Chapter 1

Indefinite integrals

Contents
1.1 Indefinite integral and Antiderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Direct integration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Integration By Substitution (Change of Variables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Integration by parts method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Integration of a rational function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Integration of irrational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Integration of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.1 Indefinite integral and Antiderivative

1.1.1 An antiderivative of a function
Definition 1.1
Let f : I 7→ R be a function defined on an interval I (where I is an open interval).
An antiderivative of f on I is any function F defined and differentiable on I that satisfies
the following property:
∀x ∈ I; F ′ (x) = f (x)

Example 1.1

1. Let I = R and f : I → R be the function defined by f (x) = x4 , then the function

F : I → R defined by F (x) = 51 x5 is an antiderivative of f on I = R since:

∀x ∈ I; F ′ (x) = x4 = f (x).
√
2. Let I =]0,+∞[ and g : I → R be a√function defined by g(x) = x, then the function
G : I → R defined by G(x) = 32 x x is an antiderivative of g on I =]0, + ∞[ since:
√
∀x ∈ I; G′ (x) = x = g(x).

Remark 1.1 In the previous examples we see that:

1
Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1. The function F1 (x) = 15 x5 + 2 is also an antiderivative of the function f (x) = x4 on R.

√ √
2. The function G1 (x) = 23 x x + 5 is also an antiderivative of g(x) = x on ]0, + ∞[.

Proposition 1.1
Let f be a function defined and admit an antiderivative on I then:

1. f has infinitely many antiderivatives on I.

2. If F1 ,F2 are two antiderivatives of f on I, then there exists a constant c ∈ R such

that:
∀x ∈ I; F1 (x) = F2 (x) + c

Proof
1. Let’s assume that f admits an antiderivative F on I then, the functions defined
by: Gk (x) = F (x) + k/k ∈ R are also antiderivatives of f on I since:

∀x ∈ I; G′k (x) = F ′ (x) = f (x) =⇒ f has infinitely many primitives on I

2. Let F1 ,F2 be two antiderivatives of f on I ( I is an open interval) then;

∀x ∈ I; (F1 (x) − F2 (x))′ = F1′ (x) − F2′ (x) = f (x) − f (x) = 0

=⇒ the function F1 (x) − F2 (x) is constant on I

i.e ∃c ∈ R; ∀x ∈ I; F1 (x) − F2 (x) = c =⇒ F1 (x) = F2 (x) + c

1.1.2 Indefinite integral

Definition 1.2
Let f be a function that is defined and admits an antiderivative on I (I is an open
interval). The set of all antiderivatives of f on I is called the indefinite integral of f on
I, and is denoted by : ż
f (x) dx, x ∈ I

Remark 1.2 If we have: F is an antiderivative of f on I, then we write:

ż
f (x) dx = F (x) + c. c ∈ R

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 2

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.2
We have:
1
• The indefinite integral of the function on ] − ∞,0[ is defined by:
x
ż
dx
= ln(−x) + c1 /c1 ∈ R
x

1
• The indefinite integral of the function on ]0, + ∞[ is defined by:
x
ż
dx
= ln(x) + c2 /c2 ∈ R
x

1
=⇒ The indefinite integral of the function on R∗ is defined by:
x
ż
dx
= ln |x| + c/c ∈ R
x

1.1.3 Existence of the indefinite integral

Theorem 1.1
Let f : I → R be a function defined on I (I is an open interval), then we have the
following implication:

f is continuous on I =⇒ f admits an antiderivative on; I

Remark 1.3 According to Remark (1.2), if f admits a antiderivative on an interval I, then we

can define the indefinite integral of f on this interval.

Example 1.3

We have: cos(x) is an antiderivative of sin(x) on R, so we can define the indefinite integral

of the function sin(x) with the following:
ż
sin(x)dx = cos(x) + c/c ∈ R

Remark 1.4 The procedure for calculating an indefinite integral is called integration, and we
say integrate a function instead of calculating its indefinite integral.

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 3

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1.1.4 Properties of the indefinite integral

Proposition 1.2
Let f and g be two real functions, then we have the following properties:
ż ż ż
1. (f (x) ± g(x))dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
ż ż
2. ∀λ ∈ R; λf (x)dx = λ f (x)dx

ż !′
3. f (x)dx = f (x)
ż
4. f ′ (x)dx = f (x) + c, c ∈ R

1.1.5 Indefinite integrals of some usual functions

From the derivatives of usual functions, we establish the following table of indefinite integrals
of some usual functions

ż
f (x) dx Domain of definition

ż
0 dx = c R

ż
a dx = ax + c/(a = const) R

1
ż
xn dx = xn+1 + c/(n ∈ N) R
n+1

1
ż
xn dx = xn+1 + c/(n ∈ Z − {−1}) R∗
n+1

1
ż
dx = ln |x| + c R∗
x

1
ż
xα dx = xα+1 + c/(α ∈ R − {−1}) R∗+
α+1
ż
ex dx = ex + c R

1 x
ż
ax dx = a + c /(a ∈ R∗+ − {1}) R
ln(a)
ż
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + c R

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 4

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

ż
f (x) dx Domain of definition

ż
sin(x) dx = − cos(x) + c R

dx
ż
= tan(x) + c R − { π2 + kπ/k ∈ Z}
cos2 (x)

1
ż
√ dx = arcsin(x) + c x ∈] − 1,1[
1 − x2
ż
−1
√ dx = arccos(x) + c x ∈] − 1,1[
1 − x2
1
ż
dx = arctan(x) + c R
1 + x2
ż
sh(x) dx = ch(x) + c R

ż
ch(x) dx = sh(x) + c R

dx
ż
= th(x) + c R
ch2 (x)

dx √
ż
√ = argsh(x) + c = ln(x + 1 + x2 ) + c R
1 + x2
dx √
ż
√ = argch(x) + c = ln(x + x2 − 1) + c ]1, + ∞[
x2 − 1
dx 1 1+x
ż  
= argth(x) + c = ln +c ] − 1,1[
1−x 2 2 1−x

1
ż
f ′ (x)f n (x) dx = f n+1 (x) + c/n ∈ N Df ′
n+1

f ′ (x)
ż
−1
dx = + c/n ∈ N − {1} //
f (x)
n (n − 1)f n−1 (x)

f ′ (x)
ż
dx = ln |f (x)| + c //
f (x)

1.2 Direct integration method

This method is based on the properties of indefinite integrals and formulas for transforming
functions using primitive tables.

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 5

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.4
1 √
ż
• Compute (cos2 (x) + + x) dx
1 + x2

Solution:
From indefinite integral property we have:
1 √ 1 √
ż ż ż ż
(cos (x) +
2
+ x) dx = cos (x) dx +
2
dx + x dx (1.1)
1+x 2 1+x 2

1. Using the following trigonometric formula:

1 1
cos(2x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 ⇔ cos2 (x) = cos(2x) +
2 2
1 1 1 1
ż ż
On obtain: cos (x) dx =
2
( cos(2x) + ) dx = sin(2x) + x + c1
2 2 4 2
1
ż
2. Using the table of antiderivatives, we obtain: dx = arctan(x) + c2
1 + x2
√ 2 3 2√ 3
ż
3. Using the table of antiderivatives, we also get: x dx = x 2 + c3 = x + c3
3 3
From steps 1, 2, 3 and equation (1.1) we find:

1 √ 1 1 2√ 3
ż
(cos2 (x) + + x) dx = sin(2x) + x + arctan(x) + x + c/c ∈ R
1 + x2 4 2 3

1.3 Integration By Substitution (Change of Variables)

1.3.1 The first formula
Proposition 1.3
Let f : J → R and g : I → J be two functions such that:

• I,J are two open intervals of R.

• f is a continuous function on J.

• g is a differentiable function on I.

If F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x) on J, then F (g(x)) is an antiderivative of the function

g ′ (x)f (g(x)) on I.

Proof
We have:
∀x ∈ I; [F (g(x))]′ = g ′ (x)F ′ (g(x)) = g ′ (x)f (g(x))
.
ż
Practical method: To calculate the integral of type g ′ (x)f (g(x)) dx, we follow these steps:

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 6

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1. We put t = g(x) and dt = g prime (x)dx.

ż
2. This gives the integral f (t) dt.
ż
If F is an antiderivative of f then f (t) dt = F (t) + c/c ∈ R

3. Replacing t by g(x) and dt by g prime (x)dx gives the following result:

ż
g ′ (x)f (g(x)) dx = F (g(x)) + c, c ∈ R
.
Example 1.5
ż
x
1. Calculate I = √ dx.
1 + x2
We put
t = 1 + x2 =⇒ dt = 2xdx
Replacing in the integral I gives us:
1 √
ż
I= √ dt = t + c/c ∈ R
2 t
√
=⇒ I = 1 + x2 + c/c ∈ R
1
ż
2. Compute J = dx
ch(x)
We have:
ex + e−x 1 2 2ex
ch(x) = ⇔ = x =
2 ch(x) e + e−x e2x + 1
2ex
ż
=⇒ J = dx.
e2x + 1
let’s set:
t = ex =⇒ dt = ex dx
1
ż
=⇒ J = 2 dt = 2 arctan(t) + c, c ∈ R
t +1
2

=⇒ J = 2 arctan(ex ) + c, c ∈ R

1.3.2 The second formula

Proposition 1.4
Let f : J → R and g : I → J be two functions such that:

• f is a continuous function on J.

• g is a bijection from I into J and continuous on I.

• g is differentiable on I and verifies: ∀x ∈ I; g ′ (x) ̸= 0

If H(x) is an antiderivative of g ′ (x)f (g(x)) on I, then H(g −1 (x)) is an antiderivative of

f (x) on J.

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 7

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Proof
We have:
1
∀x ∈ J; (H(g −1 (x)))′ = (g −1 (x))′ H ′ (g −1 (x)) = g ′ (g −1 (x))f (g(g −1 (x))) = f (x)
g ′ (g −1 (x))
ż
Practical method: To calculate the integral f (x) dx we follow the steps below:

1. We pose x = g(t) and dx = g ′ (t)dt.

ż
2. We obtain the integral f (g(t))g ′ (t) dt
ż
İf H(t) is an antiderivaitive of f (g(t))g (t) then:
′
f (g(t))g ′ (t) dt = H(t) + c, c ∈ R
ż
3. Replacing t by g (x) and g (t)dt by dx, this gives:
−1 ′
f (x) dx = H(g −1 (x)) + c, c ∈ R

Example 1.6

x2
ż
Compute I = √ ,dx on ] − 1,1[.
1 − x2
We make the following change of variable:
π π
 
x = sin(t) with t ∈ − , and dx = cos(t)dt
2 2
sin2 (t) sin2 (t)
ż ż ż
We obtain: I = q cos(t) dt = cos(t) dt = sin2 (t) dt
1 − sin (t)
2 | cos(t)|
i h
(since t ∈ − π2 , π2 we have: cos(t) > 0)
1 1
ż
On the other hand we have: sin (t) = 2 1
− cos(2t) =⇒ I =
1
( − cos(2t)) dt
2 2
2 2
=⇒ I = 12 t − 14 sin(2t) + c, c ∈ R. We have: x = sin(t) =⇒ t = arcsin(x)
Replacing t by arcsin(x), this gives: I = 21 arcsin(x) − 14 sin(2 arcsin(x)) + c, c ∈ R.
Using the following trigonometric formula, we obtain:

sin(2 arcsin(x)) = 2 sin(arcsin(x)) cos(arcsin(x))

q
⇔ sin(2 arcsin(x)) = 2 sin(arcsin(x)) 1 − sin2 (arcsin(x))
√
⇔ sin(2 arcsin(x)) = 2x 1 − x2

1 1 √
=⇒ I = arcsin(x) − x 1 − x2 + c/c ∈ R
2 2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 8

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1.4 Integration by parts method

Proposition 1.5

Let f and g be two functions in class C 1 on an open interval I, we have:

ż ż
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x) dx
′

Proof
Let f and g be two functions in class C 1 on I, we have:

(f (x)g(x))′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

ż ż ż
=⇒ (f (x)g(x)) dx = f (x)g(x) dx + f (x)g ′ (x) dx
′ ′

ż ż
=⇒ f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x) dx
′

Example 1.7
ż
1. Compute xe−2x dx on R.
Let’s put:

f (x) = x −→ f ′ (x) = 1
g (x) = e−2x −→
′
g(x) = − 12 e−2x

According to the integration by parts formula, we obtain:

1 −2x 1
ż ż
xe−2x
dx = − xe + e−2x dx
2 2
1 1
ż
=⇒ xe−2x dx = − xe−2x − e−2x + c/c ∈ R
2 4
ż √
2. Compute 1 − x2 dx on ] − 1,1[.
Let’s put:
√ x
f (x) = 1 − x2 −→ f ′ (x) = − √
1 − x2
g ′ (x) = 1 −→ g(x) = x
ż √ √ x2
ż
=⇒ 1 − x dx = x 1 − x + √
2 2
1 − x2
Example (1.6) gives us:

3 √ 1
ż √
1 − x2 dx = x 1 − x2 + arcsin(x) + c/c ∈ R
2 2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 9

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1.5 Integration of a rational function

Definition 1.3
Let P (x) and Q(x) be two polynomials of degree n1 and n2 respectively. A rational
P (x)
function is any function of kind f (x) =
Q(x)
• If n1 ≥ n2 we say that f is an improper rational fraction.

• If n1 < n2 we say that f is a proper rational fraction.

Proposition 1.6

P (x)
Let f (x) = be an improper rational fraction ( i.e. P (x) and Q(x) are two polyno-
Q(x)
mials of degree n1 and n2 respectively with n1 ≥ n2 ).
The Euclidean division of P (x) by Q(x) yields:

R(x)
f (x) = N (x) +
Q(x)

N (x) is a polynomial of degree n1 − n2 .





tq: R(x) is a polynomial of degree strictly less than n2 .



R(x)
is a proper rational fraction.



Q(x)


We deduce that:
P (x)
ż ż ż ż
R(x)
f (x) dx = dx = N (x) dx + dx
Q(x) Q(x)

Example 1.8

3x3 + 2x − 5
If we want to integrate the following improper fraction: f (x) = , we perform
3x2 − 5x − 2
Euclidean division as follows:

3x3 +2x − 5 3x2 −5x − 2

−3x3 + 5x2 + 2x x + 35
5x2 +4x − 5
−5x2 + 25 3
+ 10
3
37
3
x − 53

5 37
x − 35
=⇒ f (x) = x +
+ 23
3 3x − 5x − 2
3x3 + 2x − 5 5 37
x − 35
ż ż ż ż
=⇒ f (x) dx = dx = (x + ) dx + 3
dx
2x2 − 5x − 2 3 3x2 − 5x − 2

Remark 1.5 The difficulty of integrating a rational fraction is restricted to integrating a rational
fraction proper.

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 10

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1.5.1 Decomposition of a proper fraction into simple elements

Theorem 1.2: (A fundamental theorem on the decomposition of a proper fraction)

P (x)
Let f (x) = be an proper rational fraction such that:
Q(x)
Q(x) = c(x−x1 )m1 (x−x2 )m2 ....(x−xk )mk (x2 +p1 x+q1 )n1 (x2 +p2 x+q2 )n2 ....(x2 +pl x+ql )nl
where:

• c,x1 ,x2 ,...,xk ∈ R, p1 ,p2 ,...,pl ∈ R et q1 ,q2 ,....,ql ∈ R

• m1 ,m2 ,....,mk ∈ N et n1 ,n2 ,....,nl ∈ N

• ∀i ∈ {1,2,...,l}; ∆i = p2i − 4qi < 0

P (x)
Then f (x) = decomposes into simple fractions in the following form:
Q(x)

P (x) A1,1 A1,2 A1,m1

f (x) = = + + .... +
Q(x) x − x1 (x − x1 ) 2 (x − x1 )m1
A2,1 A2,2 A2,m2
+ + + .... +
x − x2 (x − x2 ) 2 (x − x1 )m2
+ .........
Ak,1 Ak,2 Ak,m2
+ + + .... +
x − xk (x − xk ) 2 (x − x1 )mk
B1,1 x + C1,1 B1,2 x + C1,2 B1,n1 x + C1,n1
+ 2 + 2 + .... +
x + p1 x + q1 (x + p1 x + q1 )2 (x2 + p1 x + q1 )n1
B2,1 x + C2,1 B2,2 x + C2,2 B2,n2 x + C2,n2
+ 2 + 2 + .... +
x + p2 x + q2 (x + p2 x + q2 )2 (x2 + p2 x + q2 )n2
+ .......
Bl,1 x + Cl,1 Bl,2 x + Cl,2 Bl,n x + Cl,nl
+ 2 + 2 + .... + 2 l
x + pl x + ql (x + pl x + ql ) 2 (x + pl x + ql )nl

where Ai,j ,Bi,j and Ci,j are real constants.

Remark 1.6 According to the previous theorem, we can decompose any proper fraction into a
finite sum of the following simple elements:

A
1. A simple element of the first kind is of the form such that: A,a ∈ R and m ∈ N∗
(x − a)m

Bx + C
2. A simple element of the second kind is of the form such that: n ∈
(x2 + px + q)n
N∗ ,B,C,p,q ∈ R and ∆ = p2 − 4q < 0

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 11

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.9
Decompose the following fractions into simple elements.
P (x) 2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2
1. f (x) = =
Q(x) (x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)
P (x) 1 + 2x2
2. g(x) = = 2
Q(x) x (1 + x2 )2

Solution:
01) f (x) is a proper fraction, according to the fundamental theorem of decomposition we have:

2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 A1 A2 B1 x + C1
= + + 2
(x − 1) (x + x + 1)
2 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x +x+1
2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 A1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) + A2 (x2 + x + 1) + (x − 1)2 (B1 x + C1 )
⇔ =
(x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1) (x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)
2x + 4x + x + 2
3 2
(A1 + B1 )x + (A2 + C1 − 2B1 )x2 + (A2 + B1 − 2C1 )x − A1 + A2 + C1
3
⇔ =
(x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1) (x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)
By identifying the numerator coefficients, we obtain:

+ B1 = 2



 A1
2 + C1 − 2B1 = 4

A






A2 + B1 − 2C1 = 1
−A1 + A2 + C1 = 2



=⇒ A1 = 2, A2 = 3, B1 = 0 et C1 = 1

2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 2 3 1
=⇒ = + + 2
(x − 1) (x + x + 1)
2 2 (x − 1) (x − 1)2 x +x+1

02) g(x) is a proper fraction, according to the fundamental theorem of decomposition we have:

1 + 2x2 A1 A2 B1 x + C1 B2 x + C2
= + 2 + + 2
x (1 + x )
2 2 2 x x x2 + 1 (x + 1)2
A1 x(x2 + 1)2 + A2 (x2 + 1)2 + x(B1 x + C1 )(x2 + 1) + x2 (B2 x + C2 )
=
x2 (1 + x2 )2
A1 x5 + (A2 + B1 )x4 + (2A1 + B2 + C1 )x3 + (2A2 + B1 + C2 )x2 + (A1 + C1 )x + A2
=
x2 (1 + x2 )2

By identifying the numerator coefficients, we obtain:

A1 = 0



A2 + B1 = 0






2A + B + C =0


1 2 1




2A2 + B1 + C2 = 2
A 1 + C1 = 0





A = 1


2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 12

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

=⇒ A1 = 0,A2 = 1,B1 = 0,B2 = 0, C1 = −1, et C2 = 1

.
1 + 2x2 1 1 1
=⇒ = − +
x2 (1 + x2 )2 x2 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2

1.5.2 Integration of simple elements

A
1. A simple element of first kind: U (x) = such that: A,a ∈ R and m ∈ N∗ , then
(x − a)m
we have:
ż
A
dx = A ln |x − a| + c/c ∈ R Si m = 1



x−a




ż
A A


dx = + c/c ∈ R Si m ̸= 1

−


(x − a)m (m − 1)(x − a)m−1



Bx + C
2. A simple element of second kind: V (x) = such that:
(x2 + px + q)n
n ∈ N∗ , B,C,p,q ∈ R and ∆ = p2 − 4q < 0

How to calculate ?
Bx + C
ż
To calculate the integral of type: I = ,we follow the steps below:
(x2 + px + q)n
• We have:
1 1
x2 + px + q = (x + p)2 + q − p2
2 4
1 2 1 2
= (x + p) − (p − 4q)
2 4
1 2 1
= (x + p) − ∆
2 4
∆ 4 1
 
=− − (x + p)2 + 1
4  ∆ 2 
!2
∆  2x + p
=− √ + 1
4 −∆

• By changing the variable as follows:

√ √
2x + p −∆ p −∆
t= √ =⇒ x = t− and dx = dt
−∆ 2 2 2
We get:
!2n−2 ż !2n−1 
2 2t 2 2C − Bp 1
ż
B
I= √ dt + √ dt
2 −∆ (t + 1)
2 n
−∆ 2 (t + 1)n
2

2t 1
ż ż
let’s put: In = dt and J n = dt =⇒ I = αIn + βJn
(t2 + 1)n (t2 + 1)n
!2n−2 !2n−1 
B 2 2 2C − Bp

with: α = √ et β = √
2 −∆ −∆ 2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 13

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

• Calculation of In and Jn .
(a) We have:
2t
 ż
I1 = dt = ln(t2 + 1) + c/c ∈ R


t2 + 1






2t 1

 ż
= dt = + c/c ∈ R et n > 1

In −


(t2 + 1)n (n − 1)(t2 + 1)n−1


(b) Jn is calculated by the following recurrence formula:


J1



= arctan(t) + c, c ∈ R

= 2n−1
+ t

Jn+1

Jn
2n 2n(t2 +1)n

Proof
1
ż
• For n = 1, we have: J1 = dt =⇒ J1 = arctan(t) + c/c ∈ R
t2 +1
• For n > 1, using integration by parts in the following way: Let’s
put:
f (t) = (t2 +1)
1
n −→ f ′ (t) = − (t2 +1)
2nt
n+1

g ′ (t) = 1 −→ g(t) = t

1 t2
ż ż
t
=⇒ Jn = dt = + 2n dt
(t2 + 1)n (t2 + 1)n (t2 + 1)n+1
1 1
ż !
t
=⇒ Jn = + 2n − dt
(t2 + 1)n (t2 + 1)n (t2 + 1)n+1
t
=⇒ Jn = + 2nJn − 2nJn+1
(t + 1)n
2

2n − 1 t
=⇒ Jn+1 = Jn +
2n 2n(t + 1)n
2

• Finally, we replace t by √2 t
−∆
+ √p
−∆
we obtain the result.

Example 1.10

2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2
ż
• Calculate dx
(x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)

Solution:
• Step 01:(The decomposition into simple elements) From example (1.9) we have:
2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 2 3 1
= + + 2
(x − 1) (x + x + 1)
2 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x +x+1

• Step 02:(Integration of simple elements obtained after decomposition)

From the property of indefinite integrals we have:
2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 2 3 1
ż ż ż ż
dx = dx + dx + dx
(x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1) x−1 (x − 1)2 x2 + x + 1

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 14

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1. We immediately obtain:
2
ż
dx = 2 ln |x − 1| + c1


x−1





ż et
3 3


dx = − + c2



(x − 1) x−1

 2

1
ż
2. For the integral J = dx we follow the following method:
x2 + x + 1
We have:
1 1 1 3 3 4 1
 2  2 "  2 #
x +x+1= x+
2
− +1= x+ + = x+ +1
2 4 2 4 4 3 2
 !2 
3 2 1
=  √ x+ √ + 1
4 3 3

A change of variable is applied as follows:

√
=

3 1
x t −
2 1

 2 2
t = √ x + √ =⇒ et
3 3  √
dx = 23 dt



We get:
1 2 1 2
ż ż
J= dx = √ dt = √ arctan(t) + c3
x +x+1
2
3 t2 +1 3

So we replace t by √2 x
3
+ √1 ,
3
we find:

2 2 1
!
J = √ arctan √ x + √ + c3
3 3 3

2x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 3 2 2 1
ż !
=⇒ dx = 2 ln |x − 1| − + √ arctan √ x + √ + c/c ∈ R
(x − 1) (x + x + 1)
2 2 x−1 3 3 3

1.6 Integration of irrational functions

The integration of several irrational functions can be transformed by a suitable change of
variable to the integration of a rational fraction. For more details on this integration method,
we need the following definitions.

1.6.1 Polynomials and fractions of two variables

Definition 1.4
A polynomial of two variables x,y of degree n is defined by the following expression:

P (x,y) = a0,0 + a1,0 x + a0,1 y + a2,0 x2 + a1,1 xy + a0,2 y 2 + .... + an,0 xn

+ an−1,1 xn−1 y + .... + a1,n−1 xy n−1 + a0,n y n

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 15

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.11
1. A polynomial of two variables x,y of degree 1 is defined by:

P (x,y) = a0,0 + a1,0 x + a0,1 y

2. A polynomial of two variables x,y of degree 3 is defined by:

P (x,y) = a0,0 + a1,0 x + a0,1 y + a2,0 x2 + a1,1 xy + a0,2 y 2 + a3,0 x3

+ a2,1 x2 y + a1,2 xy 2 + a0,3 y 3

Definition 1.5
The quotient of two polynomials of variables x,y is called a rational fraction of two
variables x,y. i.e. a rational fraction R(x,y) of two variables is defined by:

P (x,y)
R(x,y) =
Q(x,y)

Where P (x,y) and Q(x,y) are two polynomials of two variables x,y.

Example 1.12

x + xy 2 + y + 5
1. R(x,y) =
x3 y + y 2 + 1
√
x + xy + 1 √ x + x x2 + 1 + 1
2. If we have: R(x,y) = , then R(x, x + 1) =
2 √
x + 4xy + 1 x + 4x x2 + 1 + 1
x2 + xy + 1
3. If we have: R(x,y) = , then:
x + 4xy + 1

cos2 (x) + cos(x) sin(x) + 1

R(cos(x), sin(x)) =
cos(x) + 4 cos(x) sin(x) + 1

√
Remark 1.7 The fraction R(x, x2 + 1) is an irrational function of the variable x.

+ b1 
ż  v 
n a1 x
u
dx/ a1 b2 −
u
1.6.2 The process of calculating this type: R x, t
a2 x + b2
a2 b1 ̸= 0
In this case, we follow the steps below:

a1 x + b 1 a1 x + b 1
s
1. let’s set t = n
=⇒ tn =
a2 x + b 2 a2 x + b 2
b2 tn − b1
After computation, we obtain : x =
a1 − a2 tn

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 16

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

2. Therfore

!′
b2 tn − b1 nb2 (a1 − a2 tn )tn−1 + na2 (b2 tn − b1 )tn−1
dx = dt = dt
a1 − a2 tn (a1 − a2 tn )2

n(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )tn−1
=⇒ dx = dt
(a1 − a2 tn )2

b2 tn − b1 n(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )tn−1
3. Replacing x by and dx by dt in the integral, we obtain:
a1 − a2 tn (a1 − a2 tn )2

 
a1 x + b 1 
ż s ż
R x, n
dx = R(t) dt
a2 x + b 2

With R(t) is a rational fraction with variable t.

a1 x + b1
ż s
4. Finally, we calculate the integral R(t) dt then we replace in the result t by n
.
a2 x + b2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 17

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.13
ż √
x+4
Compute I = dx.
x
Solution:  
a1 x + b 1 
ż s
We note that this integral is of type: R x, n dx with:
a2 x + b 2
n = 2, a1 = 1, b1 = 4, a2 = 0, b2 = 1 et a1 b2 − a2 b1 ̸= 0
So we’ll take the following steps:
√
1. We put t = x + 4 =⇒ t2 = x + 4 =⇒ x = t2 − 4

2. From the previous step dx=2tdt

3. By replacing in the integral, we obtain:

ż √
x+4 t2
ż
I= dx = 2 dt (1.2)
x t2 − 4

4. żBy using the rational fraction decomposition method we calculate the integral
t2
dt.
t2 − 4

t2 t2 − 4 + 4 4 1 1
= = 1 + = 1 + −
t2 − 4 t2 − 4 t2 − 4 t−2 t+2
t2 1 1
ż ż ż ż
=⇒ dt = dt + dt − dt
t −4
2 t−2 t+2
t2 t−2
ż
which implies that I = 2 dt = 2t + 2 ln + c/c ∈ R.
t −4
2 t+2
√
5. Finally, we replace t in the result by x + 4 and we obtain:
√
√ x+4−2
I = 2 x + 4 + 2 ln √ + c/c ∈ R
x+4+2

Remark 1.8 We can apply the previous method to calculate integrals of type:

v !m1 v !m2 v !mk

a1 x + b 1 a1 x + b 1 a1 x + b 1
ż u u u
) dx /a1 b2 − a2 b1 ̸= 0
u
nt
u
nt
u
nt
R(x, 1
, 2 ,...., k
a2 x + b 2 a2 x + b 2 a2 x + b 2

a1 x + b 1
by posing: tα = with: α = LCM(n1 ,n2 ,....,nk )
a2 x + b 2
(LCM(n1 ,n2 ,....,nk ) is the smallest common multiple of n1 ,n2 ,....,nk )

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 18

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Example 1.14
ż √
x
Compute I = √ dx
x +1
4 3
Solution:
We note that the type of this integral is:
 v !m1 v !m2 
a1 x + b 1 a1 x + b 1
ż u u
dx
u
nt
u
nt
R x, 1
, 2
a2 x + b 2 a2 x + b 2


With: n1 = 2,n2 = 4,m1 = 1,m2 = 3 et a1 = 1,b1 = 0,a2 = 0,b2 = 0 such that:

a1 b2 − a2 b1 ̸= 0

We have: α =LCM(2,4) = 4, so we effect a change of variable as follows:

t4 = x =⇒ dx = 4t3 dt

By replacing in the integral I we obtain:

t5
ż
I=4 dt
t3 + 1

t5
ż
Calculating the integral dt by the decomposition method
t3 + 1
We have:
t5 t2
= t 2
−
t3 + 1 t3 + 1
t5 1 3t2
ż ż ż
=⇒ dt = t dt −
2
dt
t3 + 1 3 t3 + 1
4 4
=⇒ I = t3 − ln |t3 + 1| + c, c ∈ R
3 3
√
Finally, we replace t by x to obtain the result:
4

4 3 4 3
I = x 4 − ln |x 4 + 1| + c, c ∈ R
3 3

ż √
1.6.3 The process of calculating this type: R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx/a ̸= 0

To calculate integrals of this kind, there’s a general method called theżEuler substitution me-
√
thod. The principle of this method is based on transforming the integral R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx
into a rational fraction integral using the following three types of variable change:

1. 1st case: if a > 0

We make the following change of variable:
√ √ √ √
ax2 + bx + c = t + ax or ax2 + bx + c = t − ax
√ √
Let’s study the case ax2 + bx + c = t − ax
√
=⇒ ax2 + bx + c = t2 − 2 atx + ax2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 19

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

t2 − c
=⇒ x = √
2t a + b

√ !′ √
2t2 a + 2bt + 2 ac
t2 − c
so, dx = dt = √ √ dt
2t a + b
(b + 2t a)2
√ √ !
t2 a + bt + ac
=⇒ dx = 2 √ dt
(b + 2t a)2
√ √ √
!
t2 − c
Finally; ax2 + bx + c = t − ax = t − a √
2t a + b
√ 2 √
√ at + bt + ac
=⇒ + bx + c =
ax2 √
2t a + b
√
By replacing żthe expressions x,dx and ax2 + bx + c in the integral, we obtain an integral
of the type: R(t) dt where R(t) is a rational fraction. For return to x in the result, we
√ √
replace t by ax2 + bx + c + ax.
Example 1.15

x2
ż
Compute I = √ dx
x2 + 9
Solution:
We put: √
x2 + 9 = t − x =⇒ x2 + 9 = t2 − 2tx + x2
t2 − 9 t2 + 9
!
=⇒ x = and dx = dt
2t 2t2
√
We have: x2 + 9 = t − x then

√ t2 − 9 √ t2 + 9
x2 + 9 = t − =⇒ x2 + 9 =
2t 2t

By replacing in the integral, we obtain:

x2 1 (t2 − 9)2
ż ż
I= √ 2 dx = dt
4
ż x +9 ż
t3
1 18 1 81 1
ż
= t dt − dt + dt
4 4 t 4 t3
1 18 81
= t2 − ln |t| − 2 + c/c ∈ R
8 4 8t
√
We replace t by x2 + 9 + x, we obtain:
1 √ 18 √ 81
I = ( x2 + 9 + x)2 − ln | x2 + 9 + x| − √ 2 + c, c ∈ R
8 4 8( x + 9 + x)2

2. 2nd case: if c > 0

We apply the following change of variable:

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 20

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals
√ √ √ √
Let ax2 + bx + c = xt + c or ax2 + bx + c = xt − c
√ √
We’ll study the case: ax2 + bx + c = xt + c
Following the same process as above, we obtain:
√ √ 2 √ √ √
2 c−b ct − bt + a c √ ct2 − bt + c
x= , dx = 2 dt , et ax2 + bx + c =
a − t2 (a − t2 )2 a − t2
√
By replacing the expressions
ż for x,dx and ax2 + bx + c in the integral, we obtain an
integral of the type: R(t) dt where R(t) is a rational fraction.
√ √
ax2 + bx + c − c
Replace t by in order to return to x in the result. (with the hypo-
x
thesis x ̸= 0).

Example 1.16
1
ż
Compute I = √ dx
x x −x+1
2
Solution: ż √
We have: I of type R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx with c > 0.
Let’s put: √
x2 − x + 1 = xt + 1
2t + 1 2(t2 + t + 1) √ t2 + t + 1
=⇒ x = , dx = dt, and x 2−x+1 =
1 − t2 (1 − t2 )2 1 − t2
Replacing in I, we obtain:
1 1
ż
I= dt = ln |2t + 1| + c/c ∈ R
2t + 1 2
√
x2 − x + 1 − 1
We replace t in the result by /x ̸= 0, we obtain:
x
√
1 2 x2 − x + 1 − 2 + x
I = ln + c/c ∈ R
2 x

3. 3rd case if ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0

In this case, the polynomial ax2 + bx + c has two roots x1 ,x2 ∈ R and x1 ̸= x2 , so we can
write: ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ). Then we put:
√ √
ax2 + bx + c = ±t(x − x1 ) or ax2 + bx + c = ±t(x − x2 )
√
We’ll study the case: ax2 + bx + c = t(x − x1 )

=⇒ ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = t2 (x − x1 )2

=⇒ a(x − x2 ) = t2 (x − x1 )

ax2 − x1 t2 2a(x1 − x2 )t √ a(x2 − x1 )t

=⇒ x = , dx = dt, and ax 2 + bx + c =
a − t2 (a − t2 )2 a − t2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 21

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals
√
By replacing theżexpressions for x,dx and ax2 + bx + c in the integral, we obtain an
integral of type: R(t) dt, where R(t) is a rational fraction. To return to x in the result,
√
ax2 + bx + c
replace t by .
x − x1
Example 1.17
ż √
Compute I = 2x − x2 dx
Solution: We have
2x − x2 = x(2 − x) i.e. the polynomial 2x − x2 has two roots x1 = 0 and x2 = 2
let’s set: √
2x − x2 = xt
2 4t √ 2t
=⇒ 2x − x2 = x2 t2 =⇒ x = 2 , dx = − 2 dt; and 2x − x2 = 2
t +1 (t + 1) 2 t +1
Replacing in I gives us:
t2
ż
I = −8 dt
(t2 + 1)3
On the other hand, we have :n a :

t2 t2 + 1 − 1 1 1
= = 2 − 2
(t + 1)
2 3 (t + 1)
2 3 (t + 1) 2 (t + 1)3
t2 1 1
ż ż ż
=⇒ dt = dt − dt
(t + 1)
2 3 (t + 1)
2 2 (t + 1)3
2

t2
ż
=⇒ dt = J2 − J3
(t2 + 1)3

According to the previous recurrence formula, we have:

 
J
1 = arctan(t) + c, c ∈ R
J2 = 21 J1 + t
2(t2 +1)
Jn+1 = 2n−1 Jn +
=⇒ 
2n
t
2n(t2 +1)n J3 = 43 J2 + t
4(t2 +1)2

1 t
=⇒ J2 − J3 = J2 −
4 4(t + 1)2
2

1 t t
=⇒ J2 − J3 = arctan(t) + − + c, c ∈ R
8 8(t + 1) 4(t + 1)2
2 2

Finally, we find:
t 2t
I = −8(J2 − J3 ) = − arctan(t) − + 2 + k, k ∈ R
t2 + 1 (t + 1)2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 22

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

1.7 Integration of trigonometric functions

In the calculation of trigonometric function integrals, we distinguish the following cases:

ż ż
1.7.1 Integrals of type R(cos(x)) sin(x) dx or R(sin(x)) cos(x) dx with
R(x) is a rational fraction
ż
• If we have: I = R(cos(x)) sin(x) dx, we make a change of variable of the form:

t = cos(x) and dt = − sin(x)dx

ż
• If we have: I = R(sin(x)) cos(x) dx, we make a change of variable of the form:

t = sin(x) and dt = cos(x)dx

Example 1.18

cos3 (x)
ż
calculate I = dx
sin2 (x)
Solution:
cos3 (x) 1 − sin2 (x)
ż
We have: = cos(x) =⇒ I of type R(sin(x)) cos(x) dx
sin2 (x) sin2 (x)
So we perform the following change of variable:

t = sin(x) =⇒ dt = cos(x)dx

1 − t2 1
ż ż ż
=⇒ I = dt = dt − dt
t2 t2
1
=⇒ I = − − t + c, c ∈ R
t
Finally, if we replace t by sin(x) we obtain:
1
I=− − sin(x) + c, c ∈ R
sin(x)

ż
1.7.2 Integrals of type R(cos(x), sin(x)) dx

The following change of variable can be used for integrals of this kind:
We put
x 1 − t2 1 − t2 2dt
 
t = tan , cos(x) = , sin(x) = , and dx =
2 1+t 2 1+t 2 1 + t2
By replacing
ż the expressions dx, cos(x) and sin(x) in the integral, we obtain an integral of
type: R(t) dt where R(t) is a rational fraction. To return to the variable x in the result,
 
replace t by tan x
2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 23

Chapter 01 Indefinite integrals

Proof
    
1. We put t = tan x
2
, then dt = 1
2
1 + tan2 x
2
dx = 21 (1 + t2 ) dx

2
=⇒ dx = dt
1 + t2
       
2. We have: sin(x) = 2 sin x
2
cos
=⇒ sin(x) = 2 tan x2 cos2 x2
x
2
  1   1
On the other hand tan2 x2 + 1 =   =⇒ cos2 x =
cos2 2x 2
t +1
2

2t
=⇒ sin(x) = 2
t +1
       
3. We have: cos(x) = cos2 x
2
− sin2 x
2
= cos2 x
2
1 − tan2 x
2
1 − t2
=⇒ cos(x) =
1 + t2

Example 1.19
1
ż
Compute I = dx
1 − cos(x)
  1 − t2 2
We put: t = tan x
, cos(x) = and dx = dt
2
1+t 1 + t2
Replacing in I gives us:
1 1
ż
I= 2
dt = − + c, c ∈ R
t t
 
. Finally, we replace t by tan x
2
, we find:

1
I=−   + c, c ∈ R
tan x
2

Department: C-C in Mathematics and Computer Science Batna 2-University (2024) 24