Basic Concepts of Internet

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the
Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the
world, and do much more.
You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also
called going online. When someone says a computer is online, it's just another way of saying
it's connected to the Internet.
A Brief History of the Internet
The Internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information. Computers in the '60s
were large and immobile and in order to make use of information stored in any one computer, one had to either
travel to the site of the computer or have magnetic computer tapes sent through the conventional postal system.
Another catalyst in the formation of the Internet was the heating up of the Cold War. The Soviet Union's launch of
the Sputnik satellite spurred the U.S. Defense Department to consider ways information could still be
disseminated even after a nuclear attack. This eventually led to the formation of the ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network), the network that ultimately evolved into what we now know as the Internet.
ARPANET was a great success but membership was limited to certain academic and research organizations who
had contracts with the Defense Department. In response to this, other networks were created to provide
information sharing.
January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various computer networks did
not have a standard way to communicate with each other. A new communications protocol was established called
Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP). This allowed different kinds of computers on different
networks to "talk" to each other. ARPANET and the Defense Data Network officially changed to the TCP/IP
standard on January 1, 1983, hence the birth of the Internet. All networks could now be connected by a universal
language.
Internet Development in India
While the origins of the global Internet date back to the 1960s, India first went online only when the Educational
Research Network (ERNET)—a joint undertaking of the Department of Electronics (DOE) and the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP)—was launched in 1986. Back then, the Internet was only meant for the
use of educational and research communities.
Even when cyberspace was first thrown open to the public in India on 15 August, 1995, by Videsh Sanchar
Nigam Ltd. (VSNL)—now known as Tata Communications Ltd.—we used to access the Internet using a modem
(short for modulator-demodulator)—a device that enabled a computer to transmit data over telephone or cable
lines by converting analog signals into digital ones.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) access was introduced in 1997, and the Internet subscriber base
touched about 90,000 in March 1998.
In 2004, the government formulated its broadband policy, which defined broadband as “an always-on Internet
connection with download speed of 256 kbit/s (kilobits per second) or above." In 2010, the government auctioned
3G spectrum followed by the auction of 4G spectrum that accelerated the pace of the wireless broadband market.
We use a variety of technologies and media including dial-up, coaxial cables, ethernet, ISDN, 3G and 4G.
Internet Administration
Internet Administration is basically a group that coordinates and guides the Internet with its growth and
development. It makes sure that all the protocols are followed by the devices and network for the smooth
functioning of the internetwork. Some of the organizations that overlook the growth and development of the
internet are –
Internet Society (ISOC) :
An international, non-profit organization, ISOC formed to provide support for the Internet standard process
accomplishes its goals by maintaining and supporting other Internet administrative bodies such as IAB, IETF,
IRTF, and IANA. It also promotes research and other activities relating to the Internet.
Internet Architecture Board (IAB) :
The technical advisor to the ISOC, the IAB’s main purpose is to oversee the continuing development of the
TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet
community, which is accomplished by its two components, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). Additionally, IAB is also the editorial manager of the RFCs and is the
external liaison between the Internet and the other standards, organizations, and forums.
Internet Administration
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) :
Managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), the IETF is a forum of working groups responsible
for identifying operational problems, proposing solutions to them, and developing and reviewing specifications
intended as Internet Standards. The groups are collected into areas, like, applications, routing, security, protocols,
and network management, and each area concentrates on a specific topic.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) :
Managed by the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), the IRTF is a forum of working groups focusing on
long-term research topics related to Internet protocol, technology, applications, and architecture.
Technological Foundation of Internet
Networking
A computer network comprises two or more computers that are connected—either by cables (wired) or WiFi
(wireless)—with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or sharing data and resources. You build a computer
network using hardware (e.g., routers, switches, access points, and cables) and software (e.g., operating systems
or business applications).
Geographic location often defines a computer network. For example, a LAN (local area network) connects
computers in a defined physical space, like an office building, whereas a WAN (wide area network) can connect
computers across continents. The internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting billions of computers
worldwide.
You can further define a computer network by the protocols it uses to communicate, the physical arrangement of
its components, how it controls traffic, and its purpose.
Computer networks enable communication for every business, entertainment, and research purpose. The internet,
online search, email, audio and video sharing, online commerce, live-streaming, and social networks all exist
because of computer networks.
Technological Foundation of Internet
Networking components
Hardware Components
Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the network. The network
operating system is typically installed in the server and so they give user accesses to the network resources.
Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database servers, print servers etc.
Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to access and use the network
resources.
Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a workgroup network.
Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is transferred from one device
to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or
maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers, by binding the
network media together. Some of the common connecting devices are:
a. Routers b. Bridges c. Hubs
d. Repeaters e. Gateways f. Switches
Technological Foundation of Internet
Networking components
Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server and facilitate
workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data communication. Protocol
suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer networks. The two popular protocol suites
are:
a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
b. TCP / IP Model
Technological Foundation of Internet
Communication Processors
Front-End Processors
The functionality provided by FEPs includes establishing the communications link, message framing and deframing,
protocol conversion, message sequencing, error detection and correction, route selection, and session management.
Establishment Controller
An establishment or cluster controller manages the activities of a group of printers and terminals, allowing them to
communicate with the host.
SNA Network Controller
SNA network consists of nodes and links. Nodes are network components that contain host protocol implementations;
links are transmission facilities that carry data between two SNA nodes.
Remote Concentrator
The termination point for all wiring of a common access method into one area is called the concentrator. The role of the
remote concentrator depends on its position in the network hierarchy. When concentrating data from several cluster
controllers, remote concentrators act as a key communications processor. If a concentrator provides local
communications control of directly attached terminals, its role would be more like a terminal controller.
Distributed Computing
Distributed computing refers to a system where processing and data storage is distributed across multiple devices
or systems, rather than being handled by a single central device. In a distributed system, each device or system has
its own processing capabilities and may also store and manage its own data. These devices or systems work
together to perform tasks and share resources, with no single device serving as the central hub.
One example of a distributed computing system is a cloud computing system, where resources such as computing
power, storage, and networking are delivered over the Internet and accessed on demand. In this type of system,
users can access and use shared resources through a web browser or other client software.
Components
There are several key components of a Distributed Computing System
Devices or Systems: The devices or systems in a distributed system have their own processing capabilities and
may also store and manage their own data.
Network: The network connects the devices or systems in the distributed system, allowing them to communicate
and exchange data.
Resource Management: Distributed systems often have some type of resource management system in place to
allocate and manage shared resources such as computing power, storage, and networking.
The architecture of a Distributed Computing System is typically a Peer-to-Peer Architecture, where devices or
systems can act as both clients and servers and communicate directly with each other.
Distributed Computing
Characteristics
There are several characteristics that define a Distributed Computing System
Multiple Devices or Systems: Processing and data storage is distributed across multiple devices or systems.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Devices or systems in a distributed system can act as both clients and servers, as they
can both request and provide services to other devices or systems in the network.
Shared Resources: Resources such as computing power, storage, and networking are shared among the devices
or systems in the network.
Horizontal Scaling: Scaling a distributed computing system typically involves adding more devices or systems to
the network to increase processing and storage capacity. This can be done through hardware upgrades or by
adding additional devices or systems to the network..
Distributed Computing
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of the Distributed Computing System are:

Scalability: Distributed systems are generally more scalable than centralized systems, as they can easily add new
devices or systems to the network to increase processing and storage capacity.
Reliability: Distributed systems are often more reliable than centralized systems, as they can continue to operate
even if one device or system fails.
Flexibility: Distributed systems are generally more flexible than centralized systems, as they can be configured
and reconfigured more easily to meet changing computing needs.
There are a few limitations to Distributed Computing System
Complexity: Distributed systems can be more complex than centralized systems, as they involve multiple devices
or systems that need to be coordinated and managed.
Security: It can be more challenging to secure a distributed system, as security measures must be implemented on
each device or system to ensure the security of the entire system.
Performance: Distributed systems may not offer the same level of performance as centralized systems, as
processing and data storage is distributed across multiple devices or systems.
Distributed Computing
Applications
Distributed Computing Systems have a number of applications, including:
Cloud Computing: Cloud Computing systems are a type of distributed computing system that are used to deliver
resources such as computing power, storage, and networking over the Internet.
Peer-to-Peer Networks: Peer-to-Peer Networks are a type of distributed computing system that is used to share
resources such as files and computing power among users.
Distributed Architectures: Many modern computing systems, such as microservices architectures, use
distributed architectures to distribute processing and data storage across multiple devices or systems.
Client Server Computing
In client server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides that resource. A server may
serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is in contact with only one server. Both the client and server
usually communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may reside in the same system.
Client Server Computing
Advantages of Client Server Computing
• All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So it is easy to protect the data and provide
authorisation and authentication.
• The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the data can be accessed efficiently.
• It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server model because all the nodes are
independent and request data only from the server.
• All the nodes i.e clients and server may not be build on similar platforms yet they can easily facilitate the
transfer of data.
Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
• If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get overloaded. This may lead to congestion
in the network.
• If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients can be fulfilled. This leads of failure of
the client server network.
• The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.
Client Server Computing
Applications of Client Server Computing
• World-Wide Web
• E-mail
• File Transfer
• Chat (IRC)
• UseNet Newsgroups
• TELNET
• Network Management System
• Library (WAIS)
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of data over the internet. Both
the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to communicate the data. In order to understand
it better, let’s take an example of a language. Any language has its own set of vocabulary and grammar which we
need to know if we want to communicate in that language. Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a
website or exchange some data with another device then these processes are governed by a set of rules called the
internet protocols.
Working of internet protocol
The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into small pieces called packets. Each large
data sent between two network devices is divided into smaller packets by the underlying hardware and software.
Each network protocol defines the rules for how its data packets must be organized in specific ways according to
the protocols the network supports.
Internet Protocol
Why do we need protocols?
It may be that the sender and receiver of data are parts of different networks, located in different parts of the world
having different data transfer rates. So, we need protocols to manage the flow control of data, access control of the
link being shared in the communication channel. Suppose there is a sender X who has a data transmission rate of
10 Mbps. And, there is a receiver Y who has a data receiving rate of 5Mbps. Since the rate of receiving the data is
slow so some data will be lost during transmission. In order to avoid this, the receiver Y needs to inform sender X
about the speed mismatch so that the sender X can adjust its transmission rate. Similarly, the access control
decides the node which will access the link shared in the communication channel at a particular instant of time. If
not, the transmitted data will collide if many computers send data simultaneously through the same link resulting
in the corruption or loss of data.
Internet Protocol Suit
Internet Protocol suite (IP suite) is the standard network model and communication protocol stack used on the
Internet and on most other computer networks. While other networking models exist, the IP suite is
overwhelmingly the global standard for computer-to-computer communication.
The IP suite follows a client/server model, in which multiple client programs share the services of a
common server program. Protocols in the suite define end-to-end data handling methods for everything
from packetizing, addressing and routing to receiving. Broken down into layers the IPS includes the link layer, the
internet layer, the transport layer, application layer and the physical layer. Each layer contains a number of
protocols for communications. The suite is sometimes just called TCP/IP, because those are the predominant
protocols in the model and were the first ones used. However, the IP suite involves many other protocols.
Internet Access
In today's age, there are numerous ways to connect laptops, desktops, mobile phones, gaming consoles, e-readers
and tablets to the Internet. Some of the most widely used Internet connections are described below.
MOBILE
Many cell phone and smartphone providers offer voice plans with Internet access. Mobile Internet connections
provide good speeds and allow you to access the Internet.
WIFI HOTSPOTS
Wifi Hotspots are sites that offer Internet access over a wireless local area network (WLAN) by way of a router
that then connects to an Internet service provider. Hotspots utilize WiFi technology, which allows electronic
devices to connect to the Internet or exchange data wirelessly through radio waves. Hotspots can be phone-based
or free-standing, commercial or free to the public.
DIAL-UP
Dial-up connections require users to link their phone line to a computer in order to access the Internet. This
particular type of connection—also referred to as analog—does not permit users to make or receive phone calls
through their home phone service while using the Internet. Now more outdated, a dial-up connection used to be
among the most common Internet connection type.
Internet Access
BROADBAND
This high-speed Internet connection is provided through either cable or telephone companies. One of the fastest options
available, broadband Internet uses multiple data channels to send large quantities of information. The term broadband is
shorthand for broad bandwidth. Broadband Internet connections such as DSL and cable are considered high-bandwidth
connections. Although many DSL connections can be considered broadband, not all broadband connections are DSL.
DSL
DSL, which stands for Digital Subscriber Line, uses existing 2-wire copper telephone line connected to one's home so
service is delivered at the same time as landline telephone service. Customers can still place calls while surfing the
Internet.
CABLE
Cable Internet connection is a form of broadband access. Through use of a cable modem, users can access the Internet
over cable TV lines. Cable modems can provide extremely fast access to the Internet, making a cable connection a
viable option for many.
SATELLITE
In certain areas where broadband connection is not yet offered, a satellite Internet option may be available. Similar to
wireless access, satellite connection utilizes a modem.
Internet Access
ISDN
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) allows users to send data, voice and video content over digital telephone
lines or standard telephone wires. The installation of an ISDN adapter is required at both ends of the transmission—on
the part of the user as well as the Internet access provider.
There are quite a few other Internet connection options available, including T-1 lines, T-3 lines, OC (Optical Carrier)
and other DSL technologies.