CHAPTER 1

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Electrostatic deals with the study of forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.
Frictional electricity – charges and their conservation
The electricity developed on objects when they are rubbed with each other, is called frictional
electricity. The additional property of protons and electrons which gives rise to electric force
between them is called electric charge.
Properties of electric charge

• Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
• The magnitude of elementary positive or negative charge is same and is equal
to 1.6 x 10 -19 C.
• The electric charge is additive in nature.
• The charge is quantised.
• It’s always conserved.
• It’s not affected by the motion of the object.
Coulomb’s law : It states that two point charges attract or repel each other with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

𝑞1 𝑞2
<------------------ r --------------->
If q1 and q2 are two charges separated by a distance r, then the force F between them is given
by 𝐹 𝛼 𝑞1 𝑞2
1
𝛼
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
(𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐹 𝛼
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
(or) 𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2
where k is said to be the constant of proportionality and is given by
1
𝑘= , 𝜖0 is called absolute permittivity of free space.
4𝜋𝜖0

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
. . . 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐 = -----→ (1)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
1
The value 𝜖0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2 and = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2. The S.I. unit of charge is
4𝜋𝜖0
Coulomb.
Definition : One Coulomb is defined as the charge which repels an equal and similar charge with
the force of 9 x 109 N, when placed in vacuum (or air) at a distance 1m from it. If the charges q1
and q2 are separated by a distance r in a medium then the force between them can be given as

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1

 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 = -----→ (2)
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟2

Where 𝜖 is called absolute permittivity of the medium. Diving equation (1) by (2)
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝜖
____ = ___________ = = 𝜖𝑟
𝜖0
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟2

𝜖𝑟 is called relative permittivity of the medium w.r.t. vacuum. It is also denoted by 𝐾 , called
dielectric constant of the medium.
𝜖 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐
𝐾 = 𝜖𝑟 = = ----→ (3)
𝜖0 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑

Hence relative permittivity or dielectric constant of a medium may be defined as the ratio of the
force between two charges placed at a certain distance apart in air to the force between the
same two charges placed at the same distance apart in that medium.
From equation (3)

𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 = 𝜖0 𝐾 ----→ (4)

Using equation (4), equation (2) can be written as

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝑟2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
(or) 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐾 𝑟2

Coulomb’s law in vector form

According to Coulomb’s law the magnitude of force on charge q 1 and q2 or on charge q2 due to
q1 is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
ǀi F12 ǀ = ǀ F21 ǀ =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

 F12 𝑞1 𝑟̂ 12 →  𝑟̂21 𝑞2 F21 →

<------------------ r --------------->
If 𝑟̂ 12 is the unit vector from q1 to q2 and 𝑟̂21 is the unit from q2 to q1, then force on q1 due to q2,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F12 = 𝑟̂ 21 ----→ (5)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
And force on q2 due to q1,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F21 = 𝑟̂12 ----→ (6)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 2

 Equations (5) and (6) express Coulomb’s law in vector form.

From (5) and (6) F12 = - F21 ( 𝑟̂ 21 = - 𝑟̂12 )

Thus Coulomb’s law agrees with the Newton’s third law.
Principle of superposition: It states that when a number of charges are interacting, the total force
on a given charge is the vector sum of the individual forces exerted on the given charge by all
other charges.

If q1, q2 and q3 are the point charges that are interacting and if F12 and F13 are the forces exerted
by the charges q2 and q3 on q1, then according to the principle of superposition, the total force
𝑭1 on q1 is given by,

𝑭1 = 𝑭 12 + 𝑭 13

If distance between q1 and q2 is r12 then

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
F12 = 2 𝑟̂ 12
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟12

Thus, from the figure the total force acting on charge q1 is given by
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭 𝟐 + 𝑭 𝟑
In the same manner using principle of superposition the force due to 𝑛 number of charges can
be determined.
Electric field
Electric field due to a charge is the space around the charge in which any other charge is acted
on by an electric force.
Electric field intensity is the strength of the electric field. It is defined as the electrostatic force
per unit positive charge acting on a small positive test charge placed at that point. It is a vector
quantity (E). If F is the force experienced by the test charge q0, then the electric field at that point
is given by,

𝐿𝑡 𝐅
E=
𝑞0 → 0 𝑞0

Hence force on the charge inside the electric field is F = Eq 0. Unit of electric field is NC-1 or Vm-1.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 3

 Representation of electric field

Due to a positive charge Due to a negative charge

Electric field due to a point charge

Let a point charge ‘q’ is present is vacuum at A. Let P be the point a distance ‘r’ from A.

𝑞 𝐴 𝑟̂ → P 𝑞0 F→ X
<------------------ r --------------->

To find the electric field P, due to ‘q’, place a small unit positive test charge q 0 due to charge q is
given by
1 𝑞𝑞0
F = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

𝑟̂ is the unit vector along AP. If E is the electric field at P, then

𝐅 1 𝑞𝑞0 1 1 𝑞
E= = 𝑟̂ = 𝑟̂
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
1 𝑞 𝐫
= 𝑟̂ ( 𝑟̂ = )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2 𝒓

Where r represents the vector AP. The magnitude of electric field at P is given by
1 𝑞
E =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

Electric field due to a system of charges

Let the point charges q1, q2 and q3 are distributed in

space. q0 is the small positive charge at P. The
electric field due to the ith charge qi at P is given by
1 𝑞𝑖
EiP = 𝑟̂
𝑖𝑃 ----→ (7)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖𝑃 2

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 4

 If E is the electric field at P due to the system of four charges, then by principle of superposition
of electric fields

E = E1P + E2P + E3P = ∑3𝑖=1 𝑬𝑖𝑃 ----→ (8)

Substituting Ei from equation (7) in equation (8)

1 𝑞𝑖
EiP = ∑3𝑖=1 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖𝑃 2
𝑟̂𝑖

In the same manner using principle of superposition electric field due to 𝑛 number of charges
can be determined.
Electric lines of force
An electric line of force is the path along which a unit positive charge would move, if it is free to
do so.
Properties:
1. They start from the positive charge and end at negative charge.
2. Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
3. They don’t pass through a conductor. [Electric field inside a conductor is zero]
4. They never intersect each other. [Or else at the point of intersection there will be two directions]
5. The relative closeness of lines of force gives idea about the relative strength of electric field at
different regions.
6. They cannot form closed loops. [Since monopoles exist]

Electric field lines due to an isolated point charge

Electric field lines due to system of charges

Unlike charges Like charges

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 5

 The electric lines of force can be used to represent the electric field due to a point charge or a
system of point charges. Though the lines of force are imaginary, the electric field they represent
is real.

Electric dipole
A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a certain distance is called an electric
dipole.
2𝒂 →
A B
−𝑞 +𝑞
<------------------ 2a ------------------------->

The above figure represents an electric dipole consisting of two charges +𝑞 and −𝑞 and
separated by a distance 2𝑎. The distance 𝐴𝐵 is called the length of the dipole and is a vector
2𝒂, whose direction is from -q to +q.

Electric dipole moment

It is defined as the product of either charge and the length of the electric dipole. It is denoted by
𝒑, which has the same direction as 2𝒂.

𝒑 = 𝑞 2𝒂
S.I.unit of electric dipole moment is coulomb metre(Cm).

Electric field on axial line of an electric dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q, separated by a distance 2a, and placed
in free space.

𝑟̂ → ǀ<--------------------- r ----------------------->ǀ E
A B P X
−𝑞 +𝑞 EA EB
<------------------ 2a ------------------------->

Let P be a point on the axial line at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole. The electric field
E at a point P will be the resultant of the electric fields EA and EB.

(ie) E = EA + EB

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
ǀEAǀ = = along PA ----→ (9)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐴𝑃2 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟+𝑎)2

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
ǀEBǀ =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐵𝑃 2 = 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟−𝑎)2
along PX ----→ (10)

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 6

 Equations (9) and (10) show that ǀEAǀ < ǀEBǀ , since EA and EB act along the same line but in
opposite directions, the magnitude of the electric field at point P is given by

E = ǀEǀ = ǀEBǀ − ǀEAǀ along PX.

From (9) and (10)

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
E= −
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟+𝑎)2

𝑞 (𝑟+𝑎)2 − (𝑟−𝑎)2
=
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2

𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
=
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2

1 2𝑝𝑟
E= along PX (𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞) ----→ (11)
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2

When the dipole is of very small length, (i.e.) when a<<r, a2 can be neglected.

1 2𝑝
E = along PX. ----→ (12)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟3

The direction of the electric field at a point on the axial line of the dipole is from -q to +q which
is the same as that of the electric dipole moment of the dipole.

1 2𝑝𝑟
In vector form E = 𝑟̂ (from equation (10))
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2

where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along PX.

Electric field on the equatorial line of an electric dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q, separated by a distance 2a, and placed
in free space. Let P be a point on the equatorial line at a distance r from the centre O of the
dipole.

The electric field E at a point P will be the resultant of the electric fields EA and EB.
(ie) E = EA + EB

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
ǀEAǀ =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐴𝑃 2 = 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
along PA ----→ (13)

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 7

 EB EB sinϴ
E
X’ -------

EA EA sinϴ
r

A ϴ ϴ B
−𝑞 +𝑞
<------------------ 2a ---------------------->

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
ǀEBǀ =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝐵𝑃 2 = 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
along BP ----→ (14)

Since the sine components of EA and EB cancel each other, the resultant electric field is given
by
E = EA cosϴ + EB cosϴ = 2 EA cosϴ ( ∵ EA = EB) ----→ (15)

𝑎
From AOP, cosϴ = ----→ (16)
√𝑟 2 +𝑎2
Substituting equations (13) and (16) in (15)

1 𝑞 𝑎 1 2𝑞𝑎
E=2 = 3
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) √𝑟 2 +𝑎2 4𝜋𝜖0
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2
1 𝑝
E= 3 along Px’
4𝜋𝜖0
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2
In vector form
1 𝑝
E= 3 (−𝑖̂)
4𝜋𝜖0
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2
When the dipole is of very small length (a<<r)
1 𝑝
E=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 3

Note :

Thus, when the dipole is of very small length (a<<r)

Electric field along its axial line = 2 × Electric filed along its equatorial line

Electric dipole in a uniform electric field

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q of

length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E making an angle
ϴ with the direction of electric field.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 8

 Force on −𝑞 at 𝐴 = −𝑞E (opposite to E)
Force on +𝑞 at 𝐵 = 𝑞E (along E)

Thus, electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to
torque on their dipole. The magnitude of the torque is given by

Torque = either force x perpendicular distance between two forces

τ = 𝑞E AN = 𝑞E 2asinϴ ( ∵ from ∆ ANB, AN = 2asinϴ)
(or) τ = 𝑝E sinϴ
It can also be represented in vector form as
𝝉 = 𝒑 × 𝑬

• When the dipole is placed in uniform electric field, it experiences torque. Net force on the dipole
is zero. Hence it doesn’t undergo any translational motion.
• Torque on the dipole becomes zero, when it aligns itself parallel to the direction of electric field.
• Torque on the dipole becomes maximum, when it is placed perpendicular to the direction of
electric field.

∴ τmin = 0
τmax = pEsin900

Electric dipole in a non uniform electric field

The electric field is non uniform. It increases along positive X – axis.

Case 1: when p is parallel to E:

The force on +𝑞 > force on −𝑞 and hence the resultant

force acts along the direction of electric field. Since ϴ
= 00, torque acting on the dipole = 0.

Case 2: when p is antiparallel to E:

When electric field increases along +X axis, the force on

+𝑞 < force on −𝑞 and hence the resultant force acts
along the direction opposite to that of electric field.
Since ϴ = 1800, torque acting on the dipole = 0.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 9

 Continuous distribution of charge
It may be one dimensional, two dimensional or three dimensional. Accordingly, the distribution
of charge is called linear charge distribution, surface charge distribution and volume charge
distribution.
The corresponding charge densities are given by

∆𝑄
1. Linear charge density 𝜆 =
∆𝑙

∆𝑄
2. Surface charge density 𝜎 =
∆𝑆

∆𝑄
3. Volume charge density 𝜌 =
∆𝑉

Electric flux (Ф)

The electric flux linked with a surface in an electric field may be defined as the surface integral of
electric field over the surface. Total electric flux through the surface S is given by
Ф = ∮𝑆 𝐄 ⋅ ⅆ𝐒
(or) Ф = ∑ 𝐄 ⋅ ∆𝐒
where 𝐄 is the electric field over a small area element of a closed surface. Flux is
proportional to the number of field lines cutting the area element.

Gauss’s law
1
It states that the total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a charge is equal to
𝜖0
times the magnitude of the charged enclosed, where 𝜖0 is the permittivity of the free space.

Proof : Consider a closed surface 𝑆 (sphere of radius 𝑟)

enclosing a charge 𝑞. If Ф is the total electric flux through
the closed surface enclosing the charge 𝑞, then according
to Gauss’s theorem,
𝑞
Ф = 𝜖0

By definition,
the total electric flux through small surface ∆S is given by
∆ Ф = 𝑬. ∆𝑺 = 𝐸∆𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠0°
where E is the electric at the area element ∆S due to charge q at a distance r from it.
∆Ф = 𝐸 ∆𝑆

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 10

 Total flux over the closed surface S is given by
1 𝑞
Ф = 𝐸 ∑𝑆 ∆S = 𝐸 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝑞
Ф =
𝜖0
Hence proved.

Important points regarding Gauss’s law

• Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
• The term 𝑞 on the right side of Gauss’s law, includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the
surface. The charges may be located anywhere inside the surface.
• In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges inside and some
outside, the term 𝑞 on the right side of Gauss’s law, represents only the total charge inside
the surface.
• The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the Gaussian surface.
Can choose any Gaussian surface and apply Gauss’s law. However, the Gaussian surface should
not pass through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due to a system of discrete
charges is not well defined at the location of any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the
field grows without any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous
charge distribution.
• Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the electrostatic field when
the system has some symmetry. This is facilitated by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
• Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in the
Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure from the inverse square
law.

Applications of Gauss’s law

1. Electric field due to an infinitely long straight wire
Consider a thin infinitely long straight-line charge having uniform
linear charge density 𝜆 placed along 𝑌𝑌’. To find electric field
due to line charge, at point 𝑃 distant 𝑟 from it, draw a cylinder
of radius 𝑟 and length 𝑙 about the line charge as its axis (Gaussian
surface). The electric flux crosses only through the curved
surface of the cylinder, as the electric field due to line charge is
normal to the curved surface.

If 𝐸 is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then electric flux

through the Gaussian surface:

➢ By definition, flux is given by,

Ф = 𝐸 x area of the curved surface of a cylinder of radius 𝑟 and length 𝑙

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 11

 Ф = 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸 2𝜋r𝑙 ----→ (17)

➢ By applying Gauss’s law,

𝑞
Ф =
𝜖0

where q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface given by

q = 𝜆𝑙
𝜆𝑙
∴Ф = ----→ (18)
𝜖0

From (17) and (18)

𝜆𝑙
𝐸 2𝜋r𝑙 =
𝜖0
𝜆
∴ 𝐸=
2𝜋𝜖0 r
Thus, 𝐸 α 𝜆
1
α , but independent of the length of the conductor.
𝑟
2. Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density
σ on both sides of the sheet. The electric field is perpendicular to the plane sheet of charge and
is directed in outward direction.

To find the electric field due to the plane sheet of charge at any point 𝑃, choose a cylinder of
area of cross section A through the point 𝑃 as the Gaussian surface. If 𝐸 is the electric field at
𝑃, then electric flux crossing through the Gaussian surface:

➢ By definition, flux is given by,

Ф = 𝐸 × area of the end faces of a cylinder
(flux through the side of the cylinder will be zero since ϴ = 900)
Ф = 𝐸 2𝐴 ǀAǀ = ǀA’ǀ ----→ (19)

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 12

 𝑞
➢ By applying Gauss’s law, Ф =
𝜖0
where q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface given by
𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴
𝜎𝐴
∴ Ф = ----→ (20)
𝜖0

From equations (19) & (20)

𝜎𝐴
𝐸 2𝐴 =
𝜖0
𝜎
∴ 𝐸 =
2𝜖0
Thus, 𝐸 depends of the surface charge density alone.
Special Case : In case of an infinite plane conductor having finite thickness, the Gaussian surface
will include charge 𝑞 = 𝜎 2𝐴 ( 𝜎 𝐴 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) .

𝜎 2𝐴
𝐸 2𝐴 =
𝜖0
𝜎
𝐸 =
𝜖0
3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell:
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and centre O. Let q
be the charge on the spherical shell.
To find the electric field at a point P at a distance r from the
centre:
Case 1: When point P lies outside the spherical shell (r>R):
Draw the Gaussian surface through P. It will be the sphere of
radius r and centre O. Let E be the electric field at point P due to charge q of the spherical shell.
At every point on the surface of the shell, the field has same magnitude and is normal to the
surface. Therefore, the total flux through the Gaussian surface:
➢ By definition, flux is given by,

Ф = ∑ ∆ Ф = 𝑬. ∑ ∆𝑺 = 𝑬. 𝑺 = 𝐸 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐸𝑆
𝑆 𝑆
2
∴ Ф = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 ----→ (21)
𝑞
By applying Gauss’s law, Ф =
𝜖0

where q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface given by

q= 𝜎𝐴 = 𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 13

 𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 2
∴ Ф = ----→ (22)
𝜖0

From equations (21) & (22)

2
𝜎 4𝜋𝑅
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜖0
𝜎 𝑅2
∴ 𝐸 = ----→ (23)
𝜖0 𝑟 2
Case 2: When point P lies on the spherical shell (r = R):
The Gaussian surface through P will just enclose the charged spherical shell. (i.e.) r = R. Then
equation (23) becomes
𝜎
𝐸 =
𝜖0

Case 3: When point P lies inside the spherical shell (𝒓 < 𝑹) :

The Gaussian surface through 𝑃 will not enclose any charge and
hence 𝜎 = 0 (∵ 𝑞 = 0). Then equation (23) becomes
𝐸 = 0
Thus, at a point inside the charged spherical shell, the electric field is
zero.
The variation of electric field w.r.t distance can be represented graphically as follows.

i
a vector is represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light face
A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 14