Lecture 1.

The Nature of Writing

English is now considered to be the world language of science, technology, and education. The
knowledge of English allows professionals and researches to get access to the latest information in their
fields and to effectively communicate with their colleagues throughout the world.
There exists an opinion that being able to write is a special talent. However, you can develop your
writing abilities by following certain strategies and practicing various patterns.
The attitudes toward writing and its teaching differ across cultures and educational systems. For
example, in the United States writing has become a compulsory subject in all colleges. Such classes focus
exclusively on composing and other writing skills rather than on the study of literature or the English
language. The theoretical framework for such courses has been derived from the classical rhetoric that
exists, according to Aristotle, to persuade. This phenomenon is understood differently in Anglo-American
and Ukrainian authors.
Recent research has demonstrated that there exist certain differences in the organization and the
ways of argumentation in academic writing of different languages and cultures. Such investigations have
focused on the comparison of English and other languages, usually with a practical aim: to help non-
native speakers to master the conventions of Anglo-American academic writing. For example, Chinese
authors prefer indirect criticism, while English writers usually do not hide their attitudes. Finns pay less
attention to the general organization and structure of their texts than Anglo-Americans. Ukrainian authors
tend to avoid self-advertising, "eye-catching" features in their research papers. However, the writing style
of one language and culture is neither better nor worse that the writing style of another language and
culture: it is simply different.
The features characteristic of academic writing and relatively prominent in Anglo-American
research texts are as follows:
1) intensive use of logical connectors (words like "therefore" or "however");
2) high degree of formal text structuring (i.e., division of the text into sections and subsections with
appropriate headings);
3) tendency to cite and to include into the lists of reference the most recent publications in the field;
4) frequent occurrence of the phrases which provide reference to the text itself (e.g., "This paper
discusses…");
5) tendency to follow a certain pattern of textual organization (e.g., problem-solution).
As for the Ukrainian scholars trying to write academic prose in English, they are to follow such
useful strategies:
1) "lift" useful expressions from authentic English papers, combine them, add some of your own
and use them in your writing;
2) pay attention to the organization and language of English papers in the leading journals in your
discipline;
3) learn how the key parts of the academic text are typically organized and structured;
4) rely on assistance of your colleagues (working or studying in your discipline) – native speakers
of English;
5) be always eager to rewrite and revise believing that the best way of mastering or improving
writing (and not only in English) is to write as much as possible.
In general, such pieces of advice can be given to a writer of academic texts:
- use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation;
- write in an objective, neutral manner;
- accurately use the terminology of your discipline;
- ensure that your language is rich enough;
- write in an academic style, avoid colloquial language, jargon, and slang;
- arrange your ideas in a strict logical order;
- pay special attention to the introduction of your text;
- incorporate visual support (tables, diagrams, graphs) for your ideas;
- cite leading papers in your field;
- think of the general presentation (chapters, subchapters, paragraphs, etc.) of your text;
 - pay special attention to the conclusion of your text.
Learning writing in the majority of cases is learning genres, that is developing knowledge of the
rules of organization and the structure of integral texts. You must have already met this word, which
originally came from French and has the meaning of "a kind of".
Genre is an event of communication, it is aimed at achieving certain communicative purposes. At
the same time, genre may also be defined as a type of a written or oral text with a recognizable set of
relatively stable features.
The most widely spread genres of English academic texts are as follows: summary, abstract, review,
conference abstract, research paper, grant proposal.

Lecture 2. English Academic Style and Language

The style of English academic writing is formal. Its main characteristics are the absence of conversational
features and the use of an appropriate academic vocabulary. Developing a command of formal style is
extremely important for non-native speakers wishing to master the conventions of English academic
discourse.
Formal academic English will normally avoid:
1. Contractions:
The research won't be continued until appropriate The research will not be continued until the
funding is secured appropriate funding is secured.

2. Interjections and hesitation fillers (i.e. um, well, you know, etc.):
Well, we will now consider the influence of sex We will now consider the influence of sex
hormones on stress response hormones on stress response
3. Addressing the reader directly:
You can see the data in Table 3 The data can be seen in Table 3
4. Phrasal verbs (although not always):
Researchers have found out that many mental Researchers have discovered that many
illnesses are based on molecular defects mental illnesses are based on molecular
defects
5. Direct questions (although not always):
What can be done to improve the state of our We now need to consider what can be done to
economy? improve the state of our economy.
6. Adverbs in initial or final positions (the middle position is preferable):
Then it will be shown how teachers can utilize this It will then be shown how teachers can utilize this
method method
This work relies on previous research heavily This work heavily relies on previous research
7. Inappropriate negative forms (formal expressions of quantity):
not any no
not much little
not many few
not enough insufficient
too much excessive
a lot considerably
a lot of many
The investigation didn't yield any new results The investigation yielded no new results
The book doesn't raise many important issues The book raises few important issues
The government won't do much to support The government will do little to support
universities in the near future universities in the near future
There are a lot of reasons for adopting this policy, There are many reasons for adopting this
but not many governments have chosen to do so policy, but few governments have chosen to
because they do not have enough resources to do so because there are insufficient resources
implement it to implement it
8. Short (contracted) forms of the words or slang:

This booklet describes the requirements and This booklet describes the requirements and
content of the university graduation exams content of the university graduation examinations
9. Figures at the beginning of the sentence:
97 people visited the museum last week Ninety-seven people visited the museum last
week
Last week 97 people visited the museum

Traditionally, academic writing tends to avoid personal pronouns and shows preference toward
impersonal style. At the same time, there is a tendency now to use an I-perspective in English academic
writing, mostly in humanities.
Using I, however, may seem somewhat unusual or awkward to Ukrainian writers. It may thus be
recommended, at least for beginners, to maintain impersonal style and to avoid the first person pronoun I.
This does not mean, however, that I should never be used.
An important feature of English academic written discourse is a cautious manner of writing, that is
the avoidance of too definite statements or conclusions. The purpose of such strategy is to be accurate and
to protect the author from being criticized for possible errors or invalid claims. Cautious writing also
allows for other opinions or points of view. The main linguistic ways of doing this are as follows:
1. By using adjectives that express probability (in all examples below the statements gradually
weaken in strength).
2. By using there is construction with the word possibility.
3. By using adverbs that express certainty and probability.
4. By using statements of shared knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs.
5. By using modal verbs.
There are different conventions for different genres of academic writing (books, articles, conference
papers) and different academic disciplines (such as humanities, social sciences or engineering). However,
some principles are the same for any piece of academic writing, whether it is a journal article on
molecular biology or a conference paper on English literature. The main features of academic writing are:
Objectivity. Formality. Clarity. Acknowledgement of sources.

Lecture 3. Academic Vocabulary

There have been many attempts to define what exactly academic vocabulary is. Many people think that
academic vocabulary is more “difficult” than general English vocabulary. However, academic vocabulary
is not necessarily “difficult vocabulary” – using academic words is more a question of finding appropriate
language, in a suitable style, than anything else.
An important feature of English academic writing is a tendency to choose more formal alternative
when selecting words of different parts of speech.
Verbs
English academic style makes use of formal verbs, often of Latin origin. In Ukrainian textbooks,
such verbs are usually referred to as "general scientific verbs" (загальнонаукова лексика).
Collocations
Collocations are relatively stable word-combinations that occur regularly. Their knowledge and
appropriate use is very important for successful academic writing in English.
Logical connectors
 Logical connectors (transitional expressions) are linking words and phrases which establish the
logical relationship between ideas within a sentence or between sentences. They also improve the flow of
writing, that is a smooth movement from one idea or piece of information in a text to the text. Logical
connectors are thus guideposts for readers that help them to better follow the text. As transitional
expressions show various kinds of logical relations, they may be grouped according to their meaning and
function. For example, they may perform functions of comparison, concession, conclusion, contrast,
enumeration, illustration, intensification.
Latin Expressions
Like other European languages, academic English makes use of Latin abbreviations and
expressions. You must have also met some of them while reading Ukrainian academic texts, where such
expressions are easy to notice, because they are often written in the Roman alphabet. In English texts,
such expressions (rather than abbreviations) are sometimes given in italics.
New Lexical Tendencies in English
There are some new tendencies in the use of English you need to be aware of even though they
affect the language in general. Knowledge of them is especially important for those who perform research
in humanities and social sciences.
The first tendency considered here is the so-called politically correct language. This tendency,
characteristic mostly of American English, consists in the use of euphemisms (mild, vague, and indirect
words or phrases) that soften accurate meanings in accordance with sociopolitical values.
The second tendency consists in the avoidance of unnecessary distinctions based on sex in language
use. These distinctions are called sexist language. The proper understanding of this important for the
Western societies tendency may not be easy for Ukrainians and other speakers of Slavic languages, in
which grammar is strongly affected by the category of gender. Thus, to avoid sexist language masculine
pronouns sentences are transformed into the plural. Occasionally, if all else fails, he/she or him/her are
used. Careful writers also avoid designating sex with suffixes like –man and –ess and substitute nonsexist
terms.
 Lecture 4. Academic Grammar and Punctuation
Word order
While in Ukrainian there is no strict word order, a normal English declarative sentence has the
following structure, with the subject preceding the predicate:
subject+predicate+object+adverbial modifiers
There are, however, additional rules. Most important of them are given below:
Adjectives are used before the noun that they modify in the following order: a) general description,
opinion; b) size, shape, condition; c) colour; d) origin; e) purpose, type.
2. Adverbs of manner (that answer the question "how") are usually placed after the verb in the final
position. However, in academic style, the middle position is preferable.
3. Adverbs and conjunctions referring to the whole sentence are placed at the beginning.
The word order may be inverted (i.e. a word will be moved out of its usual position in a sentence) in
the following cases:
1. In some negative sentences (clauses).
2. In unreal conditionals.
3. For emphasis.
Punctuation
When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing,
we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases.
In English, commas are used much less frequently than in Ukrainian. The main rules of the use of
commas that differ from the Ukrainian rules are as follows:
1. Do not separate with a comma (commas) identifying clauses (identify persons or things).
2. Separate with a comma (commas) non-identifying clauses.
3. Do not separate with a comma infinitival, participial, prepositional phrases, and adverbial clauses if
they come at the end of the sentence.
4. Separate with a comma infinitival, participial, prepositional phrases, and adverbial clauses if they
come at the beginning of the sentence.
5. Put a comma between two independent clauses if they are connected by and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.
6. Separate with a comma logical connectors at the beginning of the sentence.
7. Put a comma in case of enumeration in a series of 3 or more words and even if the last item is
preceded by and.
8. Put a comma after a person's family (last) name if it is written before the first name.
9. Put a comma in a direct quotation to separate the speaker's exact words from the rest of the sentence.
10. Full stops (periods) and commas should always be put inside the close of quotation marks (sometimes
called inverted commas).
11. Use a comma in a date.
12. Use a comma in a personal title.
13. Use a comma to separate a city name from the state (writing an address).
Semicolon
1. Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or
when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
2. Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already
include commas.
Colon
1. Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
2. Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, appositive (an appositive is a
word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it), or other idea directly
related to the independent clause.
3. Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that
follows a dash.
 Lecture 5. Elements of Academic Texts
Paragraph
The division into paragraphs is an important feature of any type of writing. A paragraph is a
collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic (Another definition: a paragraph may be
defined as a textual unit usually consisting of a number of sentences which deal with one main idea).
Skillful paragraph division greatly assists readers in following a piece of writing. The basic rule of thumb
with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it
belongs in a new paragraph. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a
single paragraph.
In writing, a paragraph is defined by indentation. Indentation means starting a line (of print or
writing) farther from the margin than the other lines. Indentation signals the beginning of some kind of a
change. In English academic writing, all paragraphs with the exception of the first one should be
indented.
The length of a paragraph is often between 75 to 125 words (although it can be much longer). In a
short piece of academic writing (for example, the conference abstract or text summary), each major point
may be developed into a separate paragraph. In longer types of papers (e.g., the journal paper), several
paragraphs may be necessary to develop one point.
The topic sentence of a paragraph tells what the paragraph is about. It indicates in a general way
what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. A topic sentence can be put in any place in the
paragraph, but putting it at the beginning guides paragraph development. Sometimes the main idea is
implied rather than stated.
Academic Names
The names of English academic authors normally consist of the first (given) and last (family)
names, the given name always being placed before the last name (but, certainly, not in bibliographies), for
example, "Richard Winkler." Sometimes a middle initial is added, e.g. "Dwight K. Stevenson." Academic
names are considered to be formal, although shortened versions of the first names may sometimes be met,
e.g. "Bob Jordan" (instead of "Robert Jordan") or "Liz Hamp-Lyons" (instead of "Elizabeth Hamp-
Lyons").
Titles
Titles are important components of academic and research writing, "responsible" for gaining
readers' attention and facilitating positive perceptions of any kind of written research.
Titles may have quite different syntactic structures. The main structural types of English titles are as
follows:
1. Nominative constructions, that is titles with one or more nouns as principal elements.
2. "Colon"-titles consisting of two parts separated by a colon.
3. Verbal constructions, that is titles containing a non-finite form of a verb as a principal element.
4. Titles in the form of complete sentences.
Sometimes, articles in the titles may be omitted.
Titles of books, plays, movies, music should be capitalized. But do not capitalize articles,
conjunctions, or prepositions unless they are the first word of the title.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements, that is expressions of gratitude to colleagues, sponsors, supervisors, etc., have
become a standard part of English academic papers and research publications. They are usually placed at
the end of the paper, or, in case of books, at the beginning before the main text. Acknowledgements also
allow the author to demonstrate that he/she is a member of a certain academic community. They are
usually written in the first person – I for a single author and we for co-authors.

Lecture 6. English Academic Genres. Summary

A dictionary definition of a summary is “a presentation of the substance of a body of material in a
condensed form or by reducing it to its main points”. In terms of academic writing a summary (Ukr.
розширена анотація, sometimes реферат) is a shortened version of a text aimed at giving the most
 important information or ideas of the text. Summarizing is an important part of writing academic
papers, which usually include extensive references to the work of others. At Ukrainian universities,
writing summaries of professional and scientific texts in English is often an examination assignment.
Requirements for Summaries
A good summary satisfies the following requirements:
1. It condenses the source text and offers a balanced coverage of the original. Avoid concentration upon
information from the first paragraph of the original text or exclusively focusing on interesting details.
2. It does not evaluate the source text and is written in a generally neutral manner.
3. The first sentence of the summary contains the name of the author of a summarized text, its title, and
the main idea.
4. In the summary the logical relationship of the ideas is shown.
5. It satisfies the requirements set to its length (which may be quite different; however, for a rather short
text, the summary is usually between one-third and one-fourth of its length).
Steps in Summarizing
1. Skim the original text and think about the author's purpose and main idea of the text.
2. Try to divide the text into sections, or, if it has subheadings, think about the idea and
important information that each section contains.
3. Try to write a one-sentence summary of each section/part of the outline in your own
words; avoid any evaluation or comments. Use the words and expressions synonymous to those used by
the author of a summarized text.
4. Write the first sentence of the summary with the name of the author of a summarized
text, its title, and the main idea.
5. Add logical connectors to show the logical relationship of the ideas and to improve the
flow of the summary.
The purpose of the first sentence in a summary is to acquaint the reader with the summarized text.
The first sentence, therefore, includes the name of the author of a summarized text, its title, and the main
idea. It uses the present tense.
The next part of this routine is to make a summary of every paragraph in a few words and verify the
fact, opinion, or the author’s attitude towards the event described. The main body of the summary consists
of the key points which can be identified while summarizing each paragraph of the article (book).
In longer summaries, it is advisable to remind a reader that you are summarizing. For this purpose,
you may use the following patterns also adding some logical connectors (such as further, also, in
addition, furthermore, moreover, etc.) and using, if necessary, reporting verbs.
In longer summaries, the author's name is usually mentioned at least 3 times – at the beginning, in
the middle, and at the end.
If we divide the story into much longer parts, it may become evident that some parts of the summary
text are irrelevant. So, in the end, while going through the summary again, it’s advisable to see if there are
any statements which go together, or if there are some ways of combining the points into one statement,
or the order of statements should be changed.
In short, summary making takes 5 stages:
1. Vocabulary study
2. Source identifying
3. Event defining
4. Paragraph summarizing
5. Message discussion

Lecture 7. Research Paper

A research paper (article) (Ukr. наукова стаття) may be defined as a relatively short piece of
research usually published in a journal or a volume. The features of research papers considerably vary
across disciplines: for example, an essay in literary criticism would essentially differ from a paper, say, in
mathematics. Also, theoretically oriented articles are different from those reporting the results and
findings of a concrete investigation. We will consider the organizational pattern of a paper of the latter
type. Such popular kinds of papers usually have a format comprising Introduction, Methods, Results, and
Discussion or some variant of it. Typically, the structure of such paper would be as follows:
1. Author's name
2. Title
3. Abstract
4. Key words
5. Introduction
6. Methods
7. Results
8. Discussion
9. Conclusions
10. Acknowledgements
11. References
12. Appendix/ices
Key words are significant words (or word-combinations consisting of more than one word) from a
paper or document used as an index to the contents. When listed in the databases, they help to provide
efficient indexing, search and retrieval mechanisms thus enabling the reader to quickly find texts on the
topic of interest. Key words are usually placed after the abstract before the main body of a text. The
number of key words to be provided is in most cases determined by particular editorial requirements.
The purpose of the Introduction is to acquaint the reader with the topic of the paper and to attract
interest to it. The Introduction is an important section of the paper insofar as it is responsible for the first
impression the paper produces. Introductions in English papers tend to follow a certain pattern of
organization of their content. It usually consists of such steps (obligatory and optional):
1. Showing that the general research area is important, interesting, problematic or relevant in
some way (optional).
2. Reviewing previous research in the area.
3. Indicating a gap in the previous research, or counterclaiming, or raising a question, or
continuing a tradition.
4. Outlining purposes or nature of the present research.
5. Announcing principal findings (optional).
6. Outlining the structure of the research paper (optional).
Nevertheless, there can be much variation in introducing research, and it is not always easy to draw
distinct boundaries between the enumerated steps.

Lecture 8. Research Paper (continuation)

Methods
The Methods section provides description of methods, procedures, materials, and subjects used in a
study. The characteristics of this part of a research paper vary across fields.
In specific scientific meaning methods are ways of finding, collecting, describing new language
facts. Method, in its turn, is a system of approaches used to study phenomena and regularities of nature,
society, and thinking, to reach any definite results in practice, to organize and systematize theoretical and
practical results obtained in investigation.
There exist 2 groups of methods usually applied to linguistic research. These are general scientific
methods and specific ones. The former are used in any sphere of human knowledge. The latter play an
extraordinary important role in the development of a certain branch of science.
Among general scientific methods we distinguish between induction, deduction, analysis, and
synthesis.
Induction is a means of investigation with the help of which a general conclusion about the whole
class of phenomena is made on the basis of conclusions about separate phenomena of the class. It is the
generalization of results of a separate investigation.
 Deduction is a means of investigation when a general idea makes it possible to give conclusions
about separate members of the class. It is based on the following axiom: everything which is true about
the whole class is true about the separate phenomena of the class.
Analysis is a theoretical or practical division of the whole entity into parts and the research of each
element separately. The reverse process is called synthesis. It is a process of joining the parts together and
the investigation of the whole entity.
Specifically linguistic methods of language investigation comprise descriptive, comparative,
structural, etc.
Descriptive method is the investigation of the language units and the explanation of their building
and function on the definite stage of language development that is synchronically.
Comparative method is the number of methods of language research and description through its
systematic comparison with other languages with the aim to reveal its specificities. It deals with modern
languages. The method researches the structure of the languages on the plane of their similarity or
difference, independently of their genetic nature.
Structural method analyses the language phenomena taking into consideration only relations and
connections between the language elements. This method appeared in the 20s of the 20 th century. It is
aimed to study language as the whole structure, the elements and parts of which are interrelated and are
connected with the system of linguistic relations.
Distributive analysis is the methodology of investigating language by studying the surrounding of a
particular unit in the text.
Componential analysis is the system of techniques of linguistic study of the meaning of the words.
It is aimed at dividing the meaning into elementary components, which are called semes or markers.
The usage of mathematic methods in the linguistics has been known for a long period of time. The
active usage of the mathematic methods began in the middle of the 20 th century. The quantitative methods
sum up usage frequency of the language units. Statistic methods presuppose the usage of different
formulae in studying the rules of the language unit division.
Results
The Results section reports on data or information obtained in the course of a study. In this part of
the research paper, writers put forward their new knowledge claims through the demonstration,
explanation, and interpretation of their findings.
The presentation of results is typically followed by the Discussion section, although the division
between these two sections is not rigid, and they may appear together as one structural part of a research
paper. Even if the Results section is formally separated from the Discussion, it often contains some
comments on the data. The purpose of such comments is to provide a timely response to the critical
remarks or questions about results or methods that the author of a paper is likely to anticipate.
Discussion Sections
The Discussion section interprets the results and their relationship to the research problem and
hypothesis. As mentioned above, division between the Discussion and the Results sections is not rigid;
furthermore, it is not always easy to distinguish between the Discussion and the Conclusions sections.
The Discussion sections of research articles are organized as certain logical sequences of steps.
These steps are as follows:
- statement of results;
- (un)expected results;
- reference to previous research (comparison);
- explanation of unsatisfactory result(s);
- exemplification;
- recommendation;
- justification.
Usually, Discussion sections contain some of the above steps (not necessarily all). The number and
place of steps in a sequence depends on how neatly the discussed results fit those expected.
Conclusions
 The difference between Discussion and Conclusions sections is largely conventional depending on
traditions in particular fields and journals. Quite often, Discussions and Conclusions appear as one (and
the final) part of a research paper.
If the Conclusions section appears as a separate part, it usually consists of the following steps:
- summary of the results;
- implications (theoretical and/or practical);
- plans for future research or possible further research in the area.
Citations
Citations play an important role in academic texts. They are used to demonstrate the familiarity of
the citing author with the field of investigation, to provide support for his/her research claims or criticism.
Giving credit to cited sources is called documentation. There are two main methods of documenting. The
first one, numeric, involves putting a number near the reference (usually in square brackets).
The full reference is given then in the bibliography at the end of the text – in numerical sequence, or
as a footnote at the bottom of the page.
The second procedure of documenting, which is probably more popular, consists in putting a short
reference in the text itself. Normally, it includes the author’s (authors’) last name(s) and the year of
publication and page numbers in parentheses (separated/not separated by a comma or a colon, rather often
depending on the journal requirements to the authors), e.g.: (Crystal 1995, 29), or (Crystal 1995: 29). If a
reference is made to the whole work, the page numbers are usually not given: (Drakeford, 1998).
Failure to provide the appropriate documentation may lead to the accusation of plagiarism.
Plagiarism is conscious copying from the work of others. In Anglo-American academic culture,
plagiarism is treated as a serious offense.
The words or phrases of other authors used (quoted) in academic writing are called quotations.
Quotations may be direct or indirect. Quotations are direct if the author’s words in quotation marks
(double in American and Ukrainian usage and single as in British) are incorporated into the text and
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma (or, if necessary, by a question mark, or an
exclamation point):
Quotations may be indirect, that is integrated into the text as paraphrase (meaning restatement of
the meaning in other words).
You don’t need to document in case you refer to the material known as “common knowledge”.
Material in probably common knowledge if:
- you find the same information undocumented in at least five other sources;
- you think it is information that your readers will already know;
- you think a person could easily find the information with general reference sources.

Lecture 9. Research Paper Abstracts

Academic journals are periodicals in which researchers publish articles on their work. Most often
these articles discuss recent research. Journals also publish theoretical discussions and articles that
critically review already published work.
Most articles start with a paragraph called the “abstract”, which very briefly summarizes the whole
article.
A research paper (or journal) abstract (Ukr. анотація) is a short account of a research paper
placed before it. The research article abstract is written by the author of a paper. The "relatives" of the
journal abstract are: the summary, the conference abstract, and the synopsis – a shorter version of a
document that usually mirrors the organization of the full text.
The journal abstract performs a number of important functions:
 it serves as a short version of the paper, which provides the most important information;
 it helps, therefore, the potential audience to decide whether to read the whole article or not;
 prepares the reader for reading a full text by giving an idea of what to expect;
 serves as a reference after the paper has been read.
Nowadays, abstracts are widely used in electronic storage and retrieval systems and by on-line
information services.
 The journal abstract has certain textual and linguistic characteristics:
 it consists of a single paragraph;
 it contains 4-10 full sentences;
 it tends to avoid the first person and to use impersonal active constructions (e.g., "This research shows
…") or passive voice (e.g., "The data were analyzed …");
 it rarely uses negative sentences;
 it uses meta-text (reference to the text, e.g., "This paper investigates…"; "This paper reports…");
 it avoids using acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols (unless they are defined in the abstract itself);
 it does not cite by number or refer by number to anything from the text of the paper.
The most frequent tense used in abstracts is the present tense. It is used to state facts, describe
methods, make comparisons, and give results. The past tense is preferred when reference is made to the
author's own experiments, calculations, observations, etc.
Journal abstracts are often divided into informative and indicative abstracts.
The informative abstract includes main findings and various specifics such as measurements or
quantities. This type of abstract often accompanies research reports and looks itself like a report in
miniature.
Indicative abstracts indicate the subject of a paper. They provide a brief description without going
into a detailed account. The abstracts of this type accompany lengthy texts or theoretical papers. The
combination of both types of journal abstracts, however, also exists.
There is a conventional distinction between informative and indicative abstracts. Although a
diversity of definitions can be found in the literature on abstracting and summarisation, the leading
criterion used for this distinction is in the perspective. An informative abstract conveys in a reduced form
the same message as the source text, as if it were a direct report of the research; an indicative abstract is
an external account of what the source text is about. Informative abstracts are usually longer and may (for
particular readers) serve as a substitute for the source text; indicative abstracts have a primary selection
function.
Both types of abstracts are in some respect also suitable for the fulfilment of an orientation function.
Indicative abstracts, describing the main steps in the source text, can serve as an orientation tool to gain
insight into the global organisational coherence of the article. Informative abstracts lend themselves more
easily to a more profound, content-oriented orientation.
The structure of the English journal abstract includes the following steps:
1. Situating the research (e.g., by stating current knowledge in the field or a research
problem).
2. Presenting the research (e.g., by indicating its main purpose or main features).
3. Describing its methodology.
4. Summarizing the results.
5. Discussing the research (by drawing conclusions and/or giving recommendations).

Lecture 10. Conference Abstracts

A conference abstract (Ukr. тези доповіді) is a short account of an oral presentation proposed to
the organizers of a conference. It is a widespread and important genre that plays a significant role in
promoting new knowledge within scientific communities, both national and international.
Nowadays, Ukrainian scholars often try to submit abstracts to international conferences. For many
of our academics, the conference abstract is a kind of a "pass" to the world research communities that
provides, if accepted, various opportunities for professional contacts and communication.
The abstracts submitted for international and major national conferences are usually reviewed
(sometimes blind-reviewed, i.e. considered without seeing the names of the authors) by conference
committees. Conference abstracts, therefore, participate in the competition for acceptance and need to
impress reviewing committees; that is why they may be written in a somewhat promotional, self-
advertising manner. A dominant feature of conference abstracts is so-called "interestingness" created by
the novelty of a topic and its presentation in an interesting for the potential audience way.
 Conference abstracts have certain textual characteristics. They are usually of one-page length (200-
300 words) and consist of three paragraphs on average. Sometimes there may be 2-5 pages depending on
the requirements suggested by the conference committee, the journal traditions, the topic itself, the price
for publication etc.
The conference abstract tends to have such basic steps (although certain deviations from this
structure are quite possible). These steps, which may be realized by certain strategies (given below in
parenthesis), are as follows:
1. Outlining the research field (by reference to established knowledge/importance claim/previous
research).
2. Justifying a particular research/study (by indicating a gap in the previous research/by counter-
claiming/by question-posing/by continuing a tradition).
3. Introducing the paper to be presented at the conference.
4. Summarizing the paper (by giving its brief overview).
5. Highlighting its outcome/results (by indicating the most important results or their possible
applications and/or implications).
The first, the second, and the third steps of the conference abstract are, in fact, identical to the three
initial steps of the research paper Introduction. The fourth step is a brief overview of the conference paper
structured with the help of meta-textual phrases. The final step – Highlighting the outcome – often only
indicates the most important results and their possible applications and implications. Most typically, the
first and the second steps are realized in the initial paragraph of a text, while the following introduces and
summarizes the paper, and the concluding one highlights the outcome.
As the fist three parts of the conference abstract are similar to the first three steps of the research
paper Introductions, you may use the appropriate useful phrases given in the previous lectures for writing
your conference abstracts. Also, meta-textual patterns, which realize Step 3 in the research paper
Introduction, can be used in the Summarizing the paper part of the conference abstract.

Lecture 11. Letters

Academic communication is impossible without letters. They function either in the
traditional “paper” form or are sent via e-mail. Official letters have elements common to
all types of such documents.
Enc. (enclosures) means that something besides the letter is included and is in the
same envelope.
C or Cc means that a copy or copies of this letter are being sent to another person or
persons who are named.
Types of letters used in academic communication are rather numerous: requests,
submission letters, e-mail messages, letters of reference (recommendation) etc.

If you are interested in obtaining information on graduate study/grants/fellowships

opportunities abroad request letters are of great help here.
Request letters can be a very effective way of accomplishing what you need. It is not
what you request, but how.
Be particularly courteous and tactful when writing this letter, as requests are
generally an imposition on another's time and/or resources or talents. Put the reader at
ease, and help her or him feel that responding will not be burdensome.
 Be brief.
  Be confident and persuasive. Be assertive but not overbearing.
 Do not hem and haw around the issue—be straightforward, and include as much
detail as necessary to clearly convey your request.
 Do not be manipulative.
Avoid the temptation to apologize for your request. Strive to make the person feel


complimented that you would ask the favor of him or her.

 Make only reasonable requests.
 Express your willingness to reciprocate the kindness or favor.
Invite the person to contact you if he or she has any questions or concerns, and
thank him or her for taking the time to consider your request.
Make it easy for the person to respond—tell him or her exactly what can be done to
accommodate your request, and do everything within your power so that the request can
be granted (e.g., if you are asking for a letter of recommendation, include your résumé or a
list of accomplishments and a stamped, addressed envelope).
With letters of request you can:
Introduce yourself and remind the reader of your connection (if necessary) before


making your request.

 Clearly make your request to the person(s) involved.
 State plainly and directly your reason(s) for making the request.
Mention the special contributions the reader can make – how he or she can be of
help, why you chose him or her, any benefits of fulfilling the request, and so forth.
 Promote goodwill and trust.

Always remember to thank the person for the time and effort he/she has spared to
consider your request.
Do not thank the person in advance for what you have requested of him/her. It can
appear very presumptuous in the first place and can put off the reader that you are not
giving him/her a choice to say no to your request. It may also seem as if you do not wish
to write to them again once the request is granted. You can always write a thank you
letter later.
Submission Letters
Submission letters accompany papers submitted for consideration to an editor of a
research journal. They are written in various ways.

A business submission letter is a written request for funding. The text must contain
the latest, most accurate information and follow guidelines, which vary from agency to
agency. The ultimate goal of the submission letter writer is to craft a document which is
clear, concise and direct so the message produces the desired effect.
 Instructions
1. Step 1
Do your research. Gather as much relevant data from verifiable and reliable sources
as possible.
2. Step 2
Draft a basic outline of your letter. In the opening, include the name of the office or
business you're requesting funding from and your name and organization. The body of the
letter should contain a summary of the key issues contained in the submission, the most
relevant facts you are going to present, what the problem is, why the journal or company
should be interested and your recommended solution. You should also reference anyone
who supports your efforts, an estimated timeframe for project completion and cost
estimates. In the closing, thank the editorial board or company for taking the time to read
your submission.
3. Step 3
Write the letter. Use an inverted pyramid style, in which you state your position in the
beginning and then provide supporting information for your point of view. Make one point
per paragraph. You may use headings to break up the text so important points stand out.
4. Step 4
Create visual interest. Appeal to those who utilize a visual learning style by adding
tables, graphs, pie charts or pictures where you can. Draw the eye to the main points by
underlining or altering the fonts with bold or italics to grab the reader's attention. This
way, even if the reader only skims the letter, he will still grasp the fundamentals of the
submission.
5. Step 5
Format the letter. Do not use right justification. It reduces reader efficiency because
readers get distracted by the unbalanced spacing between words. Also, breaking up the
text with white space can make a lengthy document seem easier to read. Choose an easy-
to-read font, such as Courier or Arial, and use the same font throughout the letter.
6. Step 6
Write in clear, easily understood language using only as many words as necessary to
adequately explain yourself.
7. Step 7
Be succinct. To keep your letter short, add your supporting documents as appendices.
If your letter turns out to be a bit on the lengthy side, you should include a summary in the
beginning.
 Letters of Recommendation
Letters of recommendation (of reference) play an important role in academic
communication. They usually accompany various kinds of applications (e.g., job,
fellowship, or grant applications) and are written by the teachers or collegues of an
applicant.
One of the primary purposes of the recommendation letter is to share one’s evaluation
of the professional abilities and personal qualities of the applicant. The evaluation is
usually based on the interpretation of accomplishments of a recommended person.
The letter of recommendation has a format of a letter with the introduction, body, and
conclusion:
 the introduction states the purpose of writing and serves as a frame for the letter;
 the body contains the main evaluation of the applicant;
 the conclusion contains predictions of the applicant’s success.
The letter of recommendation should also include name, position, and address of the
referee (a person who provides a letter of reference). It is also recommended to describe
the context in which the writer has known the applicant. Often, the applicant’s personal
qualities (such as intelligence or industriousness) are described at the end of the body of
the letter.
If someone asks you in advance whether she can use you as a reference or have you
write a referral letter, and you cannot in good conscience recommend her, say so. People
who ask you to be a referee or write referral letters assume you will say positive things;
after all, they are trying to get a job. Intending to write a less-than-glowing letter and not
informing the person who asked you of your intention is like an ambush. If you cannot
write a good letter of recommendation, decline.
There are two specific types of letters of recommendation. In the first type, a friend or
colleague asks you to write a “generic” letter of recommendation. It is not for a specific
job or employer, but meant to be a general reference she can show to interviewers if asked
for such a letter. In the second type, the employer asks the candidate for references, and
the candidate gives your name. The employer then asks you whether you recommend the
person, and why.
GENERIC LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION
If you have agreed to serve as a reference for a friend or acquaintance seeking a job,
you may not want to write a separate letter for each position your friend is applying for.
You can solve this problem by writing a blanket recommendation that the job seeker can
show all potential employers.
SPECIFIC LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION
 Here is another common situation: You agree to let someone use you as a reference,
and when she does, the organization to which she is applying for a job contacts you for
verification. To maximize the person’s chance of getting the job, you want to write a letter
of recommendation that is specific, positive, and concise.
Steps
1. Provide the context of the letter. Put all the information that the reader will want to
know at the beginning of the letter, before you even begin to write the body. If you're
writing to a close friend, you won't need much except the date, which will help your friend
remember when it was received. If you are writing a business letter, on the other hand, the
reader may not even know who wrote the letter (if an assistant threw the envelopes away
before passing along the letters). The arrangement of this information depends on the type
of letter you are writing, but as long as you provide it neatly and completely, you should
be fine:
o Your address, sometimes including contact information; some people prefer to
write this out at the bottom of the letter, under the signature and printed name. This can
also go at the top as a letterhead.
o The recipient's name, address, contact information; in business letters, this can be
referred to as the "inside address"; if you do not know the recipient's title (Ms., Mrs., Mr.,
or Dr.) on the side of caution – use Ms. or Dr. if you think it might apply; use your
country's address format; if the inside address is in another country, write that country's
name in capital letters as the last line.
o The date
o A subject line, usually beginning with "Re:" (e.g. Re: Graduation application
#4487)
2. Start with a proper greeting. The opening should begin at the left side of the
page, not the middle or up against the right side of the sheet. The most common opening is
"Dear" followed by the person's first name and a comma. For a more casual greeting, you
can write "Hello (name)," or "Hey (name)," but if the letter is formal, use the recipient's
last name and a colon instead of a comma (e.g. "Dear Mr. Johnson:". Sometimes, if you
don't know the recipient's name, you can write "To Whom It May Concern:" If you don't
know the person's gender, write out his or her full name to avoid using “Mr.” or “Ms.”
(e.g. Dear Ashley Johnson:).
3. Write an opening paragraph. Tailor your opening to the recipient. For example,
if the letter is casual, you can begin with, "What's up?" or "How's it going?" Otherwise, a
simple "How are you?" is fine. If it is a business letter, be direct about why you are writing
the letter. Summarize your intentions and be sure to write clearly so that the reader will
understand you.
4. Construct the body of the letter. This is the part that will really be unique to
each letter. Most business letters should be no more than two pages long, but casual letters
can be as long or as short as you want them to be. No matter who the recipient is, try not to
ramble. Keep each paragraph engaging.
5. Use the closing paragraph to indicate the type of response you are seeking. If
you would like a letter in return, you can write, "Please write when you have a chance" or,
if you prefer a phone call/email, write "Call me soon." or "Email me some time".
6. Include a closing such as "Love always" ,"Cheers", "Sincerely", "Talk soon", or
"Look forward to seeing you soon". Again, choose your closing based on the recipient and
the level of formality. The closing can be aligned on the left or the right side of the page.
In business letters, stick with "Regards," or "Respectfully," and sign your name
underneath. Then print your name under the signature.
7. Address your envelope. Your address should be written on the front of the
envelope in the upper left hand corner or on the back. The recipient's address must be on
the front of the envelope, right in the middle. Fold your letter in any way you would like,
but just be sure that it will fit into the envelope. Put your letter in the envelope, seal it,
stamp it, and send it off.