DRYING AND HUMIDIFICATION

Purpose of drying

• Drying, usually means removal of relatively small amounts of water from material. Evaporation refers to
removal of relatively large amounts of water from material. In evaporation the water as vapor at its boiling
point. In drying the water usually removed as a vapor by air.

• Drying is usually the final processing step before packaging and makes many materials, such as soap
powders and dyestuffs, more suitable for handling

• Drying of biological materials, especially foods, is used as a preservation technique. Microorganism that
cause food spoilage and decay cannot grow and multiply. Also, many enzymes that cause chemical changes
in food and other biological materials cannot function without water. When the water content is reduced
below about 10%, the microorganisms are not active. However, it is usually necessary to lower moisture
content below 5 wt% in foods to preserve flavor and nutrition.
• Dried foods can be stored for extended periods of time.
General Methods of Drying

Drying processes can also be classified as batch, where the material is inserted into the drying equipment and
drying proceeds for a given period of time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the dryer
and dried material continuously removed.

Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physical conditions used to add heat and remove water
vapor.
1. In the first category, heat is added by direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure and the water vapor
formed is removed by the air.
2. in vacuum drying , the evaporation of water proceeds more rapidly at low pressures and the heat is added
indirectly by contact with a metal wall or by radiation
3. In freeze drying, water is sublimed from the frozen material
Classification of drying equipment
Equipment for drying
Tray dryers
• In tray dryers, which are also shelf, cabinet or compartment dryers,
the material, which may be a lumpy solid or a pasty solid, is spread
uniformly on a metal tray to a depth of 10 to 100 mm.
• Steam heated air is recirculated by a fan over and parallel to the
surface of the trays. Electrical heat is also used, especially for low
heating loads
• About 10 to 20 % of the air passing over the trays is fresh air, the
remainder being recirculated air.
• After drying, the cabinet is opened and the trays are replaced with a
new batch of trays. A modification of this type is the tray- truck
type, where trays are loaded on trucks which are pushed into the
dryer. This saves considerable time, since the trucks can be loaded
and unloaded outside the dryer
Tray dryers
Vacuum Shelf Indirect Dryers

• Vacuum shelf dryers are indirectly heated batch dryers similar to tray dryers. Such a dryer consists of a cabinet made
of cast iron or steel plates fitted with tightly fitted doors so that it can be operated under vacuum.
• Hollow shelves of steel are fastened permanently inside the chamber and are connected in parallel to inlet and
outlet steam headers.
• The trays containing the solids to be dried rest upon the hollow shelves. The heat is conducted through the metal
walls and added by radiation from the shelf above.
• For low temperature operation, circulating warm water is used instead of steam for furnishing the heat to vaporize
the moisture. The vapors usually pass to a condenser.
• These dryers are used to dry expensive or temperature sensitive or easily oxidizable materials. They are usefull for
handling materials with toxic or valuable solvents
Continuous Tunnel Dryers

• Continuous tunnel dryers are often batch truck or tray compartments operated in series. The solids are placed on
trays or on trucks which move continuously through a tunnel with hot gases passing over the surface of each tray.
The hot air flow can be counter current, co current or a combination.
• When granular particles of solids are to be dried, perforated or screen belt continuous conveyors are often used.
• The wet granular solids are conveyed as a layer 25 to about 150 mm deep on a screen or perforated apron while
heated air is blown upward through the bed or downward.
• The dryer consists of several sections in series each with a fan and heating coils
• A portion of the air is exhausted to the atmosphere by a fan
• In some cases pasty materials can be performed into cylinder and placed on the bed to be dried.
Rotary Dryers

• A rotary dryer consists of a hollow cylinder which is rotated and usually slightly inclined towards the
outlet.
• The wet granular solids are fed at the high end and move through the shell as it rotates.
• The heating is direct contact with hot gases in counter current flow. In some cases the heating is by
indirect contact through the heated wall of the cylinder
• The granular particles move forward slowly a short distance before they are showered downward
through the hot gases.
Drum Dryers
• A drum dryer consists of a heated metal roll, on the outside of which a thin layer of liquid or slurry is evaporated
to dryness
• The final dry solid is scraped off the roll, which is revolving slowly.
• Drum dryers are suitable for handling slurries or pastes of solids in fine suspension and for solutions
• The drum functions partly as an evaporated and also as a dryer.
• Other variations of the single drum type are twin rotating drums with dip feeding or with top feeding to the two
drums
 Spray Dryers

• In a spray dryer a liquid or slurry solution is sprayed into a hot

gas stream in the form of a mist of fine droplets
• The water is rapidly vaporized from the droplets, leaving
particles of dry solid which are separated from the gas stream.
• The flow of gas and liquid in the spray chamber may be
counter current , co current or a combination.
• The fine droplets are formed from the liquid feed by spray
nozzles or high speed rotating spray disks inside a cylindrical
chamber
Vapor Pressure of water

Humidification involves the transfer of water from

the liquid phase into a gaseous mixture of air and
water vapor

Dehumidification involves the reverse transfer,

whereby water vapor is transferred from the vapor
state to the liquid state.
Humidity and Humidity Chart

Humidity: The kg of water vapor contained in 1 kg of dry air. Humidity depends on the partial pressure of water
vapor in the air and on the total pressure P.
𝑘𝑔 𝐻20 𝑝𝐴 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻20 18.02 𝑘𝑔 𝐻20 1
𝐻 = 𝑋 𝑋
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃 − 𝑝𝐴 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻20 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
28.97
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑝𝐴 18.02
𝐻= 𝑋
𝑃 − 𝑝𝐴 28.97

Saturated air is air in which the water vapor is in equilibrium with liquid water at the given conditions of
pressure and temperature. In this mixture the partial pressure of the water vapor in the air water mixture is
equal to the vapor pressure pAS of pure water at the given temperature.

𝑝𝐴𝑠 18.02
Saturation humidity, Hs = 𝑃 − 𝑝𝐴𝑠 𝑋 28.97
Percentage humidity:

100 times the actual humidity of the air divided by the humidity HS if the air were saturated at the same
temperature and pressure.

𝐻
𝐻𝑃 = 100
𝐻𝑠

Percentage relative humidity:

The amount of saturation of an air – water vapor mixture is also given as percentage relative humidity HR using partial
pressures 𝑝𝐴
𝐻𝑅 = 100
𝑝𝐴𝑠
The air in a room is at 26.7 0C (80 0F) and a pressure of 101.325 kPa and contains water vapor with a partial
pressure PA = 2.76 kPa. Calculate the following
a) Humidity, H
b) Saturation humidity, Hs and percentage humidity, Hp
c) Percentage relative humidity, HR.
From the steam tables at 26.70C, the vapor pressure of water is Pas = 3.50 kPa

pA = 2.76 kPa 𝑝𝐴 18.02 2.76 18.02 𝑘𝑔 𝐻20

P = 101.3 kPa 𝐻= 𝑋 = 𝑋 = 0.01742
𝑃 − 𝑝𝐴 28.97 101.3 − 2.76 28.97 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑝𝐴𝑠 18.02 3.50 18.02 𝑘𝑔 𝐻20

𝐻𝑠 = 𝑋 = 𝑋 = 0.02226
𝑃 − 𝑝𝐴𝑠 28.97 101.3 − 3.50 28.97 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝐻 0.01742
𝐻𝑃 = 100 = 100 = 78.3%
𝐻𝑠 0.02226
𝑝𝐴 2.76
𝐻𝑅 = 100 = 100 = 78.9%
𝑝𝐴𝑠 3.50
Dew Point of an air water vapor mixture:

The temperature at which a given mixture of air and water vapor would be saturated is called the dew point
temperature or simply the dew point.

Humid heat of an air water vapor mixture

The humid heat is the amount of heat in J required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry air plus the water vapor
present by 1 K or 1 0C . The heat capacity of air and water vapor can be assumed constant over the temperature
ranges usually encountered at 1.005 kJ/kg dry air.K and 1.88 kJ water vapor.K respectively.

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑠 ( ) = 1.005 + 1.88𝐻
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟. 𝐾
Humid volume of an air water vapor mixture

The humid volume is the total volume in m3 of 1 kg dry air plus the vapor it contains at 101.325 kPa abs pressure
and the given gas temperature . Using the ideal gas law,

𝑚3 22.41 1 1
𝑣𝐻 , = 𝑇𝐾 + 𝐻
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 273 28.97 18.02

= 2.83 𝑋 10−3 + 4.56 𝑋 10−3 𝐻

Total enthalpy of an air water vapor mixture

The total enthalpy of 1 kg of air plus its water vapor is Hy J/kg or kJ/kg dry air. If T0 is the datum temperature
chosen for both components, the total enthalpy is the sensible heat of the air water vapor mixture plus the latent
heat in J/kg or kJ/kg water vapor of the water vapor at TO. This enthalpy is referred to liquid water

𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑦 , = 𝑐𝑠 𝑇 − 𝑇0 + 𝐻λ0 = 1.005 + 1.88𝐻 𝑇 − 𝑇0 𝑂𝐶 + 𝐻λ0
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Humidity chart of air water vapor mixture

Humidity is plotted versus the actual temperature of the air water vapor mixture (dry bulb temperature)

The curve marked 100% running upward to the right gives the saturation humidity Hs as a function of temperature

Any point below the saturation line represents unsaturated air water vapor mixture. The curved lines below the
100% saturation line and running upward to the right represent unsaturated mixtures of definite percentage
humidity Hp. Going downward vertically from the saturation line at given temperature, the line between 100%
saturation and zero humidity H is divided evenly into 10 increments of 10% each
All the percentage humidity lines Hp mentioned and saturated humidity line Hs can be calculated from the data of
vapor pressure of water.
Air entering a dryer has a temperature (dry bulb temperature ) of 60 0C and the dew point of 26.7 0C. Using humidity
chart, determine the actual humidity H, percentage humidity Hp, humid heat cs and the humid volume, vH in SI.

H = 0.0225 kg H20/kg dry air

Hp = 14%

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑠 = 1.005 + 1.88𝑥 0.0225 = 1.047
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟. 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟. 𝐾

𝑣𝐻 = 2.83 𝑋 10−3 + 4.56 𝑋 10−3 𝑥 0.0225 60 + 273 𝐾

𝑚3
= 0.977
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Adiabatic saturation temperature

Consider the process where the entering gas of air water vapor mixture is contacted with a spray of liquid water. The
gas leaves having a different humidity and temperature and the process is adiabatic. The water is recirculated, with
some makeup water added

The temperature of the water being recirculated reaches a steady state temperature called the adiabatic saturation
temperature, Ts. If the entering gas at temperature T having a humidity of H is not saturated, Ts will be lower than T. If
the contact between the entering gas and the spray of droplets is enough to bring the gas and liquid to equilibrium, the
leaving air is saturated at Ts , having a humidity Hs.
Enthalpy balance:
Datum temperature, Ts
The enthalpy of the makeup water is than zero
Total enthalpy of the entering gas mixture = enthalpy of the leaving gas mixture

𝑐𝑠 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐻λ𝑠 =
𝑐𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐻𝑠λ𝑠
 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠 𝑐𝑠 1.005 + 1.88𝐻
=− =
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 λ𝑠 λ𝑠

This equation of a an diabatic curve when plotted on fig , which passes through the point Hs and Ts on the
100% saturation curve and other points of H and T.
These series of lines , running upward to the left , are called adiabatic humidification lines or adiabatic
saturation lines. Since cS contains the term, H, the adiabatic lines are not quite straight when plotted on the
humidity chart.
An air stream at 87.80c having a humidity H = 0.030 kg H20/kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic saturator
with water. It is cooled and humidified to 90% saturation.
a) What are the final values of H and T?
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H and T?

Sol:
a) H = 0.05 kg H20/kg dry air and T = 42.5 0C

b) H = 0.0505 kg H20 / kg dry air T = 40.5 0C

Wet bulb temperature

The adiabatic saturation temperature is the steady state temperature attained when a large amount of water is
contacted with the entering gas. The wet bulb temperature is the steady state nonequilibrium temperature
reached when a small amount of water is contacted under adiabatic conditions by a continuous stream of gas.
Since the amount of liquid is small, the temperature and humidity of the gas are not changed, contrary to the adiabatic
saturation case, where the temperature and the humidity of the gas are changed.
A heat balance on the wick can be made

The datum temperature is taken at Tw

The amount of heat lost by vaporization, neglecting the small sensible heat change of the vaporized liquid and
radiation, is

𝑞 = 𝑀𝐴 𝑁𝐴 λ𝑊 𝐴

Where q = kW(kJ/s), MA is molecular weight of water, NA is kg mol H20 evaporating/s.m2., A is surface area
m2,and λw is the latent heat of vaporization at TW in kJ/kg H20
𝑘𝑦′
𝑁𝐴 = (𝑦 − 𝑦) = 𝑘𝑦 (𝑦𝑤 − 𝑦)
𝑥𝐵𝑀 𝑤
kg mol
k ′y = mass transfer coefficient in .
s. m2 mol frac

𝑥𝐵𝑀 = log mean inert mole fraction of the air

yw = is the mole fraction of water vapor in the gas at the surface

y = mole fraction in the gas

where MB is the molecular weight of air and MA the molecular weight of H2O

H is small
𝐻𝑀𝐵
𝑦≅
𝑀𝐴

𝑞 = 𝑀𝐵 𝑘𝑦 λ𝑊 𝐻𝑤 − 𝐻 𝐴

The rate of convective heat transfer from the gas stream at T to the wick at TW is
𝑞 = 𝑀𝐵 𝑘𝑦 λ𝑊 𝐻𝑤 − 𝐻 𝐴

𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑊 𝐴
 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑤 ℎ/𝑀𝐵 𝑘𝑦
=
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 λ𝑤

ℎ
called the Psychrometric ratio, for water vapor air mixtures, the value is approximately 0.96 – 1.005
𝑀𝐵 𝑘 𝑦
Since this value is close to the value of cs approximately 1.005

𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠 𝑐𝑠 1.005 + 1.88𝐻
=− =
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 λ𝑠 λ𝑠

𝐻 − 𝐻𝑤 ℎ/𝑀𝐵 𝑘𝑦
=
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 λ𝑤

This means that the adiabatic saturation lines can also be used for wet bulb lines with reasonable accuracy
Hence, the wet bulb determination is often used to determine the humidity of an air water vapor mixture
A water vapor air mixture having a dry bulb temperature of T = 60 0C is passed over a wet bulb as shown in fig.
and the wet bulb temperature obtained is Tw = 29.5 0C. What is the humidity of the mixture?

The wet bulb temperature of 29.5 0C can be assumed to be the same as the adiabatic saturation temperature Ts
The adiabatic saturation curve of 29.5 0C until it reaches the dry bulb temperature of 60 0C, H = 0.0135 kg H2O /
kg dry air
Moisture content: quantity of moisture in a wet solid generally expressed in the mass ratio unit (kg moisture
per kg dry solid)

Bound moisture: The amount of moisture in a solid that exerts a vapour pressure less than the normal vapour
pressure of water at the given temperature is called bound moisture.

Unbound Moisture: The amount of moisture in a wet solid in excess of the bound moisture is called unbound
moisture. Unbound moisture exerts a vapour pressure equal to that of water at the given temperature

Equilibrium Moisture: The moisture content in a solid that can remain in equilibrium with the drying
medium of a given relative humidity at a given temperature is called equilibrium moisture

Free moisture: The moisture in a wet solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture is called free moisture. Only
free moisture can be removed by drying under a given set of conditions
Drying Equilibrium
Rate of Drying
• Data obtained from abatch drying experiment are usually obtained as W total weight of the wet solid (dry solid plus
moisture) at different times t hrs in the drying period
• These data can be converted to rate of drying data in the following ways
• First, the data are recalculated
• If W is the weight of the wet solid in kg total water plus dry solid and Ws is the weight of the dry solid in kg

𝑊 − 𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑋𝑡 =
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

𝐿𝑠 ∆𝑋
𝑅=−
𝐴 ∆𝑡
Calculation methods for constant rate drying period
Method using rate of drying curve for constant rate period
Initial free moisture content X1
Final moisture content X2
Drying rate R
𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑅=−
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

This can be rearranged and integrated over the time interval to dry from X1 at t1= 0 to X2 at t2=t

𝑡2=𝑡
𝐿𝑠 𝑥1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡=න 𝑑𝑡 = න
𝑡1=0 𝐴 𝑥2 𝑅

If the drying takes place within the constant rate period so that both X1 and X2 are greater than the
critical moisture content Xc then R = constant =Rc

𝐿𝑠
𝑡= (𝑋 − 𝑋2)
𝐴𝑅 𝑐 1
Calculation methods for falling rate drying period

Method using graphical integration

In the falling rate drying period, the rate of drying R is not constant but decreases when drying proceeds past the
critical free moisture content Xc. When the free moisture content X is zero, the rate drops to zero

The time for drying for any region between X1 and X2 has been given by Eq

𝐿𝑠 𝑥1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡= න
𝐴 𝑥2 𝑅
A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve is represented by figure Is to be dried from a
free moisture content of X1 = 0.38 kg H20/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.04 kg H20/kg dry solid. The
weight of the dry solid is Ls = 399 kg dry solid and A = 18.58 m2 of top drying surface.
Calculate the time for drying
X R

0.195 1.51
X R 1/R
0.150 1.21
0.195 1.51 0.663
0.100 0.90
0.150 1.21 0.826
0.065 0.71
0.100 0.90 1.11
0.05 0.37
0.065 0.71 1.41
0.04 0.27
0.05 0.37 2.70
0.04 0.27 3.70
Xc = 0.195 kg H20/kg dry solid

Drying is in the constant rate and falling rate periods

For constant rate period, X1 = 0.38

X2= XC = 0.195
Rc = =1.51 kg H20/h.m2

𝐿𝑠 399
𝑡= = = 2.63 ℎ
𝐴𝑅 𝑐 𝑋1 − 𝑋2 18.58 𝑥 1.51 0.38 − 0.195

Area under the curve from X1 = 0.195 to X2 = 0.040

Area = A1 +A2+A3 = 0.189

𝐿𝑠 𝑥1 𝑑𝑋 399
𝑡= න = 𝑋 0.189 = 4.06 ℎ
𝐴 𝑥2 𝑅 18.58

Total Time = t = 2.63 +4.06 = 6.69 h

Calculation methods for special cases in falling rate region

In certain special cases in the falling rate region, the eq fo the time for drying can be integrated analytically

Rate is a linear function of X

If both X1 and X2 are less than Xc and the rate R is linear in X over this region
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑋 + 𝑏
Where a is the slope of the line and b is a constant
dR = adX

𝐿𝑠 𝑅1 𝑑𝑅 𝐿𝑠 𝑅1
𝑡= න = 𝑙𝑛
𝑎𝐴 𝑅2 𝑅 𝑎𝐴 𝑅2

𝑅1 = 𝑎𝑋1 + 𝑏
𝑅2 = 𝑎𝑋2 + 𝑏
𝑅1 − 𝑅2
𝑎=
𝑋1 − 𝑋2
𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 − 𝑋2 𝑅1
𝑡= 𝑙𝑛
(𝑅1 − 𝑅2 )𝐴 𝑅2
Rate is a linear function through origin

In some cases a straight line from the critical moisture content passing through the origin adequately represents the whole
falling rate period

Often for lack of more detailed data, this assumption is made

Then, for a straight line through the origin, where the rate of drying is directly proportional to the free moisture content
R = aX

Differentiating dX = dR/a
𝐿𝑠 𝑅1 𝑑𝑅 𝐿𝑠 𝑅1
𝑡= න = 𝑙𝑛
𝑎𝐴 𝑅2 𝑅 𝑎𝐴 𝑅2

The slope a of the line is Rc/Xc and X1 = Xc and X1 = Xc at R1 = Rc

𝐿𝑠 𝑋𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑡= 𝑙𝑛
(𝑅𝑐 )𝐴 𝑅2

𝐿𝑠 𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐 𝑋
𝑡= 𝑙𝑛 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑐
(𝑅𝑐 )𝐴 𝑋2 𝑋𝐶
A wet solid of 28% moisture is to be dried to 0.5% moisture in a tray dryer. A laboratory test shows that it requires
8 hrs to reduce the moisture content of the same solid to 2%. The critical content is 6% and the equilibrium
moisture is 0.2%. The falling rate of drying is linear in the free moisture content. Calculate the drying time of the
solid if the drying conditions similar to those in the laboratory test are maintained. All the moistures are
expressed as per cent of bone dry mass of the solid.