GASES

SECTION 1 – GASES AND PRESSURE

In the chapter state of matter, you read about the kinetic-molecular theory,
which is based on the idea that particles of matter are always in motion.
In this section, you will study the implications of the kinetic-molecular
theory of gases.
You have learned that the temperature of a gas is related to the kinetic
energy of the gas molecules. In this chapter, you will learn about other
properties of gases, including pressure, volume, an amount of gas
present, and the relationship between these properties.
 Pressure and Force
■ If you blow air into a rubber balloon, the balloon will
increase in size
■ The volume increase is caused by the collisions of
molecules of air with the inside walls of the balloon
■ The collisions cause an outward push, or force,
against the inside walls
 Pressure
■ Pressure (P) ! the force per unit area on a surface

■ SI unit for force = Newton (N) ! force that will increase the
speed of a one kilogram mass by one meter per second each
second it is applied

■ At Earth’s surface, each kilogram of mass exerts 9.8 N of force,

due to gravity
■ Gas molecules exert pressure on
any surface with which they
collide

■ The pressure exerted by a gas

depends on volume,
temperature, and the number of
molecules present
Measuring Pressure
■ Barometer ! a device used to measure
atmospheric pressure
■ Torricelli sealed a long glass tube at one
end and filled it with mercury
■ Held open end with his thumb, he
inverted the tube into a dish of mercury
without allowing any air to enter the tube
■ When he removed his
thumb, the mercury column
in the tube dropped to a
height of about 760 mm
above the surface of the
mercury in the dish
■ He repeated the experiment
with tubes of different
diameters and lengths
longer than 760 mm
■ In every case, the mercury
dropped to a height of about
760 mm
 Units of Pressure
■ Many units used to measure
pressure
■ mmHg ! millimeters of
mercury
■ 1 mmHg = 1 torr
■ 1 atm ! atmosphere of
pressure = 760 mmHg
■ SI unit ! Pascal ! the
pressure exerted by a force of
one Newton (1N) acting on an
area of one square meter
 Standard Temperature and Pressure
■ To compare volumes of gases, it is necessary to
know the temperature and pressure at which the
volumes are measured
■ For purposes of comparison, scientists have agreed
on standard conditions of exactly 1 atm pressure and
0°C
■ These conditions are called standard temperature
and pressure and are commonly abbreviated STP
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
■ He found that in the absence of a chemical reaction, the pressure of a
gas mixture is the sum of the individual pressures of each gas alone
■ The pressure of each gas in a mixture is called the partial pressure of
that gas
■ Dalton’s law of partial pressures ! the total pressure of a mixture of
gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component
gases
■ The law is true regardless of the number of different gases that are
present
■ Dalton’s law may be expressed as
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +…
 Gases Collected by Water Displacement
■ Gases produced in the laboratory are often
collected over water
■ The gas produced by the reaction displaces the
water, which is more dense, in the collection
bottle
■ You can apply Dalton’s law of partial pressures in
calculating the pressures of gases collected in
this way
■ A gas collected by water displacement is not pure
but is always mixed with water vapor
■ That is because water molecules at the liquid
surface evaporate and mix with the gas molecules
■ Water vapor, like other gases, exerts a pressure,
known as water-vapor pressure
■ Suppose you wished to determine the total pressure
of the gas and water vapor inside a collection bottle
■ You would raise the bottle until the water levels
inside and outside the bottle were the same
■ At that point, the total pressure inside the bottle
would be the same as the atmospheric pressure,
Patm
■ According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the
following is true
Patm = Pgas + PH2O
■ Oxygen gas from the decomposition of potassium
chlorate, KClO3, was collected by water displacement.
The barometric pressure and the temperature during the
experiment were 731.0 torr and 20.0°C, respectively.
What was the partial pressure of the oxygen collected?

■ Given: PT = Patm = 731.0 torr;

■ PH2O = 17.5 torr (vapor pressure of water at 20.0°C);
■ Patm = PO2 + PH2O
■ Unknown: PO2 in torr
■ Given: PT = Patm = 731.0 torr;
■ PH2O = 17.5 torr (vapor pressure of water at
20.0°C);
■ Patm = PO2 + PH2O
Unknown: PO2 in torr

PO2 = Patm − PH2O

PO2 = 731.0 torr − 17.5 torr = 713.5 torr

Some hydrogen gas is collected over water at
20.0°C.The levels of water inside and outside the
gas-collection bottle are the same. The partial
pressure of hydrogen is 742.5 torr. What is the
barometric pressure at the time the gas is collected?

■ Answer 760.0 torr

Helium gas is collected over water at 25°C.What is
the partial pressure of the helium, given that the
barometric pressure is 750.0 mm Hg?

■ Answer 726.2 mm Hg
 Practice Problems
1. The average atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado, is
0.830 atm. Express this pressure
(a) in mm Hg and (b) in kPa.
631 mm Hg 84.1 kPa
2. Convert a pressure of 1.75 atm to kPa and to mm Hg.
177 kPa, 1330 mm Hg
3. Convert a pressure of 570. torr to atmospheres and to
kPa.
0.750 atm, 76.0 kPa
SECTION 2 – THE GAS LAWS

Scientists have been studying physical properties of

gases for hundreds of years. In 1662, Robert Boyle
discovered that gas pressure and volume are related
mathematically. The observations of Boyle and others
led to the development of the gas laws. The gas laws
are simple mathematical relationships between the
volume, temperature, pressure, and amount of a gas.
 Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume
■ Boyle’s law ! the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies
inversely with the pressure at constant temperature
■ Boyle’s law can be used to compare
changing conditions for a gas
■ Using P1 and V1 to stand for initial
conditions and P2 and V2 to stand
for new conditions results in the
following equations

P1V1 =k P2V2 = k

P1V1 = P2V2
 Practice Problem
A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 150. mL when its
pressure is 0.947 atm. What will the volume of the gas be at a
pressure of 0.987 atm if the temperature remains constant?

■ Given:
■ V1 of O2 = 150. mL;
■ P1 of O2 = 0.947 atm;
■ P2 of O2 = 0.987 atm
■ Unknown: V2 of O2 in mL
 Given: V1 of O2 = 150. mL; P1 of O2 = 0.947 atm; P2 of O2 =
0.987 atm
Unknown: V2 of O2 in mL
Rearrange the equation for Boyle’s law (P1V1 = P2V2) to
obtain V2
 Practice Problems
A balloon filled with helium gas has a volume of 500 mL at a
pressure of 1 atm.The balloon is released and reaches an
altitude of 6.5 km, where the pressure is 0.5 atm. Assuming
that the temperature has remained the same, what volume
does the gas occupy at this height?

■ Answer 1000 mL He
A gas has a pressure of 1.26 atm and occupies
a volume of 7.40 L. If the gas is compressed
to a volume of 2.93 L, what will its pressure
be, assuming constant temperature?

■ Answer 3.18 atm

Divers know that the pressure exerted by the
water increases about 100 kPa with every 10.2
m of depth. This means that at 10.2 m below
the surface, the pressure is 201 kPa; at 20.4 m,
the pressure is 301 kPa; and so forth. Given
that the volume of a balloon is 3.5 L at STP
and that the temperature of the water remains
the same, what is the volume 51 m below the
water’s surface?

■ Answer 0.59 L
 Charles’s Law: Volume-Temperature
■ Charles’s law ! the volume of a fixed mass of gas at
constant pressure varies directly with the Kelvin temperature
■The temperature −273.15°C is
referred to as absolute zero and is
given a value of zero in the Kelvin
scale
K = 273 + °C
 Practice Problems
A sample of neon gas occupies a volume of 752 mL at 25°C.What
volume will the gas occupy at 50°C if the pressure remains
constant?

Given:
V1 of Ne = 752 mL;
T1 of Ne = 25°C + 273 = 298 K;
T2 of Ne = 50°C + 273 = 323 K
– Note that Celsius temperatures have been converted to kelvins.This
is a very important step for working the problems in this chapter
Unknown: V2 of Ne in mL
 Given:
V1 of Ne = 752 mL; T1 of Ne = 25°C + 273 = 298 K; T2 of Ne = 50°C + 273 = 323 K
Unknown: V2 of Ne in mL
A helium-filled balloon has a volume of 2.75 L at
20.°C.The volume of the balloon decreases to
2.46 L after it is placed outside on a cold day.
What is the outside temperature in K? in °C?

■ Answer 262 K, or −11°C

A gas at 65°C occupies 4.22 L. At what
Celsius temperature will the volume be
3.87 L, assuming the same pressure?

■ Answer 37°C
 Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure-
Temperature
■ Gay-Lussac’s law: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at
constant volume varies directly with the Kelvin temperature
The gas in an aerosol can is at a pressure of 3.00 atm at
25°C. Directions on the can warn the user not to keep
the can in a place where the temperature exceeds 52°C.
What would the gas pressure in the can be at 52°C?

■ Given:
■ P1 of gas = 3.00 atm;
■ T1 of gas = 25°C + 273 = 298 K;
■ T2 of gas = 52°C + 273 = 325 K
■ Unknown: P2 of gas in atm
Given: P1 of gas = 3.00 atm; T1 of gas = 25°C + 273 = 298 K; T2 of gas = 52°C +
273 = 325 K
Unknown: P2 of gas in atm
Before a trip from New York to Boston, the
pressure in an automobile tire is 1.8 atm at
20.°C. At the end of the trip, the pressure
gauge reads 1.9 atm. What is the new
Celsius temperature of the air inside the
tire? (Assume tires with constant volume.)

■ Answer 36°C
At 120.°C, the pressure of a sample of
nitrogen is 1.07 atm. What will the
pressure be at 205°C, assuming
constant volume?

■ Answer 1.30 atm

A sample of helium gas has a pressure of
1.20 atm at 22°C. At what Celsius
temperature will the helium reach a
pressure of 2.00 atm?

■ Answer 219°C
 The Combined Gas Law
■ The combined gas law expresses the relationship between
pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas
Getting the other gas laws

If temperature is constant you get Boyle’s Law

P1V1 = P2V2
If pressure is constant you get Charles’s Law

If volume is constant you get Gay-Lussac’s Law

 Practice Problems
A helium-filled balloon has a volume of 50.0 L at 25°C and 1.08
atm.What volume will it have at 0.855 atm and 10.°C?

Given:
V1 of He = 50.0 L;
T1 of He = 25°C + 273 = 298 K;
T2 of He = 10°C + 273 = 283 K;
P1 of He = 1.08 atm;
P2 of He = 0.855 atm
Unknown: V2 of He in L
Given: V1 of He = 50.0 L; T1 of He = 25°C + 273 = 298 K; T2 of He = 10°C + 273 =
283 K; P1 of He = 1.08 atm; P2 of He = 0.855 atm
Unknown: V2 of He in L
The volume of a gas is 27.5 mL at
22.0°C and 0.974 atm. What will the
volume be at 15.0°C and 0.993 atm?

■ Answer 26.3 mL
A 700. mL gas sample at STP is
compressed to a volume of 200. mL, and
the temperature is increased to 30.0°C.
What is the new pressure of the gas in
Pa?

5
■ Answer 3.94 × 10 Pa
 GAS VOLUMES AND
THE IDEAL GAS LAW
In this section, you will study the relationships between the volumes of gases
that react with each other. You’ll also learn about the relationship between
molar amount of gas in volume, and a single gas law that unifies all the basic
gas laws into a single equation.
Measuring and Comparing the Volumes of
Reacting Gases
■ Early 1800s, Gay-Lussac studied gas volume relationships
with chemical reaction between H and O
■ Observed 2 L H can react with 1 L O to form 2 L of water
vapor at constant temperature and pressure

Hydrogen gas + oxygen gas ! water vapor

2L 1L 2L
2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes
■ Reaction shows 2:1:2 relationship between volumes of
reactants and product
■ Ratio applies to any proportions (mL, L, cm3)

■ Gay-Lussac also noticed ratios by volume between

other reactions of gases

Hydrogen gas + chlorine gas ! hydrogen chloride gas

1L 1L 2L
Law of Combining Volumes of Gases

■ 1808 Gay-Lussac summarized results in

Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes
of gases ! at constant temperature and
pressure, the volumes of gaseous reactants
and products can be expressed as ratios of
small whole numbers
 Avogadro’s Law

■ Important point of Dalton’s atomic theory: atoms are

indivisible
■ Dalton also thought particles of gaseous elements exist in
form of single atoms

■ Believed one atom of one element always combines with one

atom of another element to form single particle of product
■ Gay-Lussac’s results presented problem for Dalton’s
theory
■ Ex. Reactions like formation of water

Hydrogen gas + oxygen gas ! water vapor

2L 1L 2L

■ Seems that oxygen involved would have to divide into

two parts
■ 1811 Avogadro found way to explain Gay-
Lussac’s simple ratios of combining volumes
without violating Dalton’s idea of indivisible atoms

■ Rejected Dalton’s idea that reactant elements are

always in monatomic form when they combine to
form products

■ Reasoned these molecules could contain more

than 1 atom
■ Avogadro’s law ! equal volumes of gases
at the same temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules

■ At the same temp and pressure, volume of

any given gas varies directly with the
number of molecules
1 mol CO2 at
STP = 22.4 L

1 mol O2 at
STP = 22.4 L

1 mol H2 at
STP = 22.4 L
■ Consider reaction of H and Cl to produce HCl

■ According to Avogadro’s law, equal volumes of H and

Cl contain same number of molecules
■ b/c he rejected Dalton’s theory that elements are
always monatomic, he concluded H and Cl
components must each consist of 2 or more atoms
joined together
■ Simplest assumption was that H and Cl molecules had 2 atoms
each
■ Leads to following balanced equation:

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

1 volume 1 volume 2 volumes
1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules

■ If the simplest formula for hydrogen chloride, HCl indicates

molecule contains 1 H and 1 Cl
■ Then the simplest formulas for hydrogen and chlorine must be H2
and Cl2
■ Avogadro’s law also indicates that gas
volume is directly proportional to the
amount of gas, at given temp and pressure

V = kn

■ k = constant
■ n = amount of gas in moles
Molar Volume of Gases

■ Remember 1 mol of substance contains 6.022 x 1023

■ According to Avogadro’s law, 1 mol of any gas
occupies same volume as 1 mol of any other gas at
same temperature and pressure, even though masses
are different
■ Standard molar volume of gas ! volume occupied
by 1 mol of gas at STP
■ = 22.4 L
■ Knowing volume of gas, you can use 1mol/22.4 L as
conversion factor

■ Can find number of moles

■ Can find mass

■ Can also use molar volume to find volume if you have

number of moles or mass
Sample Problem

■ A chemical reaction produces 0.0680 mol

of oxygen gas. What volume in liters is
occupied by this gas sample at STP?
1. Analyze

■ Given: molar mass of O2 = 0.0680 mol

■ Unknown: volume of O2 in liters at STP

2. Plan

■ moles of O2 → liters of O2 at STP

■ The standard molar volume can be used to find

the volume of a known molar amount of a gas at
STP
3. Compute
 Practice Problems
■ At STP, what is the volume of 7.08 mol of nitrogen
gas?
■ 159 L N2
■ A sample of hydrogen gas occupies 14.1 L at STP.
How many moles of the gas are present?
■ 0.629 mol H2
■ At STP, a sample of neon gas occupies 550. cm3.
How many moles of neon gas does this represent?
■ 0.0246 mol Ne
Sample Problem

■ A chemical reaction produced 98.0 mL of

sulfur dioxide gas, SO2, at STP. What was
the mass (in grams) of the gas produced?
1. Analyze

■ Given: volume of SO2 at STP = 98.0 mL

■ Unknown: mass of SO2 in grams
2. Plan

■ liters of SO2 at STP→moles of SO2→grams of SO2

3. Compute

■ = 0.280 g SO2
 Practice Problems
■ What is the mass of 1.33 × 104 mL of oxygen gas at
STP?
■ 19.0 g O2
■ What is the volume of 77.0 g of nitrogen dioxide gas
at STP?
■ 37.5 L NO2
■ At STP, 3 L of chlorine is produced during a
chemical reaction. What is the mass of this gas?
■ 9 g Cl2
■ A gas sample can be characterized by 4
quantities

1. Pressure
2. Volume
3. Temperature
4. Number of moles
■ Number of moles present always affects at least
one of the other 3 quantities

■ Collision rate per unit area of container wall

depends on number of moles

■ Increase moles, increase collision rate, increase

pressure
■ Pressure, volume, temperature, moles are all
interrelated
■ A mathematical relationship exists to describe
behavior of gas for any combination of these
conditions

■ Ideal gas law ! mathematical relationship among

pressure, volume, temperature, and number of
moles of a gas
Derivation of Ideal Gas Law

■ Derived by combining the other gas laws

■ Boyle’s law: at constant temp, the volume of a given
mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.
■ Charles’s law: At constant pressure, volume of given mass
of gas is directly proportional to Kelvin temperature

VαT

■ Avogadro’s law: at constant temp and pressure, volume of

given mass of gas is directly proportional to the number of
moles

Vαn
■ Volume is proportional to pressure, temp and
moles in each equation
■ Combine the 3:

Can change proportion to equality by adding

constant, this time R
■ This equation says the volume of a gas varies directly
with the number of moles of gas and its Kelvin
temperature

■ Volume also varies inversely with pressure

■ Ideal gas law combines Boyle’s, Charles’s,
Gay-Lussac’s, and Avogadro’s laws

■ Ex: PV = nRT ! n and T are constant, nRT is

constant b/c R is also constant

■ This makes PV = constant which is Boyle’s

law
 The Ideal Gas Constant - R
■ Value depends on units for volume, pressure, temp

Unit of R Value of Unit of P Unit of V Unit of T Unit of n

R
62.4 mmHg L K Mol

0.0821 Atm L K Mol

8.314 Pa m3 K Mol

8.314 kPa L K Mol

Sample Problem

■ What is the pressure in atmospheres

exerted by a 0.500 mol sample of nitrogen
gas in a 10.0 L container at 298 K?
1. Analyze

■ Given:
■ V of N2 = 10.0 L
■ n of N2 = 0.500 mol
■ T of N2 = 298 K

■ Unknown:
■ P of N2 in atm
2. Plan

■ n,V,T → P
■ The gas sample undergoes no change in conditions
■ Therefore, the ideal gas law can be rearranged and
used to find the pressure as follows
3. Compute

= 1.22 atm
Practice Problems

■ What pressure, in atmospheres, is exerted by 0.325

mol of hydrogen gas in a 4.08 L container at 35°C?
■ 2.01 atm

■ A gas sample occupies 8.77 L at 20°C.What is the

pressure, in atmospheres, given that there are 1.45 mol
of gas in the sample?
■ 3.98 atm
■ What is the volume, in liters, of 0.250 mol of
oxygen gas at 20.0°C and 0.974 atm pressure?
■ 6.17 L O2
■ A sample that contains 4.38 mol of a gas at
250 K has a pressure of 0.857 atm. What is the
volume?
■ 105 L
■ How many liters are occupied by 0.909 mol of
nitrogen at 125°C and 0.901 atm pressure?
■ 33.0 L N2
■ What mass of chlorine gas, Cl2, in grams, is
contained in a 10.0 L tank at 27°C and 3.50 atm of
pressure?
■ 101 g Cl2
■ How many grams of carbon dioxide gas are there
in a 45.1 L container at 34°C and 1.04 atm?
■ 81.9 g CO2
■ What is the mass, in grams, of oxygen gas in a
12.5 L container at 45°C and 7.22 atm?
■ 111 g O2
■ A sample of carbon dioxide with a mass
of 0.30 g was placed in a 250 mL
container at 400. K. What is the pressure
exerted by the gas?
■ 0.90 atm
 SECTION 4
Effusion and
Diffusion
Graham’s Law of Effusion

■ Rates of effusion and diffusion depend on relative

velocities of gas molecules

■ Velocity varies inversely with mass (lighter molecules

move faster)
■ Average kinetic energy ½ mv2
■ For two gases, A and B, at same temp:

½ MAvA2 = ½ MBvB2

■ MA and MB = molar masses of A and B

■ Multiply by 2

MAvA2 = MBvB2
 MAvA2 = MBvB2
■ Suppose you wanted to compare the velocities of the two
gases

■ You would first rearrange the equation above to give the

velocities as a ratio
■ Take square root of each side

This equation shows that velocities of two gases

are inversely proportional to the square roots of
their molar masses
■ b/c rates of effusion are directly proportional to
molecular velocities, can write
Graham’s Law of Effusion

■ The rates of effusion of gases at the

same temperature and pressure are
inversely proportional to the square
roots of their molar masses
 Application of Graham’s Law
■ Graham’s experiments dealt with densities of gases
■ Density varies directly with molar mass
■ So…square roots of molar masses from equation can be
replaced with square roots of densities
Sample Problem

■ Compare the rates of effusion of

hydrogen and oxygen at the same
temperature and pressure.
1. Analyze

■ Given:
■ identities of two gases, H2 and O2

■ Unknown:
■ relative rates of effusion
2. Plan

■ molar mass ratio → ratio of rates of effusion

■ The ratio of the rates of effusion of two gases at the

same temperature and pressure can be found from
Graham’s law
3. Compute

■ Hydrogen effuses 3.98 times faster than oxygen.

 Practice Problems
■ A sample of hydrogen effuses through a porous
container about 9 times faster than an unknown
gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown
gas.
■ 160 g/mol
■ Compare the rate of effusion of carbon dioxide
with that of hydrogen chloride at the same
temperature and pressure.
■ CO2 will effuse about 0.9 times as fast as HCl
■ If a molecule of neon gas travels at an
average of 400 m/s at a given temperature,
estimate the average speed of a molecule of
butane gas, C4H10, at the same temperature.

■ about 235 m/s