Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-022-00352-9

SEXUAL TECHNOLOGY (N DÖRING AND P RENAUD, SECTION EDITORS)

Virtual Reality Pornography: a Review of Health‑Related Opportunities

and Challenges
Leighton Evans1

Accepted: 21 September 2022 / Published online: 21 November 2022 / Published online: 21 November 2022
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Purpose of Review Virtual reality (VR) pornography is a relatively new medium for the experience of pornography. In
juxtaposition with traditional modes of experiencing pornography, such as two-dimensional (2D) displays, VR promises a
new experience of pornography for the user. VR can offer the feeling of ‘being there’: an increased sense of immersion and
presence in a mediated experience thanks to the sensory affordances of the medium. In an effective VR environment, the
user is immersed in the experience itself, feeling an embodied presence in the world presented to them and able to interact
with the environment and others in the environment in ways that cannot be achieved in other media. In terms of pornography,
this is potentially revolutionary. The user can be embodied in one of the performers and experience a unique perspective.
Alternatively, there are interfaces that will allow for the performer and viewer to physically interact with one another and
experience physical arousal from the actions of the other at a distance. The possibilities of VR pornography are therefore
related to the intensity of experience, the changing relationship with the performers and others in pornographic media, and
the possibility of new, embodied experiences of arousal utilising networked, embodied technologies. This research review
assesses to what extent research on VR pornography has supported these possibilities, affordances, and developments.
Recent Findings 23 articles were included in the present review. Findings demonstrate some increases in arousal and empathy
in using VR pornography. However, further empirical evidence for these findings is still needed. In addition, teledildonic
technology is lacking empirical research and the effects of the use of this technology in conjunction with VR requires research.
Summary Collectively, the results underscore the notion that VR improves immersion and presence for subjects, and this can
translate to increased sexual desire, empathy for performers in pornography, and sexual anxiety in watching pornography. This
is a field in infancy, and the initial results of empirical work suggest that VR can intensify some key aspects of the experience
of pornography. Theoretical reflections on VR pornography indicate many areas that require further empirical research.

Keywords Virtual Reality · Pornography · Arousal · Empathy · Teledildonics

Introduction experiencing pornography which will add intensity and a

feeling of presence to the viewing of pornographic material
Virtual reality (VR) has been proposed as a potentially [2]. Additionally, it is argued that the increased realism
revolutionary medium for pornography [1]. In popular of VR pornography will revolutionise the experience of
discourse, VR pornography has been identified as being a pornography and will be a significant driver of early VR
development which may reshape the relationship between business [3, 4]. Pornography makes up more than 20%
performer and viewer in pornography, and as a mode of of all Google searches, and VR videos are watched more
frequently in comparison to regular videos when corrected
for the number of videos uploaded [5]. As befits a relatively
This article is part of the topical Collection on Sexual Technology. new technology, the range of content in VR pornography
is more limited than in 2D pornography and the creation
* Leighton Evans
l.evans@swansea.ac.uk of amateur/non-mainstream VR pornography is limited by
the costs and use of specialist cameras for the production
1
Department of Media and Communication, Digital of VR pornography [1]. The change of focus for performers
Technium Building, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, and producers in VR pornography compared to some other
Wales, UK

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28 Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35

traditional forms—from the co-star to a tight focus on the studies, qualitative studies without quantitative or empirical
camera to focus on the viewer in VR—illustrates a critical components, and theoretical or systematic reviews to address
aspect of the difference between VR pornography and 2D the lack of empirical work identified over the period. Works
pornography. While point-of-view (POV) pornography has which specifically identified and focused upon the use of
existed for many years, the use of a VR headset facilitates and effects of VR pornography were included in the review.
a new positionality for both viewer and performer of Works which only tangentially mentioned VR pornogra-
pornography based on greater control of the field of vision, phy in relation to cybersex or other phenomena were not
and the interfacing of VR headsets and complimentary included in the reviewed research unless the results contrib-
technologies that simulate touch and co-presence with uted to the discussion on arousal or empathy. These studies
the performer offers a new paradigm of mediated sexual provide a context for current research on VR pornography
behaviour [1]. The proposition underpinning the potential for and suggestions for further research. This search is an initial
VR pornography is that the technology can be more arousing indicator that, while some empirical work exists in the area,
and intimate than traditional 2D pornography, which has there is a wide epistemological gap thanks to the lack of
already been found to have a considerable effect on arousal empirical work in the area.
[6–11]. Beyond the immersion created by a VR headset, there
are several different types of teledildonic technologies which
can sync with VR experiences. Companies such as Lovense Results
and Kiiro now offer a range of teledildonic technologies for
this purpose. These include fleshlights for men, vibrators, After screening out studies that did not meet the inclusion
prostate massagers, and anal plugs [12–14]. The syncing of criteria, a total of 23 empirical, quantitative studies and
the VR experience with the stimulation received from these non-empirical studies published between January 1, 2017,
devices can allow for a physiological effect on both performer and July 1, 2022, were identified that were relevant to the
and audience member in synchronous real time. During the present review. Other research in this review is used to
COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent social distancing, there contextualise the findings and insights into VR pornography
was a significant increase in the sales of these devices [15, in the wider research context around pornography and
16]. However, some research has argued that teledildonic cybersex (Table 1).
sexual activity may be considered a mediation of sexual
behaviour that veers too close to infidelity [17]. The relative Demographics and Methodologies of Studies
sensory focus and affordances of presence of VR may have
therefore a significant effect on arousal and empathy as a Of the 9 empirical studies, research was distributed across
factor in the performer-audience relationship. The notion countries. Two studies were conducted in Canada; one in
of VR as an ‘empathy machine’ has led to predictions that Austria, France, the Netherlands, and Germany; two large-scale
VR will facilitate more empathetic relationships between general sexual behaviour survey in the USA; and one study
pornography and the viewer and pornographic actors and using a multi-national sample utilising social media.
viewers. This affective turn in VR pornography is contingent All empirical studies used adult samples. Two studies
upon the use of teledildonic technology to facilitate used samples limited to men [22•, 23••]. One study had
new embodied relations for the pornography viewer and an exclusively female sample [24•]. The remainder of the
performer. empirical studies had male, female, and other gendered
participants. There was a preponderance of studies identified
using limited sampling methods (e.g. cross-sectional designs
Method that relied exclusively on snowballing samples or undergraduate
samples), and longitudinal designs were not identified.
A research review was conducted of recent papers of a quan- Non-empirical studies identified as being relevant to the
titative, qualitative, and theoretical nature on VR pornog- aims of this review utilised a range of critical theoretical
raphy published between January 1, 2017, and September positions, including phenomenology, postphenomenology,
1, 2022. The research method derived from and followed materialism, critical feminist, and critical data study
methodologies of systemic and organised research reviews approaches.
[18–21]. Pornography and VR search terms (‘VR pornog-
raphy’, ‘virtual reality pornography’, ‘cybersex’, ‘porn’, and Measurement
‘teledildonics’) were searched to identify relevant works in
Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. A Empirical studies used a combination of subjective self-
review of references in related works also identified some reporting and physiological data to assess arousal, inti-
relevant studies. This review included quantitative empirical macy, empathy, and anxiety when assessing the differences

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 Table 1  Summary of all studies included in the present review
Study Type of research Characteristics Key outcomes Summary of findings

Arrell [46] Review Chapter that surveys some of the philo- Teledildonics can help overcome spatial Some emergent (bio)technologies can help
sophical issues raised by the increasing separation in intimate relationships overcome obstacles that can get in the way
integration of physical and Internet-medi- of a happy sex life
ated technologies into our sex lives
Asci et al. [5] Review Review of consumption of VR pornography VR pornography is watched more fre- VR pornography is new in the porn industry,
quently compared to regular videos when and the number of videos uploaded is
the sample is corrected for number of low. VR porn seems to be attracting more
videos uploaded watchers; this trend might continue in the
future
Ashton et al. [29] Review Assessment of how new digital technolo- VR pornography can alter and improve the Thanks to changes in realism, immersion and
gies will change definitions and practices experience of pornography for the user interactivity VR pornography may be an
Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35

of researching pornography improved experience for users

Bollmer [32] Non-empirical Critical analysis of the possibility of empa- VR is not capable of engendering real Any technologies intended to foster empathy
thy from VR empathy merely presume to acknowledge the experi-
ence of another but fail to do so in any
meaningful way
Dekker et al. [23••] Empirical quantitative 50 male participants in a repeated measures VR pornography induced feelings of inti- In the VR condition, participants felt more
design, recruited via a local website in macy with performers desired, more flirted with, and more looked
Germany into the eyes. They were also more likely
to feel connected with the actors and more
likely to feel the urge to interact with them
Elsey et al. [25••] Empirical quantitative Cross-sectional study of 95 heterosexual Men found VR pornography more arousing VR consistently elicited a greater sense of
participants (47 female, 48 male) in a than 2D scenes, but this was not the case presence than typical pornography, and
repeated measures design recruited via for women presence was positively correlated with
university online system and snowball sexual arousal
sampling in the Netherlands
Evans [1] Review Critical review of VR pornography and Teledildonic technology is heteronormative VR pornography and teledildonic technology
teledildonics and male-focused have significant issues with inclusion
Faustino [42] Non-empirical Critical reflection on teledildonics from a This technology reinforces the ‘coital Although teledildonics may permit other
materialist perspective imperative’, by equating sexual interac- formulations, specifically for non-hetero-
tion with penetration of the vagina by the sexual couples, the penetrative act remains
penis a presupposition of this technology
Flore and Pienaar [40] Non-empirical Case studies of sex toys to examine how Sexual practices, intimacy, and pleasure The datafication of sexual practice has
the relationship between data and sexual become ‘datafied’ through these sensory significant impacts on privacy and the
subjectivity is being transformed through technologies ownership of sexual pleasure
these emerging technologies

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Table 1  (continued)
Study Type of research Characteristics Key outcomes Summary of findings

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French and Hamilton [31] Empirical quantitative 195 men (mean age 19.84, s.d. 2.7) and Women show a preference for female-cen- Although effect sizes were small, women
310 women (mean age 19.8, s.d. 3.8) tric pornography consumption (typically who reported viewing pornography with
from Eastern Canada completed an online that which depicts more genuine female more female-centric features also reported
questionnaire. Participants were recruited pleasure, natural bodies, attractive male more positive effects of pornography on
through Facebook, Kijiji, and community leads, and greater context) sex life and perceptions of the other gender
advertisements. 63% of the samples were
introductory psychology students
Gesselman et al. [45] Empirical quantitative A web-based, demographically representa- Participants who were younger, were men, Participants indicated their engagement with
tive sample included 7,512 American had higher income, and were sexual eight forms of sextech, including teledil-
adults aged 18–65 years, with a near-even minorities reported more frequent engage- donic use and accessing virtual reality
gender split of men/women and moderate ment with all forms of sextech assessed pornography as well as two more common
racial diversity (63% White) domains (online pornography and sexting).
Engagement with pornography and sexting
was high, but some demographics indicated
increasing engagement with new sextech
Kaisar [41] Non-empirical Critical examination of how the relationship Teledildonics are marketed as a substitute Intimate encounters between interactive
between data and sexual subjectivity is for heteronormative sexual encounters sex toys and bodies should be considered
being transformed through these emerg- whereas they are closer to a simulated complex technological and biological
ing technologies experience of mutual masturbation assemblages, where machines and the
human body come into intimate connection
through datafication
Lafortune et al. [26••] Empirical quantitative 39 participants allocated into low (n = 16) High-SA participants showed increased Subjective measures of discomfort were
or high sexual aversion (SA) (n = 23) discomfort as a factor of time exposed increased significantly in high-SA par-
groups. Mean age was 29.9 years to VR pornographic performance by a ticipants through increased exposure to
(s.d. = 11.31). The sample was mostly synthetic actor a synthetic character displaying erotic
comprised of women (> 60%), with 17% behaviours in a virtual room
of participants identifying as men and
21.5% as non-binary. Participants were
recruited from a previous SA study and
through social media in France
Liberati [38] Non-empirical Phenomenological assessment of teledil- Teledildonics have the potential to re-shape Teledildonics provide tactual sensations
donic possibilities our living body and, in so doing, re-shape that simulate part of a subject’s body as
our affections as well as our perception of being relocated in another place, enabling
the world a subject to ‘connect’ and to ‘play’ with a
second subject as if they were actually in
the same place at the same time, in other
words, to engage in remote sexual activity

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Liberati [39] Non-empirical Critical analysis of the effects of the intro- Teledildonic use will have a transformative Teledildonics will allow human beings to
duction of teledildonics on sexual lives effect on the scope and range of human have sexual intercourse with every object
according to postphenomenology and sexual relations and human-object sexual around by turning them into sexually inter-
mediation theory relations active ‘quasi-others’. This will affect the
way we give meanings and values to love
and sex in general
Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35
 Table 1  (continued)

Study Type of research Characteristics Key outcomes Summary of findings

Marcotte et al. [37] Empirical quantitative Survey of 8004 American adults, mean age People with mental health struggles may People with higher anxiety and depression
44.05, 47.8% male, 51.2% female, 1% be drawn to interactive, digital forms of were more likely to engage in sextech.
other sexual behaviour as a means of alleviat- However, those who were lonelier were
ing symptoms through distraction or less likely to engage with sextech, suggest-
self-soothing ing the aforementioned patterns were not
due to lack of social connection
McArthur and Twist [47] Review Review article of issues associated with A framework for understanding the nature Many practitioners are unfamiliar with new
emerging sexual technologies of digisexuality and how to approach it istechnologies like teledildonics, as well as
imperative for clinicians and researchers the social, legal, and ethical implications of
this technology
Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35

Milani et al. [24•] Empirical quantitative 38 female subjects in a repeated measures VR can induce feelings of sexual presence With medium to large effects, general pres-
design, recruited via university mailing and presence more generally ence, sexual presence, and sexual arousal
list in Canada were significantly higher for VR videos
relative to 2D videos
Orel [44] Review Critical review and exploration of the VR pornography has the potential to The affordances of VR pornography allow
potential of VR pornography reshape sexual desire creators to create a new reality, which will
allow for new expressions of desire and
sexual activity
Rubin [27] Review Review of VR as a technological medium VR pornography may increase empathy Capacity of VR for immersion and presence
with performers and transform viewer- will transform the relationship between
performer relationship the VR consumer and performer into an
empathetic, intimate one
Simon and Greitemeyer [22•] Empirical quantitative 60 male participants in a repeated measures VR technology was found as consistently Results showed that viewing pornographic
design in Austria, recruited via university more arousing when displaying pornogra- video material via VR technology had a
mailing list phy than 2D displays stronger effect on psychophysiological
reactions as well as subjective experience
than using the conventional desktop display
Sparrow and Karas [43] Non-empirical Examination of the legal ramifications of There are risks with using Internet-enabled If one is unsure about who one is having
teledildonic technologies prosthetics around consent and the iden- virtual sex with then it is possible that the
tity of one’s partner user would become the victim of rape by
deception. This raises difficult questions
about the definition and significance of
sexual intercourse and virtual sex
Wood et al. [30] Empirical qualitative 24 male, 18 female, and 3 other gendered Participants produced stories of the ‘per- The common cultural ideal non-experts con-
participants recruited via fan fiction fect’ pornographic experience after using structed of a ‘new’ pornographic experi-
forums, Reddit forums, and on social VR porn and reproduced heteronormative ence through use of the ‘Story Completion

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media and hegemonic masculine tropes Method’. The stories reproduced ideals
around heteronormativity and hegemonic
masculinity

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between VR pornography and traditional 2D pornography. than using the conventional desktop display. As women were
Non-empirical research based on critical theory used a range not included in this study, it leaves open the question as to
of critical perspectives on the development, use, and effects how VR immersion impacts women’s sexual response. Addi-
of VR pornography. tionally, the study used a student population which raises
questions with regard to the applicability of the research to
Arousal older populations.
These observations have been partially confirmed in
Research on arousal has assessed whether VR pornography research which has addressed female arousal as well as
invokes more physiological arousal than traditional 2D por- male arousal [25••]. Ninety-five heterosexual participants
nography [6–11]. This research has two important implica- recruited via university online system and snowball sam-
tions. Firstly, from a theoretical perspective, an increase in pling in the Netherlands (48 males and 47 females) viewed
immersion and presence aligned to an increase in arousal either VR or 2D pornography (between subjects), from both
speaks to the efficacy of pornography in VR. Secondly, voyeuristic and first-person perspectives (within subjects),
arousal in VR is important in terms of therapeutic interven- and rated their subjective arousal and presence. Men found
tions for sexual disorders and anxieties. Individuals with VR pornography more arousing than 2D scenes, but this was
sexual aversion anxiety disorders, for instance, could be not the case for women. This effect was small (ƞ2 = 0.04),
assisted by VR therapy if VR stimulates arousal and can indicating a gender and modality (VR vs. 2D) interaction, as
be used in a therapeutic capacity to safely reduce anxiety men showed higher subjective sexual arousal to VR relative
through immersion therapy. Conversely, if VR pornogra- to 2D, but women did not. Rather than VR being generally
phy is more arousing than 2D pornography, this could have experienced as more arousing, a first person or ‘participant’
significant implications for addiction to pornography and perspective consistently induced greater arousal relative to a
other problematic behaviour associated with pornography voyeuristic view, regardless of presentation medium in both
consumption. genders. VR did elicit a greater sense of presence than typi-
From the limited empirical research conducted, there cal pornography, and presence was positively correlated with
is evidence that VR is more arousing than other media for sexual arousal. The findings indicate that VR can enhance
experiencing pornography. Three research studies support the experience of arousal and pleasure in response to por-
this claim. Research has supported the notion that arousal nography, but this is gender-contingent in terms of effect.
increases with VR stimuli with an exclusively male sample Research on arousal specifically focusing on women has
[22•]. Sixty male participants were alternately shown sexu- also been conducted [24•]. The research used high qual-
ally explicit video material on a two-dimensional desktop ity, women-centred erotica and examined whether stimulus
monitor and a three-dimensional, high-immersive VR head- modality (VR vs. 2D) and point of view (POV: first-person
mounted display (HMD). Physical arousal was continuously vs. third person) impacted women’s feelings of sexual pres-
measured as skin conductance response, whereas subjective ence (activation of sexual response induced by the percep-
sexual arousal was measured using a slider. Questionnaire tion of being present), sexual arousal, and sexual desire
measures of subjective sexual arousal, presence, and sexual (dyadic and solitary). Results from 38 women indicated that
presence were also employed. With medium and large effect with medium to large effects, general presence, sexual pres-
sizes (ƞ2 = 0.12–0.47), the results indicated a stronger effect ence, and sexual arousal were significantly higher for VR
on physiological and subjective sexual arousal when men videos relative to 2D videos. Sexual presence was higher
viewed videos using VR compared to when videos were for first-person POV than third person POV. These results
viewed using the 2D desktop display, and presence and sex- parallel the findings of research specific to men and indicate
ual presence were also fostered in the higher immersive VR that VR pornography experiences elicit a sense of ‘being
condition. There was a positive correlation noted between there’ and a consequential increase in sexual arousal. As this
presence and subjective sexual arousal in the VR condition research relied on correlational data, there is an issue with
but not in the desktop condition. For sexual presence and causality. While the greater immersion into the VR films
subjective sexual arousal, a positive correlation was found triggered increases in sexual arousal as well as sexual desire,
for both conditions. In analysis, controls for order of expo- there is a possibility that erotica-induced increases in sexual
sure were used and no significant impact of order on the arousal and desire triggered the increase in sexual presence.
dependent variables was reported except for physiological Again, the study used a student population which raises
arousal. Higher levels of physiological arousal were seen questions with regard to the applicability of the research to
during the second exposure regardless of stimulus modal- older populations.
ity. The results showed that viewing pornographic video Research has also considered the increased arousal poten-
material via VR technology had a stronger effect on psy- tial of VR pornography in people with sexual aversion (SA)
chophysiological reactions as well as subjective experience anxiety [26••]. This study focused on sexual aversion (SA)

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Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35 31

defined as the experience of fear, disgust, and avoidance traditional 2D film. The perception of the films was assessed
when exposed to sexual contexts or cues. The study was using self-report measures and through the measuring of
aimed at validating a virtual environment’s ability to pro- oxytocin (a social neuropeptide associated with facilitating
gressively trigger the typical emotional responses of SA. intimacy and interaction) production. In the VR condition,
The sample was mostly comprised of women (> 60%), with participants were more likely to feel connected with the
17% of participants identifying as men and 21.5% as non- actors and more likely to feel the urge to interact with them.
binary. The thirty-nine participants (16 low-SA and 23 high- Participants were also more likely to rate the IQ of actors in
SA individuals) were immersed in a virtual room using a VR as higher than in 2D films. Saliva levels of oxytocin were
VR headset and then successively exposed to six scenarios related to the perceived eye-contact with the virtual persons
in which a synthetic character showed erotic behaviours of indicating a role for the social neuropeptide in the perception
increasing sexual intensity. Throughout immersion, sub- of increased intimacy and interaction in VR. In this research,
jective measures of anxiety and disgust, skin conductance, VR pornography appears to elicit the illusion of intimate
heart rate, cardiac output, and eye movements increased. The sexual experiences. Whether this can be considered as com-
changes in SUDS and physiological variables were exam- mensurate with empathy is open to question, although there
ined through repeated measures analyses of variance. SUDS is clearly a deeper relationship with the performer.
scores significantly increased as the levels of exposure pro- This study only has male participants, so generalising
gressed among the high-SA participants, who also reported from the research is questionable. However, this resonates
significantly more anxiety and disgust than the low-SA with non-empirical observations on empathy in VR
group. This research indicates that VR may be a promising pornography. Research utilising materialist critical theory
tool for as part of a virtual reality exposure-based treatment has claimed that VR pornography forces the viewer into
for SA and this should be tested further. the subject position of a straight, white male [1, 27] and
the experience of VR pornography is of an (often) white
Empathy female submitting to the sexual desires of the male actor.
The result of this is that VR pornography reproduces ideals
An argument has been developed in non-empirical literature around heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity in
that proposes that VR pornography may be a more pornography, which would affect the possibility and nature
humanising and less objectifying form of pornography than of empathy [30]. Empirical research has found that female-
conventional pornography [27]. This argument is contingent centric pornography consumption (typically that which
on the idea that using VR can provide an empathetic aspect depicts more genuine female pleasure, natural bodies,
of ‘being there’ or being embodied (on the part of the user) attractive male leads, and greater context) was particularly
in the scene that could reduce the voyeuristic aspect of associated with more positive effects on women’s sex lives
pornography. Empathy through sincerity and directness [31]. Masculine pleasure-focused content is unlikely to
has been effective in creating enduring audiences in 2D address these effects. Other researchers have argued that any
pornography [28]. Voyeurism could be replaced with a technologies intended to foster empathy merely presume to
participatory intimacy that will increase empathy and acknowledge the experience of another but fail to do so in
decrease desensitization and detachment with regard to any meaningful way [32].
the subject position of the viewer in comparison to the
performer. There are several ways that VR could alter and Teledildonics
even improve the experience of pornography: veridically
(the experience is life-like to the user), through immersion A further affordance of VR technology not covered in previ-
(the consumer becomes integral to the pornography and ous research is the use of teledildonics. Teledildonics allow
feels part of the experience), interactively (the consumer’s for a sexual experience with other people at a distance by
decisions and actions determine what occurs in the scene), creating an interface between the two (or more) people that
and through unboundedness (any pornography is available, stimulates sexual pleasure either synchronously or for one
no matter how particular, bizarre, or extreme) [29]. While party [33]. The concept of teledildonics first emerged in the
the visual representation of VR pornography experiences 1990s but has become more prevalent with the emergence of
could reasonably be described as ‘pornographic’, when VR as a consumer medium [34, 35]. Research has indicated
technology facilitates interactions between two people using that technologically mediated sexual interactions have the
virtual space, it is not pornography but is better described as potential to improve sexual wellbeing in some populations
a sexual encounter or, if money is exchanged, sex work [29]. [33, 36] Teledildonic devices, such as remotely controlled
One empirical study has tested these assumptions [23••]. dildos, provide tactile sensations that simulate part of a sub-
Fifty male participants watched two pornographic films on ject’s body on the behest of another person while connected
consecutive days in a laboratory setting, one in VR and one digitally, enabling a subject to interact with a second subject

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34 Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35

as if they were in the same place at the same time. This can adverse participants, with VR pornography increasing levels
create a feeling of ‘being there’ through sensory biofeedback of reported anxiety and physiological arousal compared to
as well and auditory and visual immersion [1, 35]. Empirical 2D pornography. On the basis of one study, empathy with
research has found that people with mental health struggles pornography performers on the basis of increased feelings
may be drawn to interactive, digital forms of sexual behav- of intimacy is higher with VR pornography. With regard to
iour as a means of alleviating symptoms through distraction teledildonic technology, there is only theoretical discussion
or self-soothing [37]. From a phenomenological perspective of the possible effects of this technology on sexual desire,
[38], the person using teledildonic technology can freely behaviour, and arousal.
define gender, use the teledildonics to record their actions,
and change them by translating them as they please. In
effect, teledildonics can allow human beings to have sexual Conclusions
intercourse with any appropriately networked object around
by turning them into sexually interactive ‘quasi-others’ [39], The implications of a limited set of empirical studies are
and this change will affect the way we give meanings and difficult to summarise without caution. However, this early
values to love and sex in general. research does indicate that VR pornography has both the
The use of teledildonics and the residual data that these potential and the current effect of being a more stimulating
devices will produce has been identified as a major poten- form of pornography consumption, both physiologically and
tial issue from critical feminist perspectives [40, 41]. Sexual psychologically, and may play a role in reshaping sexuality,
practices, intimacy, and pleasure become ‘datafied’ through the expression of sexual behaviour and desire [44]. There
these sensory technologies, and this data production may are several potential implications of this set of findings. The
have profound implications for privacy. Another major issue use of VR pornography could have effects on addiction to
identified with teledildonics from a materialist position is pornography and associated behaviours thanks to increased
that this technology reinforces the ‘coital imperative’, by stimulation. VR pornography could also play an important
equating sexual interaction with penetration of the vagina role in interventions around pornography addiction thanks
by the penis [42]. Although teledildonics may permit other to the potential humanising effect of the increased presence
formulations, specifically for non-heterosexual couples, the and immersion felt by users. VR pornography may have
penetrative act remains a presupposition of this technol- a role to play in immersion therapy-based interventions
ogy. The prioritisation of male desire does not address the around sexual anxiety and other related social anxiety
spectrum of embodied sexual experiences that are possible. disorders. This research on the efficacy of VR pornography
The use of teledildonics for intimacy is also fraught with compared to 2D pornography does not consider the effects
issues. There are risks with using Internet-enabled prosthet- on performers (particularly in synchronous pornography
ics around consent and the identity of one’s partner [43]. where teledildonic technology can be used to interact with
If one is unsure about who one is having virtual sex with, performers), production, the content of VR pornography, or
then it is possible that the user would become the victim of use patterns of VR pornography.
rape by deception. This raises difficult questions about the All these areas are relevant to future research agendas
safety of sexual intercourse and virtual sex. Moreover, one on VR pornography as they indicate considerable gaps in
can already envision a multi-tiered hierarchy of intimacy, the current literature. While research on VR pornography
where wealthy users can afford sophisticated haptic systems is in an early stage, so is the use of VR for pornography.
designed for physical intimacy while basic users have little Considerable issues have been identified with regard to the
but their words and the non-verbal communications of their heteronormative and male-focused nature of both VR por-
avatar to express their emotions. One should not presuppose nography and teledildonics, and research does indicate that
that teledildonic technology will even be normally distrib- younger, higher income men report far more use of teledil-
uted, let alone ubiquitous. donics and other emerging forms of sexual technology [45].
Further research is needed to understand what the specific
demographics of use are for teledildonics synced with VR,
Discussion particularly if the potential for teledildonics to overcome
spatial separation between people is to be harnessed [46]. If
VR pornography appears, on the basis of limited research, to these are continuing issues, then the use of VR pornography
increase sexual arousal with regard to the reaction of people in research and treatment may be limited, as may the gen-
to pornography. Studies that have compared 2D pornography eral use of VR pornography. Additionally, there are major
to VR pornography have identified increased subjective and lacunas in the research regarding the use of VR pornography
objective levels of arousal in participants for VR pornogra- by minors and adolescents. All these areas require further
phy. Moreover, this increased arousal is also seen in sexually empirical research if clinicians and researchers are to be

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Current Sexual Health Reports (2023) 15:26–35 33

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