Semiconductor Fundamental and

Devices (ELC 302),

Two Transistor model of SCR

 Two transistor model of SCR
r

• Two transistor analogy of SCR is a method of

representing SCR in the form of two transistor
model.
• This represents SCR is the combination of PNP
and NPN transistor.
• SCR or thyristor is a three terminal
semiconductor device which having P-N-P-N
structure.
Circuit diagram
 Two transistor analogy of SCR

• Two transistor analogy of SCR is a method of representing SCR in

the form of two transistor model.

• This represents SCR is the combination of PNP and NPN transistor.

• Now can see the base of the transistor T1 is work as the collector
of the transistor T2 and collector of the transistor T1 work as the
base of the transistor T2.

•
Two transistor model
 SCR working with two transistor model

Working of the SCR can be easily explained by two

transistor model of SCR. As per figure can see with
supply voltage V and load resistance R is applied to
SCR. Here first Assume the supply voltage V is less
than break over voltage as is usually the case. When
the gate is open (i.e. switch S open), there is base
current Ib=0. For the base of the T2 is connected
with the collector of The T1. Therefore, no current
flows in the collector of T2 and hence that of T1. So
for this condition, SCR is in OFF condition.
• Whenever switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow
through the base of T2 which means its collector current will
increase. The collector of the transistor T2 is connected with
transistor T1. So, the collector current of T2 is the base
current of T1. Therefore, the collector current of T1 increases.
But collector current of T1 is the base current of T2. This
action is accumulative since an increase of current in one
transistor causes an increase of current in the other transistor.
As a result of this action, both transistors are driven to
saturation, and heavy current flows through the load RL.
Under such conditions, the SCR closes.
 TRIAC
• Triode for Alternating current
• A TRIAC is a bidirectional AC switch with three
electrodes, enabling current flow in either
direction.
• They can handle a large range of currents and
voltages.
• It is ideal for operation utilizing AC power for
switching purposes.
• because it can control current flow for both
halves(Positive and negative) in an alternating
current cycle. Triac is used in AC circuits.
 TRIAC
• TRIAC is a semiconductor device with three
terminals that allow and control the flow of
current, thus the name Triac.
• Instead of SCR, TRIAC is a bi-directional switch
while SCR is uni-directional.
• it resembles two SCRs connected in a reverse-
parallel configuration with interconnected gates.
• Triggering conduction in both directions is
achieved by applying a gate signal, similar to how
an SCR operates.
 TRIAC Construction
• TRIAC is nothing but Two SCRs are connected in
inverse parallel with a common gate terminal.
• The gate terminal is connected to both the N and
P regions due to which gate signal may be
applied, irrespective of the polarity of the signal.
• In Triac, we do not have anode and cathode
because it works for both the polarities which
means that the device is bidirectional.
 TRIAC Working
• The working of Triac is based on the Thyristor,
The triac can be turned on by providing the
gate voltage higher than the break over voltage.
• So, it can be turned on by applying the gate pulse
of about 35 micro seconds to turn it on without
making the voltage high.
• When the voltage applied is less than the
breakover voltage, we use the gate triggering
method to turn it on.
TRIAC has Four Mode of operation:
❑ When MT2 and Gate are Positive with Respect to MT1
▪
Current flows through the path P1-N1-P2-N2, When this
happens. Here, P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward-biased and N1-
P2 is reverse-biased.
• The triac will operate in a positively biased region. Positive
gate with respect to MT1 forward biases P2-N2 and
breakdown will happen.

❑ When MT2 is Positive with a Negative Gate with Respect to MT1

The current flows through the path P1-N1-P2-N2.

But P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers injected into P2
on the triac.
• A high value of current flows through the
device when it starts conduction.
• However, such a high current can damage the
device.
• So, an external resistance is inserted in order
to limit the excess current.
• Here, the control terminal is the gate and
properly applied gate potential controls the
firing angle of the device.
 Advantages of Triac
• Triac can be triggered with positive or
negative polarity of gate pulses.
• It requires only a single heat sink of a slightly
larger size, whereas, for SCR, two heat sinks
should be required of a smaller size.
• It requires a single fuse for protection.
• A safe breakdown in either direction is
possible but for SCR protection should be
given with a parallel diode.
 Disadvantages of Triac
• Compared to SCR, TRIAC is not very reliable.
• It has lower (dv/dt) rating then than SCR.
• Lower ratings are available compared to SCR.
• It can be triggered in both directions, So we
need to be careful about the triggering circuit.
 Triac Application
• They are used in control circuits.
• It is used in High-power lamp switching.
• It is used in AC power control.
• It is used in residential light dimmers and
small electric fans to control speed.
 TRIAC Circuit Examples
• Lighting control: Triacs are commonly used in light dimmers
for domestic lighting. A triac circuit can vary the phase of
the input waveform to control the power dissipated in the
light bulb, providing dimming functionality.
• Motor control: Triacs can be used to control the power
supplied to small motors, allowing speed control. Similar to
lighting dimmers, triac circuits vary the input waveform to
adjust motor speed.
• Electronic switches: Triacs act as electronic switches for
general AC switching and control applications where higher
power levels need to be switched than traditional
mechanical switches can handle.
• .
• Solid state relays: Some solid state relays used
for AC switching utilize an optical triac activated
by an LED or infrared source. The triac and light
source are contained within the same module to
provide electrical isolation for controlling high
voltages.
• Fan control: Triac circuits can vary the speed of
small household fans by controlling the power
delivered to the fan motor. This allows variable
fan speeds using phase control of the TRIAC
similar to light dimmers
 Series Operation of SCRs
• SCRs are available with ratings up to 10 KV and 3
KA. However, sometimes higher ratings are
needed.
• In such cases, multiple SCRs are used together.
• Series connections meet high voltage demands,
while parallel connections meet high current
demands.
• For efficient operation, all SCR should be fully
utilized, but due to different V-I characteristics,
unequal voltage or current division occurs.
• This makes the string’s efficiency always less than
100%.
 String Efficiency of SCR
• String Efficiency of SCR is the degree of capacity
utilization of individual SCRs in a string of series /
parallel connected SCRs. String efficiency is always less
than 1.
• As can be seen from the formula of String Efficiency,
the value of string efficiency is always less than unity.

• This means that, the overall voltage across the string

is always less than the calculated voltage across the
string by considering the individual SCR’s voltage /
current rating and number of SCR.

• This is because the V-I characteristics of SCRs are not

identical, therefore unequal voltage / current sharing
by the individual SCRs is bound to occur in a string.

• However, the unequal voltage / current sharing can be

minimized by the use of external equalizer ring.
• But to be honest, the use of equalizer ring, do not
make string efficiency unity rather it improves its value.
Derating Factor (DFR) of SCR:
• Derating Factor is the amount by which the
string efficiency deviates from unity or 100%.

• Derating Factor gives an idea of unused

capacity available in a sting of SCRs. This is
the reason; it is a measure of reliability of
string.
• The lesser the value of sting efficiency, the
lesser will be voltage / current sharing by the
individual SCRs.
•
• This means, more unused capacity will be
available with the string and hence more
DFR.

• But lesser string efficiency increases the

cost of string.
•
• Thus a compromise is made in between
economy and reliability by properly
designing a value of string efficiency.
• Like any other electrical equipment,
characteristics/properties of two SCRs of same
make and ratings are never same and this leads
to certain problems in the circuit.

• The mismatching of SCRs is due to differences in

• (i) turn-on time (ii) turn-off time (iii) Leakage
current in forward direction (iv) Leakage current
in reverse direction and (v) Recovery voltage.
 Series Connection of an SCR
• Thyristors of same type do not have same I-V and off state
characteristics.

• So the voltage drop across the thyristors would be unequal.

• Even with the same rating, SCRs may have
different I-V characteristics, leading to unequal
voltage division. For example, if two SCRs in
series can block 5 KV each, the string should
block 10 KV, but this is not always the case.
• Resistors are connected across each
thyristor to avoid the unequal voltage
sharing.
• The values of the resistors should be
selected, so the equivalent resistance of
thyristor and resistor would be same.
•To get best results we may use this
formula to find out the value of resistor;

Where, n = no. of SCR in the string

Vbm = Voltage blocked by the SCR having
minimum leakage current.
ΔIb = Difference between maximum and
minimum leakage current flowing through
SCRs.
Vs = Voltage across the string.
• This resistance is called static equalizing
circuit.
• But this resistance is not enough to equalize
the voltage division during turn on and turn
off.
• In these transient conditions, to maintain the
equal volume across each device a capacitor
is used along with resistor in parallel with
every SCR.
• This is nothing but snubber ckt which also
known as dynamic equalizing circuit.
• An additional diodes can also be used to
improve the performance of dynamic
equalizing circuit.
SCRs having unequal dynamic characteristics:
• It may occur that SCRS may have unequal dynamic
characteristics so the voltage distribution across the SCR may
be unequal during the transient condition.
• SCR 1 and SCR 2 have different dynamic characteristics. Turn
ON time of SCR 2 is more than SCR 1 by time Δ𝑡𝑑 .
• As string voltage is 𝑉𝑆 so voltage shared by each SCRs be
𝑉𝑆/2.
• Now both are gated at same time so SCR 1 will turn ON at 𝑡1
its voltage fall nearly to zero so the voltage shared by SCR 2
will be the string voltage if the break over voltage of SCR 2 is
less than 𝑉𝑆 then SCR 2 will turn ON .
• * In case 𝑉𝑆 is less than the breakoverer
voltage, SCR 2 will turn ON at instant 2.
• SCR 1 assumed to have less turn off 𝑡𝑞1 time
then SCR 2, so 𝑡𝑞1< 𝑡𝑞2 .
• At 𝑡2 SCR 1 has recovered while SCR 2 is
developing recovery voltage at 𝑡1 both are
developing different reverse recovery voltage.
• At 𝑡2 SCR 1 has recovered while SCR2 is
developing reverse recovery voltage.
• * Series connected SCR develop different voltages
during turn ON and turn OFF process. Till now we
connect a simple resistor across the diode for static
voltage equalizing circuit. *
• During turn ON and turn OFF capacitance of reverse
biased junction determine the voltage distribution
across SCRs in a series connected string.
• As reverse biased junction have different capacitance
called self capacitance, the voltage distribution during
turn ON and turn off process would be different.
• Under transient condition equal voltage distribution
can be achieved by employing shunt capacitance as
this shunt capacitance has the effect of that the
resultant of shunt and self capacitance tend to be
equal.
• The capacitor is used to limits the dv/dt across the SCR
during forward blocking state.
• When this SCR turned ON capacitor discharges heavy
current through the SCR. The discharge current spike is
limited by damping resistor 𝑅𝑐 .
• 𝑅𝑐 also damps out high frequency oscillation that may arise
due to series combination of 𝑅𝑐 , C and series inductor .
• 𝑅𝑐 & C are called dynamic equalizing circuit Diode D is
used during forward biased condition for more effective
charging of the capacitor.
• During capacitor discharge 𝑅𝑐 comes into action for
limiting current spike and rate of change of current di/dt .
• Diode D is used during forward biased condition for more
effective charging of the capacitor.
• During capacitor discharge 𝑅𝑐 comes into action for limiting
current spike and rate of change of current di/dt .
• The R, 𝑅𝑐 & C component also provide path to flow reverse
recovery current. When one SCR regain its voltage blocking
capability. The flow of reverse recovery current is necessary as
it
• facilitates the turning OFF process of series connected SCR
string. So C is necessary for both during turn ON and turn
OFF process.
• But the voltage unbalances during turn OFF time is more
predominant then turn ON time. So choice of C is based on
reverse recovery characteristic of SCR .
 Parallel Operation of SCR
• When the operating current is more than the
individual current ratings of SCRs then we use
more than one SCRs in parallel.
• Due to different V-I characteristics SCRs of same
rating shares unequal current in a string. Let a
string consists of two SCRs in parallel as shown in
fig. 1 and their current rating be 1 KA.
• From the V-I characteristics of the devices it can be
seen that for operating volume V, current through
SCR1 is 1 KA and that through SCR2 is 0.8 KA.
• Hence, SCR2 is not fully utilized here. Though the
string should withstand R KA theoretically it is
only capable of handling 1.8 KA. So, the string
efficiency is = 90%.
• Due to unequal current division when
current through SCR increases, its
temperature also increases which in turn
decreases the resistance.
• Hence further increase in current takes place
and this is a cumulative process. This is
known as thermal ‘run away’ which can
damage the device.
• To overcome this problem SCRs would be
maintained at the same temperature.
• This is possible by mounting them on same
heat sink. hey should be mounted in
symmetrical position as flux.
• Linkages by the devices will be same. So, the
mutual inductance of devices will be same.
• This will offer same reactance through every
device.
• Thus reducing the difference in current level
through the devices.
• Another way of equalizing the current
division in ac circuit can be achieved by
using magnetic coupled reactance.
 SCR Turn OFF Methods: Natural
(Line), Forced Commutation
• An SCR doesn’t need any gate voltage to stay
turned ON.
• Even if the gate voltage is removed (after the
SCR turns ON), the SCR doesn’t stop conducting.
• So, the gate has no control flow of current from
anode to cathode and the SCR cannot be turned
OFF through the gate terminal.
• The SCR can be brought back to the forward
blocking state from the forward conduction
state only by reducing the anode or forward
current below the holding current level.
• The turn OFF process of an SCR is called
Commutation.
• Commutation means transfer of current
from one circuit to another.
• So, the commutation circuit for an SCR
does s similar job by reducing the
forward current to zero in order to turn
OFF the SCR or Thyristor.
• Even after reducing the anode current to
zero, the SCR will once again conduct if
there is an immediate forward voltage.

So, to turn OFF a conducting SCR properly, the

following conditions must be satisfied:

• The anode or forward current of SCR must be

reduced to zero or below the level of holding
current and then,
• A sufficient reverse voltage must be applied
across the SCR to regain its forward blocking
state.
• When the SCR is turned OFF by reducing
forward current to zero, excess charge
carriers exists in different layers.
• To regain the forward blocking state of
an SCR, these excess carriers must be
recombined.
• Therefore, in order to accelerate this
recombination process, a reverse
voltage is applied across the SCR.
 SCR Turn OFF Methods
• An SCR is said to be ‘turned OFF’ if there is no flow of forward
current and even if the SCR is once again forward biased
(positive voltage at anode), the SCR will not conduct without
any Gate Signal (using one of the SCR Turn ON Methods).

• The reverse voltage, which causes to commutate the SCR, is

called the Commutation Voltage. Depending on the type of
switching of SCR (Cyclic or Sequential), the commutation
methods are classified into two major types. They are:

• Natural Commutation
• Forced Commutation
• Turn OFF Time of an SCR is the time between the
moment anode current becomes zero and the
moment SCR starts to block the forward voltage.
 Natural Commutation

• In natural commutation, the source of

commutation voltage is the supply source itself.
• If the SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every
end of the positive half cycle, the anode current
naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating
nature of the AC Supply).
• As the current in the circuit goes through the
natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied
immediately across the SCR (due to the negative
half cycle). These conditions turn OFF the SCR.
• This method of commutation is also
called as Source Commutation or AC
Line Commutation or Class F
Commutation.
• This commutation is possible with line
commutated inverters, controlled
rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC
voltage regulators because the supply is
the AC source in all these converters.
 Forced Commutation
• In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to
turn OFF the SCR.

• In such circuits, forward current must be forced to zero

with an external circuit (known as Commutating Circuit) to
commutate the SCR. Hence the name, Forced
Commutation.

• This commutating circuit consist of components like

inductors and capacitors and they are called Commutating
Components.

• These commutating components cause to apply a reverse

voltage across the SCR that immediately bring the current
in the SCR to zero.
• Depending on the process for achieving zero current in
the SCR and the arrangement of the commutating
components, Forced Commutation is classified into
different types. They are:

• Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load

• Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
• Class C – Complementary Commutation
• Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
• Class E – Pulse Commutation
class A, B, C, D, and E commutation is mainly used in
chopper and inverter circuits.