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Earth and Space Science Glossary

absolute dating—a scientific process that describes a range of years for the age of a rock,
fossil, or other ancient object

absolute magnitude—the total amount of energy radiated by a star each second

accelerate—to increase the rate of change of velocity per unit of time

air mass—a large body of air in the atmosphere that is uniform in temperature, pressure, and
humidity

air pressure—the force applied by the weight of air; the weight of air per unit area

altitude—the height of a place in relation to sea level

area—the size of a surface measured in square units

arid—receiving little or no rain at all

asteroid—a small, rocky body that orbits the Sun; most asteroids lie in the main asteroid belt
situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter

asthenosphere—the upper layer of Earth’s mantle, composed of hot, slowly flowing rock

astronomical unit—a measure of distance equal to approximately 150 million kilometers, or

the average distance between the Sun and Earth; abbreviated AU

atmosphere—an envelope of gas surrounding planets or other celestial bodies held in place
by the body’s own gravity

atomic mass—the mass of an atom, molecule, or subatomic particle

atomic number—the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus

atom—the smallest unit of a chemical element that still has the chemical properties of that
element

axis—an imaginary line passing through the North and South Poles around which Earth spins

barometer—an instrument that measures atmospheric pressure

biomass—organic materials, such as plant matter and manure, that have not turned to fossils
and can be used as a fuel or energy source
biosphere—all living things on Earth, including plants, animals, and microorganisms

black hole—a region in space so massive and with gravity so strong that nothing, not even
light, can escape; at its center is a collapsed star

canyon—a deep valley with steep walls of rock cut and formed by running water

carbon cycle—the circulation of carbon in different forms through Earth’s spheres

carbon dating—a method used to find the age of organic matter by evaluating ratios of
different forms of carbon

carbon dioxide removal (CDR)—processes used to prevent carbon dioxide from reaching the
atmosphere

carbon footprint—the amount of carbon dioxide or other carbon compounds released into
the atmosphere because of the lifestyle of an individual or the actions a company

carrying capacity—the number of people that Earth’s resources can maintain and support

chemical change—a process by which one or more substances are changed into a new
substance (or substances) with a different identity

chemical weathering—a form of weathering caused by a chemical change in the

composition of rocks, minerals, metals, or other substances

chromosphere—known as the sphere of color, a region above the photosphere with a

thickness of 2,500 kilometers; appears as a red ring around the Sun just before and after the
peak of a total solar eclipse when the Moon covers the disk of the Sun

climate—the long-term weather conditions of a region

climate change—the global or regional change in the patterns of climate over time

cold wave—a short-term weather phenomenon in which temperatures fall below the normal
temperature

combustion—a chemical reaction that occurs when substances combine with oxygen to
produce heat, light (usually), and a new substance

comet—a celestial body made up of a nucleus, coma, and tail that orbits the Sun; ice, frozen
carbon dioxide, rock, and dust make up the nucleus, which heats up and releases gas and dust
when it passes close to the Sun

compaction—a process in which soil particles are pressed together, reducing the space
between them
compound—a substance made up of two or more chemical elements that are chemically
bonded together

condensation—a process by which matter changes from a gas into a liquid

conduction—a transfer of heat due to differences in the temperatures of two objects

conservation scientist—a scientist who ensures that natural resources, such as land and
water, are sensibly used and that threats to the environment from human activities are
reduced or eliminated

conservation—the act of protecting and preserving the environment and resources available
in nature

continental climate—a climate with warm summers, cold winters, and moderate
precipitation

continental drift—the theory that described Earth’s continents “drifting” relative to each
other through time; this theory has since been replaced by the science of plate tectonics

contour line—an imaginary line on a map joining points of the same height

contour plowing—a method of plowing along the contour lines of a slope to reduce soil
erosion and water runoff

convection—the transfer of heat in fluids by circulation

convective zone—the third layer of the Sun; also known as the boiling zone

convergent boundary—the boundary formed when two tectonic plates meet and move
toward each other

core—a central part of something surrounded by other distinct layers; also, the innermost
layer of Earth, made primarily of molten metals

Coriolis effect—the pattern of winds swirling counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere

and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

corona—outermost region and third layer of the Sun’s atmosphere; visible from Earth only
during a total solar eclipse

crater—a flat or bowl-shaped depression in the surface of a planet or moon caused by the
impact of a meteorite or other celestial body

crust—outermost layer of a rocky planet

cryosphere—the part of the hydrosphere that is made up of all frozen water on Earth
crystallization—a process in which heating a solid dissolved in liquid forms solid pieces that
have a repeating pattern

current—a continuous, ordered movement of ocean water

dam—a barrier that obstructs and confines water and creates a reservoir

data—facts collected for reference and analysis

density—the mass per unit volume of a substance

dependent variable—a variable whose value depends on the value of another variable

deposition—a process in which sediments are carried and laid down by wind, water, or ice;
also, a change of state from gas to solid without passing through the liquid state

desertification—the process by which fertile land becomes a desert because of deforestation

or drought

developed country—a highly industrialized country with an established economy

developing country—a country that is not highly industrialized

dew point—the temperature at which air holds all the moisture it can and condensation can
begin

dike—a sheet of rock that forms in a crack in a rock body or that cuts vertically across rock
layers

displacement—the length of a straight line between a moving object's starting and ending
points

distance—the amount of space between two points

divergent boundary—the boundary formed when two tectonic plates move apart from each
other

Doppler radar—a system that uses the Doppler effect to detect precipitation, give wind
direction and speed, and estimate hail size and rainfall amounts

drought—a period of unusually low precipitation marked by a shortage of water

dry climate—a climate with hot summers, cool winters, and very little precipitation

dwarf planet—an object that is nearly spherical, orbits the Sun, and has other objects of
comparable size in its orbit

earthquake—the sudden shaking of Earth’s surface caused by the movement of tectonic

plates or volcanic activity at Earth’s surface
ecologist—a scientist who studies the interaction of plants and animals within their
environment

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)—a climate cycle where the temperature of the
equatorial Pacific Ocean fluctuates, affecting weather and climate around the world

electric energy—energy from the flow of electrons through a material

electron—a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge

element—a pure substance that is made up of one kind of atom

energy—the property of a body or a system that enables it to do work or cause a change

epicenter—the point on Earth’s surface that is directly above the origin of an earthquake

equinox—one of two days per year when the Sun crosses the plane of Earth’s equator and
day and night are of equal length over most of the planet

erosion control—practices aimed at reducing the effects of erosion

erosion—the slow wearing away and transport of rocks caused by environmental factors such
as wind, water, and ice

evaporation—a process in which matter changes from a liquid into a gas

evidence—any information that proves a statement

extrusive rock—rock formed by the crystallization of magma on Earth’s surface

force—the push or pull on an object

fossil fuel—a material such as coal, oil, and natural gas that is formed under Earth’s surface
from dead plants and animals

fossil record—the collection of fossils that have been discovered and the information they
provide about past life on Earth

fossil—the remains or impressions of prehistoric organisms preserved in rock

freezing rain—rain that falls as a liquid but freezes when it comes into contact with cold
surfaces on the ground

freezing—a process by which matter changes from a liquid into a solid

front—the boundary separating two air masses of different densities

galaxy—a system made up of a large number of stars held together by gravity

gas giant—a large outer planet composed of gases

gas—the state of matter in which substances do not have a definite shape or volume

geologic time scale—a system of measurement that relates geologic data to the different
time periods in Earth’s history

geosphere—the part of Earth that consists of all the solid rock, soil, and minerals on Earth

geothermal energy—heat energy generated and stored inside Earth’s crust

gorge—a deep valley between two cliffs

gravitational slingshot—a technique of using the energy of a gravitational field and the
orbital velocity of a planet to change the speed of a spacecraft

gravity—an attractive force caused by the mass of objects

greenhouse effect—process by which solar radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases in

Earth’s atmosphere

greenhouse gas—a gas that absorbs infrared radiation and emits heat

groundwater—water found underground in cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock

Gulf Stream—a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing northeast from the Gulf of
Mexico along the United States’ East Coast to Nantucket and farther eastward

gust—a sudden, strong burst of wind

heat capacity—the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance 1°C

heat island—a phenomenon in which an urban area absorbs the Sun’s radiation and gets
warmer than its surrounding region

heat wave—a short-term weather phenomenon in which temperatures rise above the normal
temperature

high-pressure system—the region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the
planet is greater than its surrounding environment

humidity—the amount of water vapor in the air

hurricane—a tropical cyclone with winds of 74 miles (119 kilometers) per hour or greater and
usually accompanied by rain, thunder, and lightning

hydrocarbon—a substance, such as petroleum, that is made of only hydrogen and carbon

hydroelectric power—electrical power produced using falling or flowing water

hydroseed—a planting process in which seeds are combined with mulch (compost), fertilizer,
and water in a thick mixture
hydrosphere—the part of Earth that includes all the freshwater and saltwater

hygrometer—an instrument that measures humidity in the air

hypocenter—the point under Earth’s surface where the earthquake rupture starts

hypothesis—an explanation based on research and observation that can be tested

ice age—a period in which the temperature of Earth is very low for a long time, usually lasting
millions of years

igneous rock—rock formed by the cooling of magma or lava

independent variable—a variable whose value does not depend on the values of other
variables

infiltrate—to seep gradually through a substance or an area

interglacial—a warm period between two glacial periods in an ice age; an interglacial lasts for
thousands of years

intrusive rock—rock formed by the crystallization of magma under Earth’s surface

isobar—a line on a map or chart connecting places of equal air pressure

kinetic energy—the energy of motion in a body

knot—a unit of measurement for wind speed

Kuiper Belt—a region of space beyond the planet Neptune that contains many icy objects

lake-effect snow—localized snow that results when cold air overhead meets warm air rising
from a lake

land breeze—a warm wind that blows from land to the ocean

landfill—an area where solid waste is buried underground

landslide—a natural disaster caused by the erosion and rapid downhill flow of soil and rock

latitude—a measure of the distance of a location from the equator

lava—molten rock that is ejected from a volcano with great force

leeward—the side facing the direction the wind is blowing toward

levee—a wall built along the bank of a river or sea to prevent flooding

light year—the distance traveled by light in one year in a vacuum; 1 light year is
approximately 9.46 trillion kilometers
liquid—the state of matter in which substances have a definite volume but do not have a
definite shape

lithification—a process in which loose sediment is compacted under pressure and changed
into solid rock

lithosphere–the outermost surface of Earth, consisting of Earth’s crust and the uppermost
portion of the mantle

low-pressure system—the region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the
planet is less than its surrounding environment

lunar eclipse—an event when Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, and blocks all, or
some, of the Sun’s light from reaching the Moon’s surface

lunar phase—a stage in the Moon’s rotation around Earth defined by the pattern of sunlight
reflecting off the Moon’s surface as viewed from Earth

magma—molten rock found beneath Earth’s surface

magnitude—the size, extent, or importance of something

mantle—the middle layer of the geosphere

mass wasting—the downhill movement of a large mass of rock, soil, and sand caused by the
pull of gravity

mass—the amount of matter contained in a body

matter—anything that has mass and occupies space

mechanical energy—the sum of the potential and kinetic energy of an object from the
object’s motion and position, respectively

mechanical weathering—a physical wearing away of rocks in which the worn pieces keep the
properties of the original rock

melting—the process by which matter changes from a solid into a liquid

metal—a substance that conducts heat and electricity, tends to be shiny, and is used in many
industrial applications

metamorphic rock—rock formed from existing rock due to heat, pressure, or added
chemicals

meteor—a fiery trail created when a meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up due
to friction; also called a shooting star

meteorite—a meteor that reaches Earth without burning up in Earth’s atmosphere

methane—a colorless, odorless gas that is a greenhouse gas; identified by the chemical
symbol CH4

microbiologist—a scientist who studies tiny organisms that can’t be seen with the naked eye

microclimate—a region that has a climate different from the climate of the larger area
around it

mineral—a solid formed naturally beneath Earth’s surface

mineralization—a process by which organic matter in the soil decomposes and breaks down
into inorganic matter that can be used by plants for growth

moderate climate—a climate with warm summers, mild winters, and moderate precipitation

molecule—the smallest unit of a chemical element or compound that still has the chemical
properties of that element or compound

momentum—the product of the mass and velocity of a moving object

monsoon—a seasonal reversal of wind direction that results in heavy rain

moon—a natural satellite of a planet, dwarf planet, or asteroid

mountain—a natural landform that rises high above the surrounding area and usually has a
peak

natural arch—a curved formation in rock caused by weathering and erosion

natural hazard—a naturally occurring event that causes harm to humans and the
environment

natural resources—elements available in nature that are useful or necessary to humans

natural system—a group of related parts working together that was not made by humans

neutron—a subatomic particle that is about the same mass as a proton but does not have an
electric charge

nonrenewable resources—elements available in nature that are of value to humans but are
not easily replenished

nuclear energy—energy that holds atoms in matter together

observation—facts gathered by studying the world using the senses of sight, sound, taste,
touch, and smell

ocean acidification—an increase in the acid levels in ocean water caused by the absorption
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
ocean current—the ordered movement of ocean water

orbit—a path that an object follows when it moves around another object in space due to
gravity

orbital radius—the average distance between a planet and the Sun as the planet revolves
around it

ore—a mineral or rock found in nature from which useful materials, such as metals, can be
extracted

particle—a minute portion of matter

pH scale—a scale that measures the degree to which a substance is acid or alkaline

photosphere—a star’s outer shell

physical change—a process by which the form of matter is changed but one substance is not
transformed into another

planet—a large object that is nearly spherical, orbits the Sun, and has no other objects of
comparable size in its orbit

polar climate—a climate with low temperatures throughout the year and very low
precipitation

pole (north and south)—a geographic point where Earth’s imaginary axis touches its surface;
the northernmost and southernmost points on Earth

pollution—the process by which air, water, or land becomes dirty and unfit for use

population—the total number of organisms living in a particular area

potential energy—energy stored in a body

precipitate—a solid that forms from mixing two liquids

precipitation—any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, that falls to Earth’s surface
from the atmosphere

prevailing wind—a wind that tends to blow in the same direction at a particular point on
Earth’s surface

property—a special characteristic or quality possessed by an object or thing

proton—a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom

radiant energy—energy associated with radiation, such as light

radiative zone—the layer of the Sun surrounding the core; energy produced by nuclear
reactions in the core travels to this zone in the form of radiation

rain gauge—an instrument that collects rain and measures rainfall amounts

rain shadow—the area on the leeward side of a mountain that receives less rainfall and is dry

red giant—a star that starts to cool and glow red when the hydrogen supply in its core runs
out and its outer shell expands; called a red giant because of its color and its size

relative age—the age of one object (or person) in comparison to another

relative humidity—the ratio of the actual amount of water vapor present in air at a given
temperature to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at that temperature,
expressed as a percentage

renewable energy—energy from a source that can be replenished naturally over a short
period

renewable resources—resources available in nature that are naturally replaced

respiration—a process by which an organism gains oxygen from the outside air and removes
carbon dioxide from its body

revolution—the movement of one object around another, such as the Earth moving around
the Sun

ridge—a long line of hills or mountains

rock—a hard solid substance that is part of Earth’s surface

rock strata—layers of sedimentary rock and soil where each layer has distinct characteristics

rotation—the movement of an object, such as Earth, in a circular motion around its own
center

salinity—the amount of salt dissolved in water

satellite—a small body that orbits a planet or a star

science—a branch of study that relies on observation and experiments to prove facts about
natural events

scientific law—a statement that is accepted as universal fact, often expressed as a

mathematical equation

sea breeze—a cool wind that blows from the ocean to land

season—a division in Earth’s calendar year beginning with an equinox or solstice and marked
by changing climatic conditions
sedimentary rock—rock formed by the deposition of material on Earth’s surface or within a
body of water

sedimentation—the settling of solid particles in a fluid

sediment—organic and inorganic particles resulting from weathering, often carried away by
wind, water, and ice

seismograph—a device that measures and records the magnitude and duration of an
earthquake

sill—a body of intrusive igneous rock that forms horizontally between layers in an existing
rock mass

sleet—precipitation made up of small ice particles that are frozen raindrops or melted
snowflakes

sling psychrometer—an instrument that measures the amount of water vapor in the air by
taking wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures

soil—a mixture of rock fragments, minerals, organic material, air, and water that sustains the
growth of plants in the Earth’s crust

solar eclipse—an event when the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth and the
Moon’s shadow falls on Earth

solar energy—heat and light energy from the Sun

solid—the state of matter in which substances have a definite shape and volume

solstice—one of two days a year when Earth’s axis reaches its maximum tilt either toward or
away from Sun

sound energy—energy associated with the production of sound

star—a celestial body made of gas that undergoes nuclear reactions in its center, releasing
large amounts of heat and light

state of matter—one of the distinct physical forms that matter takes on

subduction—when one tectonic plate slides beneath another

sublimation—the process by which a solid changes directly into a gas

supergiant—a star with a heavier mass whose inner core contracts while the outer shell
expands and increases the amount of light generated once the fusion with hydrogen starts
supernova—an explosion that occurs when the core of a red giant collapses upon itself, the
small atoms in the core are crushed together, and the temperature rises to more than 100
billion Kelvin to produce a shock wave

superposition—the principle that among layers of rocks that have not been disturbed, the
oldest strata lie at the bottom and the youngest at the top

surface current—the ordered movement of ocean water at the ocean’s surface, which is
directed mostly by wind

surface report—a report about the weather near Earth’s surface

surface runoff—the flow of water from rain, snowmelt, and other sources over land

system—a group of related parts working together to perform a task or complete a process

tectonic plates—sections of Earth’s crust and the uppermost part of the mantle that make up
the lithosphere

temperate climate—a climate with usually moderate temperatures; the temperate zone is
located between the poles and the tropics

terrestrial planet—an inner planet with a rocky surface

thermal energy—the total kinetic energy of particles in a specific amount of matter

thermometer—an instrument that measures temperature

tornado—a high-speed rotating wind resembling a funnel that travels beneath a strong storm
system

transform boundary—the boundary formed when two tectonic plates slide past each other

transpiration—a process by which plants excrete excess water through the parts that are
above soil

trench—a long, narrow depression in the ground that typically occurs along subduction zones

tropical climate—a climate with warm temperatures throughout the year and very high
precipitation

tropical cyclone—a storm with high winds that occurs in tropical regions of the South Pacific
and Indian Oceans

tsunami— a powerful ocean wave triggered by a geological event, such as an earthquake or a

landslide

typhoon—a storm with strong winds that occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean

upper air report—a report about the weather in the upper part of Earth’s atmosphere
urban sprawl—the spread of urban development into neighboring regions

vaccine—a substance, usually given by injection, that gives people or animals immunity
against a disease; vaccines prompt the creation of antibodies to increase immunity against a
specific pathogen

valley—a low area of land between mountains or hills usually created by rivers and melting
glaciers

velocity—a change in distance per unit of time in a specified direction

volcano—an opening in Earth's crust through which lava, steam, ashes, or some combination
of these erupt or flow

volume—the amount of space that a substance occupies

water cycle—the circulation of water in different forms (ice, liquid water, and water
vapor) throughout Earth

water vapor—the gaseous form of water

watershed—an area of land in which the water running along the surface or flowing
underneath the surface ends up in the same place

weather balloon—a balloon sent into the atmosphere equipped with instruments to gather
weather data

weather satellite—a satellite used primarily to monitor Earth’s weather and climate

weathering—the process in which environmental factors cause physical or chemical changes

in objects

weather—the temperature and other atmospheric conditions, such as wind, cloudiness, and
humidity, at a certain time and place

weight—the gravitational pull acting on a body

wetland—a water-saturated area such as a marsh, swamp, or bog that supports vegetation
that typically can grow only in saturated soil

white dwarf—a low-mass star whose core keeps contracting until it cannot shrink any more
following a supernova explosion

wind energy—energy generated by the wind

wind turbine—a windmill used to convert the mechanical energy of wind into electricity

wind vane—a device that indicates the direction of the wind

windward—the side facing the direction the wind is blowing from

work—a change in the energy of an object when a force is applied and the object moves