catalyst are different. [1]
(iii) What is a catalyst? [1]
b. Define the term coordination number. The coordination number of
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ ion is 6. What does it mean? [2]
c. Predict the effect of each of the following on the indicated equilibrium
system in terms of which reaction (forward, reverse, or neither) will be
favored.
H 2 (g) + Cl 2 (g) ? 2HCl (g) + 184 kJ
(i) Removal of HCl. [½]
(ii) Decreased temperature. [½]
(iii) Removal of H2. [½]
(iv) Increased pressure. [½]
d. Calculate the percentage of phosphorus in the fertilizers, superphosphate
Ca (H2PO4)2. [3]
Question 4
a. An organic compound X is widely used as a preservative in pickle and has
a molecular formula, C2H4O2. This compound reacts with ethanol to form
a sweet smelling compound Y.

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 Specimen Question Paper

(i) Identify the compound X. [1]

(ii) Write the chemical equation for its reaction with ethanol to form
compound Y. [1]
(iii) What is the name given to reaction obtained in (ii)? [1]
b. Why the d-block elements are called transition metals. Name two elements
of 3d-seriess. [2]
c. What is the standard heat of formation? What is the significance of the
positive and negative value of ∆H°f of a given compound regarding the
stability of a substance? [2]
d. When vaporized, 64 g of CH3OH would occupy 44.8 L at STP. What is the
vapour density of CH3OH? [3]
Questions 5
a. Answer the following questions with reference to Hall-Heroult process.
(i) What is the function of fluorspar fused with cryolite? [1]
(ii) Name the cathode and anode. [1]
(iii) Why is anode replaced from time to time during the course of
process? [1]
b. Define the term effective nuclear charge. What is the effective nuclear charge
experienced by the electrons of chlorine atom in its valance shell? [2]
c. A gas is confined in a cylinder with a moveable piston at one end. When
the volume of a cylinder is 684 mL, the pressure of the gas is 1.32 atm.
What will be the pressure if the volume of the cylinder is reduced to 513
mL? Assume that the temperature is constant. [3]
d. What is breathalyzer? How is the presence of alcohol in breath
confirmed? [2]
Question 6
a. What are amphoteric substances? Give two examples. [2]
b. Identify whether following reactions are endothermic reaction or exothermic
reaction. Give reason(s). [2]
K (s) + H 2 O (l) $ KOH (aq) DH = -48.0 k.cal
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) $ 2NO (g) DH = +21.65 k.cal

c. What is denatured alcohol? [1]

d. Concentrated HNO3 oxidizes P to H3PO4 (phosphoric acid) according to

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 the following equation [3]
P + 5HNO 3 $ H 3 PO 4 + H 2 O + 5NO 2
(i) How much H3PO4 is formed from 6.2 g of P?
(ii) What is the mass of HNO3 consumed at the same time?
(iii) What would be the volume of the steam produced at the same time
if measured at STP? (H = 1, N = 14, O = 16, P = 31)
e. Why is ethanol production considered as carbon neutral to the environment?
Explain. [2]
Question 7
a. Blast furnace is used for extraction of iron from its ore, heamatite. Write
the equation(s) for each of the following reaction. [3]
(i) the formation of carbon monoxide in the furnace.
(ii) two reactions in which heamatite is reduced to iron.
(iii) the function of limestone in the furnace.
b. The empirical formula of a compound is C2H5. It has a vapour density of 29.
Determine the relative molecular mass of the compound and its molecular
formula. [3]
c. Define metal activity series. Why do gold and silver do not corrode
easily? [2]
d. In the Haber process, which conditions favour a high yield of ammonia at
equilibrium? [1]
e. State any two applications of energy changes that take place in chemical
reaction. [1]

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 Glossary
Activation complex: A temporary or intermediate product formed when atoms are
rearranged in a chemical reaction.
Activation energy, Ea: The minimum amount of energy that the reacting molecule must
possess for the collision to result in a chemical reaction.
Aldehyde: An organic compound containing ‒CHO group, formed by the oxidation of
alcohols.
Alloy: It is a homogeneous mixture of metals or a metal and a non-metal, which
cannot be separated by physical means.
Aluminothermy: The ignition of thermite (mixture of metal oxide and Al powder) with
a magnesium wire embedded in a mixture of Mg powder and BaO2 at a
very high temperature.
Amphoteric Substance: Those substance (especially a metal oxide and hydroxide)
that can react both as an acid as well as a base.
Auto-reduction: The reduction of some substance like Cu2O in absence of any reducing
agents.
Avogadro’s law: Law stating that at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes
of different gases contain an equal number of particles.
Avogadro’s number: It is a dimensionless quantity, and has the same numerical value
of the Avogadro constant i.e., 6.023 × 1023, representing the number of
atoms, molecules, or ions in one mole of a substance.
Biocatalysts: Substances formed in living cells that accelerate or slow down the
chemical processes in the body.
Biochemical reactions: It is the transformation of one molecule to a different molecule
inside a cell which is mediated by enzymes, which are biological catalysts.
Biotechnology: It is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to
manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.
Breathalyzer: It is a device used for measuring the amount of alcohol in a breath.
Carboxylic acid: An organic acid containing a carboxyl group. The simplest examples
are methanoic (or formic) acid and ethanoic (or acetic) acid.
Chemical energetic: The study which deals with the energy changes during chemical
reactions.
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs): It is an organic compound that contains carbon, chlorine,
and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane.
Collision theory: It explains the rate of reactions on the basis of effective collision
between molecules.
Dalton’s law: A law stating that the pressure exerted by a mixture of gases in a fixed
volume is equal to the sum of the pressures that would be exerted by each
gas alone in the same volume.
Dynamic equilibrium: The chemical equilibrium between a forward reaction and the
reverse reaction where the rate of the reactions is equal.
Electrolysis: The process of decomposition of a chemical compound in its molten

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state or in aqueous solution by the passage of electricity.

Effective nuclear charge: It is the net charge an electron experiences in an atom with
multiple electrons.
Empirical formula: A formula for a compound which shows the simplest ratio present.
Electron cloud: It is a region of negative charge surrounding an atomic nucleus that
is associated with an atomic orbital.
Enthalpy (H): It is the total heat content of a system.
Enzymes: Biological catalysts that increase the rates of reactions important to an
organism. They are produced by the living cells.
Enzyme–substrate complex: The intermediate product formed when a substrate
molecule interacts with the active site of an enzyme. It undergoes a
chemical reaction and is converted into a new product.
Equilibrium reaction: The chemical reactions in which a reaction automatically reverses
and there is no net overall change.
Esters: An organic compound obtained by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by
an alkyl or other organic group. They often have a characteristic pleasant,
fruity odor.
Esterification: The general name for a chemical reaction in which two reactants
(typically an alcohol and an acid) form an ester as the reaction product.
Flux: A substance added to get rid of the gangue.
Fuel gases/Blast furnace gas: The mixture of waste gases which comes out of the
blast furnace and mainly consists of about 25% of CO, 10% of CO2 and
6% of N2.
Functional group: It is an atom or a group of atoms in a molecule that gives the
molecules its characteristic properties.
Gangue: The impurities like sand, rocky materials, earthy particles etc.associated
with the ores.
Gas constant: The gas constant, also known as the universal molar gas constant, is a
physical constant that appears in an equation defining the behavior of a gas
under theoretically ideal conditions. The gas constant is, by convention,
symbolized with R.
Gas laws: The physical laws that describe the properties of gases, including Boyle's
and Charles's laws.
Enthalpy of combustion: The amount of heat released when 1 mole of a substance
undergoes complete combustion at a given temperature.
Enthalpy of formation: The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of
substance is formed from its element at STP.
Heat of reaction: The amount of heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction
when the numbers of moles of reactants have completely reacted to form
the products.

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 Heat of neutralization: The amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of an acid is
neutralized by 1 mole of a base in dilute solution.
Heat of solution: The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of solute
dissolves in so much amount of solvent that further addition of solvent to
the solution produces no further change in heat content.
Homologous series: It is a series of organic compounds with same functional group
in which the successive members differ by one –CH2 unit.
Ideal gas equation: It is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas.
Ideal gas law: A physical law describing the relationship of the measurable properties
of an ideal gas. It is derived from a combination of the gas laws of Boyle,
Charles and Avogadro.
Internal energy (E): The energy associated with the random and disordered motion
of molecules.
Ions: The charged particles which are formed either by the loss or gain of
electrons.
Isotopes: Those atoms with the same number of protons, but differing numbers of
neutrons.
Kelvin scale: It is a temperature scale designed so that zero degree K is defined as
absolute zero and the size of one unit is same as the size of one degree
Celsius.
Leaching: It is a widely used metal extraction technique which converts metals into
soluble salts in aqueous media from the desired ores.
Levigation: The washing of powdered ore with an upward stream of running water in a
hydraulic classifier whereby, the lighter gangue particles are washed away
while heavier ore particles settle down and are removed from the base.
Le Chatelier’s Principle: When a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in
temperature, pressure or concentration of a component, the equilibrium
shifts in the direction of the reaction opposing the effect of change and a
new equilibrium condition is established.
Malt: Barley or other grain that has been steeped, germinated, and dried, used
for brewing or distilling and vinegar-making.
Metallurgy: A science of metal and the various processes involved in the extraction
of metals from their respective ores.
Metal activity series: The arrangement of metal in descending order of their reactivity.
Minerals: It is a naturally occurring chemical substances found in the earth’s crust.
Molar volume: The volume occupied by a mole of a gas at STP. At STP 1 mole of gas
occupies 22.4 liters.
Molasses: It is a thick, dark brown juice obtained from raw sugar during the refining
process.
Mole: The amount of a chemical substance that contains as many elementary
entities, e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, or photons, as there are
atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, the isotope of carbon with relative atomic

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 Glossary

mass 12.
Nomenclature: It is a set of rules to generate systematic names for chemical
compounds.
Nuclear charge: The total charge of all the protons in the nucleus, which has same
value as the atomic number.
Ores: The minerals from which desired metals can be extracted.
Orbit: It is a fixed path of an electron around the nucleus of an atom. Bohr's
model of the hydrogen atom is based on the concept of orbit.
Orbital: It is a region of space around the nucleus where the probability of finding
an electron is maximum.
Partial pressure: The pressure that one component of a mixture of gases would exert
if it were alone in a container.
Pulverization: The process in which the smaller pieces of ores are reduced to fine
powder with the help of stamp mill or ball mill.
Real gases: A gas that does not behave as an ideal gas due to interactions between
gas molecules. It is also known as non-ideal gas.
Redox reaction: It is a chemical reaction in which simultaneous oxidation and reduction
take place.
Reaction rate: The change in the amount of reactants or products over time.
Slag: The product obtained by the combination of gangue with the flux.
Smelting: It is a process of heating metal oxide in the presence of carbon.
Substrate: The material or substance on which an enzyme acts.
Thermochemical equation: It is a chemical equation that includes the quantity of heat
released or absorbed during the chemical reaction.
Thermo chemistry: The branch of chemistry that deals with the quantities of heat
evolved or absorbed during chemical reactions.
Total pressures: The sum of the partial pressure of each individual gas.
Threshold energy: The minimum amount of energy required by a molecule for the
reaction to takes place.
van der Waals force: A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules
that collide with or pass very close to each other. Or, van der Waals forces
are the intermolecular forces that cause molecules to cohere in liquid
and solid states of matter, and are responsible for surface tension and
capillary action.

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 References
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Petrucci, R.H. (1982). General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Great
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Poddar. S. N, (1994). A Text book of Chemistry (6th ed). Kolkota: Budhu Ostagar: Shree
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