NATURE OF

DEVELOPMENT
 GROWTH VS. DEVELOPMENT

refers to an increase in physical size continuous process through which

of whole or any of its part and can physical, emotional and intellectual
be measured. changes occur.

Growth refers to quantitative Refers to both quantitative and

changes qualitative changes

Development occurs due to

Growth occurs due to the both maturation and
multiplication of cells. interaction with the
environment
 GROWTH VS. DEVELOPMENT

Growth stops after Development is progressive.

maturation .

Growth does not continue Development continues

throughout life. throughout life

Development is
Growth is cellular. organizational.

Growth may or may not bring Development is possible

development. without growth.
 Principles of Growth

q • Cephalocaudal Principal: growth directs the

development from the head downward

q• Proximodistal Principal: growth that proceeds

from the spine to the extremities i.e.
qencourages development from the central part
of the body outward
 1 . Development involves change
PRINCIPLES OF
DEVELOPMENT 1 . Development is a continuous process

1. Development follows a direction and uniform

pattern in an orderly manner

. Individual Differences in the Development

1

Process

1. Development depends on maturation and

learning
 1 Development is predictable
PRINCIPLES OF
DEVELOPMENT 1Early development is more critical than later
development:

. Development involves Social expectations

1

. Development has potential hazards

1

1. Happiness varies at different periods of

development
 1)Hereditary Factors:
Environmental Factors:
AFFECTING
FACTORS
HUMAN DEVELOPEMNT Home Environment
Cultural Factors:
Socioeconomic Status
Normative influences
Education and Training
ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
John Locke,
the child’ s mind is just like a blank state and things are
written in interaction with environment and experiences.

John Watson,
“If I get some children, I can make them what I want to
make”. .
ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
John Locke,
the child’ s mind is just like a blank state and things are
written in interaction with environment and experiences.

John Watson,
“If I get some children, I can make them what I want to
make”. .
DOMAINS OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
6th - 15th centuries
Medieval period
● Preformationism: children seen as little adults.
● Childhood is not a unique phase.
● Children were cared for until they could begin caring for
themselves, around 7 years old.
● Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing,
worked at adult jobs, could be
married, were made into
kings, were imprisoned or
hanged as adults.)
 16th Century
Reformation period

● Puritan religion influenced how children

were viewed.
● Children were born evil, and must be
civilized.
● A goal emerged to raise children
effectively.
● Special books were designed for children.
17th Century
Age of Enlightenment
● John Locke believed in
tabula rasa

● Children develop in
response to nurturing.

● Forerunner of
behaviorism

www.cooperativeindividualism.org/ locke-john.jpg
18th Century
Age of Reason
● Jean-Jacques Rousseau
○ children were noble savages, born
with an innate sense of morality; the
timing of growth should not be
interfered with.

● Rousseau used the idea of

stages of development.

● Forerunner of maturationist
beliefs
19th Century
Industrial Revolution
● Charles Darwin
○ theories of natural selection and
survival of the fittest

● Darwin made parallels

between human prenatal
growth and other animals.

● Forerunner of ethology
20th Century
Theories about children's development expanded around the world.

● Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.

● Laws were passed to protect children,

Psychoanalytical
Theory
Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual Theory
● Was based on his
therapy with troubled
adults.
● He emphasized that a
child's personality is
formed by the ways
which his parents
managed his sexual and
aggressive drives.
Psychoanalytic Theories:
● Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
○ Personality has 3 parts
○ There are 5 stages of psychosexual
development
○ Oedipus complex allows child to
identify with same-sex parent
○ Fixation is an unresolved
conflict during a stage of
development
 Freudian Stages
Birth to 1½ to 3 to 6 6 yrs to Puberty
1½ yrs 3 yrs years puberty onward
Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Latency Genital
Stage Stage Stage
Infant’s Child’s
pleasure pleasure Child’s Child A time of
centers on focuses on pleasure represses sexual
mouth anus focuses on sexual reawakening;
genitals interest source of
and develops sexual
social and pleasure
intellectual becomes
skills someone
outside of the
family

Figure 2.1
Erik Erikson
Psychosocial Theory
● Expanded on Freud's
theories.
● Believed that development
is life-long.
● Emphasized that at each
stage, the child acquires
attitudes and skills
resulting from the
successful negotiation of
the psychological conflict.
Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage.
The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the person’s
identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are:

1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)

2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)
5. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)
6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)

Psychosocial Theory of Human

Development – Erik Erikson
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human
Development
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Generativity vs. Stagnation

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Identity vs. Role Confusion
Industry vs.
Inferiority

Initiative vs. Guilt

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Trust vs. Mistrust

Critique of Erik Erikson
● Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to
resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully
resolved the crisis of adolescence.
● On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his
stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age
ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for
identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen
before other stages can be completed.
Cognitive Theories
Beliefs that describe how children learn
 Jean Piaget - 1896-1980
The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be
explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic
environmental factors).
Goal of cognitive development
– Biological survival
Cognitive development as biological adaptation
– Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences
– Learner as ‘the little scientist’
Knowledge originates from the environment
– Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium
– Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and
construction of knowledge
Cognitive Development Theory
Two processes are essential for
development:
● Assimilation
○ Learning to understand events
or objects,
based on existing structure.
● Accommodation
○ Expanding understanding,
based on new information.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

 Piaget
Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development
skills:
•Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect
•Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively
•Concrete operational – 7-12 years – children learn to think logically
•Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills
Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934
The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in
which they interact with people influence their intellectual
development. From their cultural environments, children
learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will
eventually pass on to their own children. Through
cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the
rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process.
Learning is constructed.

Main points
● Development is primarily driven by
language, social context and adult
guidance.
What is Zone of Proximal Development?

It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but

can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner.

There is a zone of proximal development for each task.

When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the
teacher’s assistance.

Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in

their ability to benefit from instructions.
What is: Scaffolding
Assistance that allows students to complete
tasks that they are not able to complete
independently.

Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’

needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide
scaffolding by:

• Breaking content into manageable pieces

• Modeling skills
• Provide practice and examples with prompts
• Letting go when students are ready
 Biological Theories
Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth
Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell

● Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable.

● Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach

to child study: using age-related averages of children's
growth and behaviors to define what is normal.
Ethology
● Examines how behavior is determined by a species'
need for survival.
● Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.
● Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period,”
for learning
Konrad Lorenz

● Ethologist,
known for
his research
on
imprinting.
Attachment Theory

● John Bowlby applied ethological principles

to his theory of attachment.
● Attachment between an infant and her
caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.
Behavioral and Social
Learning Theories
Beliefs that describe the importance of
the environment and nurturing in the
growth of a child
John Watson
● Early 20th century,
"Father of American
Behaviorist theory.”
● Based his work on Pavlov's
experiments on the
digestive system of dogs.
● Researched classical
conditioning
● Children are passive beings
who can be molded by
controlling the stimulus-
response associations.
B. F. Skinner

● Proposed that children "operate" on their

environment, operational conditioning.

● Believed that learning could be broken down

into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate
rewards for accomplishments would stimulate
further learning.
Theory of Behaviorism- B.F Skinner & others
Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea,
Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” ---
that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through
learning experiences.

Any behavior can be changed through the use of

positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is
based on cause-and-effect relationships.
Major elements of behaviorism
include:
● Positive and negative reinforcement
● Use of stimulus and response
● Modeling
● Conditioning.
Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura
● Stressed how

children learn
by observation
and imitation.
● Believed that

children gradually become more selective in

what they imitate.
 Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation

Child Child imitates

observes behavior
someone that seems
admired rewarded
 Systems Theory
Thebelief that development can't be explained
by a single concept, but rather by a
complex system.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory
● The varied systems of the
environment and the
interrelationships among
the systems shape a child's
development.
● Both the environment and
biology influence the child's
development.
● The environment affects the
child and the child
influences the environment.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
● The microsystem - activities and
interactions in the child's
immediate surroundings: parents,
school, friends, etc.
● The mesosystem - relationships
among the entities involved in the
child's microsystem: parents'
interactions with teachers, a
school's interactions with the
daycare provider
● The exosystem - social institutions
which affect children indirectly: the
parents' work settings and policies,
extended family networks, mass
media, community resources
● The macrosystem - broader
cultural values, laws and
governmental resources
● The chronosystem - changes which
occur during a child's life, both
personal and cultural
Howard Gardner’s theory
Howard Gardner defines intelligence as
"the capacity to solve problems or to
fashion products that are valued in one or
more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch,
1989). Using biological as well as cultural
research, he formulated a list of seven
intelligences. This new outlook on
intelligence differs greatly from the
traditional view that usually recognizes only
two intelligences, verbal and mathematical.
Who is Howard Gardner?

● Howard Gardner is a
psychologist and Professor at
Harvard University's Graduate
School of Education.
● Based on his study of many
people, Gardner developed the
theory of multiple intelligences.
● Gardner defines intelligence as
“ability to solve problems or to
create products which are
valued in one or more cultural
settings.”
● According to Gardner, 8
different types of intelligence
are displayed by humans.
Gardner’s Intelligences:
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
consists of the ability to:
● detect patterns
● reason deductively
● think logically

This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.
Linguistic Intelligence
● involves having
● This intelligence includes
to express
oneself rhetorically or poetically.
● It also allows one to use
information.
Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill.
Spatial Intelligence

● gives one the ability to manipulate

and create mental images in order
to solve problems.
● This intelligence is not limited to
visual domains--Gardner notes that
spatial intelligence is also formed
in blind children.
Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright
Musical Intelligence
● encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.

(Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these
functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)
Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
● is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements.
● This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are
unrelated.
● The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or present
ideas and emotions.
● An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in
building and construction.
● You can include surgeons in this category but many people who are physically
talented–"good with their hands"–don't recognize that this form of intelligence is of
equal value to the other intelligences.

Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

 Interpersonal Intelligence
● The ability to
● to
● display and
● notice their

This is a vital human intelligence displayed by

Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.

Intrapersonal Intelligence
The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able
to:
● quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments
● review one's behavior and innermost feelings
● make plans and set goals
● know oneself

Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields

of endeavor have this form of intelligence.

Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

Naturalist intelligence
to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this ability productively–for
example in hunting, farming, or biological science.

Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.

 Yes!
● Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other,
Gardner claims that the eight intelligences very rarely operate
independently.
● Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement
each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems.

● strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the

music
● bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination
to complete the movements successfully
● interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move
his audience through his movements
Maslow’s Theory

Maslow’s theory maintains that a

person does not feel a higher
need until the needs of the
current level have been satisfied.
Maslow's basic needs are as
 Basic Human
Needs
● Food
● Air
● Water
● Clothing
● Sex

Physiological Needs
 Safety and Security
• Protection
• Stability
• Pain Avoidance

Safety Needs • Routine/Order

 Love and Belonging
• Affection
• Acceptance
Social Needs • Inclusion
 Esteem
• Self-Respect
Esteem Needs
• Self-Esteem
• Respected by
Others
Self-Actualization

• Achieve full
potential
• Fulfillment
01