BUS 210 (FINANCE): BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

AND MANAGEMENT STUDY PACK

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that means to
impart, to participate, to share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas,
opinions and as a means that individual or organization share meaning and understanding
with one another. In other words, it is a transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion,
feeling and attitudes. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond
boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and
effective communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made
‘globalization’ a reality. Communication had a vital role to play in ensuring that people
belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact with and relate to
people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group. Communication adds
meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It
enriches our knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.
DEFINITTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information between two or
more persons to bring about mutual understanding and desired action. It is the information
exchange by words or symbols. It is the exchange of facts, ideas and viewpoints which bring
about commonness of interest, purpose and efforts.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “the action of conveying or
exchanging information and ideas.”
*American Management Association defines, ‘Communication as any behaviour that results
in an exchange of meaning’.
*Peter Little defines communication as, ‘the process by which information is transmitted
between individuals and/or organizations so that an understanding response result’.
*Newman and Summer Jr. state that, ‘Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions
or emotions by two or more persons’.
*According to Keith Davis, ‘Communication as the process of passing the information and
understanding from one person to another. It is essentially a bridge of meaning between the
people. By using the bridge a person can safely across the river of misunderstanding’.
*Louis A. Allen defines, ‘Communication is the sum total of all the things that a person does,
when he wants to create an understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’.
WHAT IS BUSINESS COMMUNICATION?
William G. Scott defines business communication as “Administrative communication is a
process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by
feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals.”
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and receive for
official purpose like running a business, managing an organization, conducting the formal
affairs of a voluntary organization and so on. Business communication is marked by
formality as against personal and social communication. The success of any business to a
large extent depends on efficient and effective communication. It takes place among business
entities, in market and market places, within organizations and between various group of
employees, owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and customers, sales
persons and prospects and also between people within the organization and the press persons.
All such communication impacts business. Done with care, such communication can promote
business interests. Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may adversely
affect the business interest. Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main
purpose is to effect change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of
maintaining effective communication process. The management problem generally results in
poor communication. Serious mistakes are made because orders are misunderstood. The basic
problem in communication is that the meaning which is actually understood may not be what
the other intended to send. It must be realised that the speaker and the listener are two
separate individuals having their own limitations and number of things may happen to distort
the message that pass between them. When people within the organization communicate with
each other, it is internal communication. They do so to work as a team and realise the
common goals. It could be official or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include
face-to face and written communication. Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video
conferencing, meeting etc. are the examples of internal communication. When people in the
organization communicate with anyone outside the organization it is called external
communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers or distributors, media,
government, general public etc. are the examples of external communication.
PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION
1. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the
commanding nature. It is more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator
transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the next level, so as to enable them to
accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions basically flow from top to the lower level.
2. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is
endeavoured. The integration function of communication mainly involves to bring about
inter-relationship among the various functions of the business organization. It helps in the
unification of different management functions.
3. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to
inform the individual or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures
etc. Top management informs policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the
lower level informs the top level the reaction through the middle level. Information can flow
vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the organization. Becoming informed or inform
others is the main purpose of communication.
4. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgement of the worth of
task is achieved through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual
or team, their contribution to the organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs
or some ideological scheme demands an adequate and effective communication process.
5. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or
manager to the lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior.
Directing others may be communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common
order, request order or implied order.
6. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A
complete communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal
safety on the jobs. This communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and
avoid cost, procedures etc.
7. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or
being influenced. The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade
others. It implies the provision of feedback which tells the effect of communication.
8. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society.
There is interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise
operating in the society. Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It
can be done by the communication with the different media, which has to project the image
of the firm in the society. Through an effective external communication system, an enterprise
has to inform the society about its goals, activities, progress and social responsibility.
9. For employees orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time
he or she will be unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc. Communication
helps to make people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with the policies,
objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.
10. Other: Effective decision-making is possible when required and adequate information is
supplied to the decision-maker. Effective communication helps the process of decision-
making. In general, everyone in the organization has to provide with necessary information
so as to enable to discharge tasks effectively and efficiently.
PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION
Information is life wire of every organisation, without appropriate information an
organisation cannot function well. Communication is necessary for internal functioning of an
organisation because, information can only be circulated through communication.
Communication integrates the managerial function, so it keeps the organisation going. Also,
the purpose of communication in an organisation is effect changes, to influence actions
toward the welfare of the employees and other resources. Business organisation, for example
requires information about business cycle and government activities. Specifically,
communication will be needed in the business organisation base on the following reasons.
i) To establish and disseminate goals and objectives of an organisation.
ii) To develop plans and strategies for achievement of the goals.
iii) To motivate, direct, lead and create an atmosphere in which people want to contribute.
iv) In order to control performance.
v) To organise human and other resources in the most efficient and effective way.
vi) Communication also relates an organisation with its external environment. It is through
information exchange that managers become aware of the need of customer, the regulation(s)
of government and the concern of the community in which it operates.
vii) It is used for selection, development and for staff appraisal.
THE COMMUNICATION SITUATION
The communication situation is said to exist when
 There is a person (sender/transmitter) who wants to pass some information;
 There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on;
 The receiver partly or wholly understands the message or information passed on to
him;
  The receiver responds to the message or gives feedback.
These four components are essential for communication.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS/CYCLE
The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or reaction to
the sender constitute the communication cycle.
Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is discrete and
imparted by sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The process of communication
begins when one person (the sender) wants to transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other
information to someone else (the receiver). This facts, idea or opinion has meaning to the
sender. The next step is translating or converting the message into a language which reflects
the idea. That is the message must be encoded. The encoding process is influenced by content
of the message, the familiarity of sender and receiver and other situation of factors. After the
message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium.
Common channel in organization includes meetings, reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail,
fax and telephone calls. When the message is received, it is decoded, by the receiver and
gives feedback to the sender as the conformation about the particular message has been
carefully understand or not.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The process of communication involves the following elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as
sender. Sender initiates the message and changes the behaviour of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact, idea,
opinion or information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if communication is to take
place.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organises his idea into series of symbols
(words, signs, etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers.
4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the
information. Communication channel is the media through which the message passes. It is the
link that connects the sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is the person
to whom the particular message is sent by the transmitter. The communication process is
incomplete without the existence of receiver of the message. It is a receiver who receives and
tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the
understandable meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from the message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process. For the exchange to be complete the
information must go back to whom from where it started (or sender), so that he can know the
reaction of the receiver. The reaction or response of the receiver is known as feedback.
8. Brain drain: On whole process there is a possibility of misunderstandings at any level and
is called brain drain. It may arise on sender side if they do not choose the adequate medium
for delivery of message, by using default channel and it may also arise when receiver does
not properly decode the message. In other words, we can say that it is breakdown of cycle at
any level.
2.0 METHODS/MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the media or methods for communicating a message will be considered,
bearing in mind the basic principle that the suitability or otherwise of the media chosen
would facilitate the achievement of the desired response or impair the whole process of
communication. Also, to be discussed are factors that determine the choice of a particular
medium rather than another. A medium of communication simply refers to the method or
means by which one intends to get a message across to the intended recipient. In practice, it
may be sometimes prudent to make use of more than one medium. A notice in the office
about punctuality to work would use the written communication. However, the same message
could be reinforced verbally in a meeting, for instance. This way, we are sure that the
message would be adequately communicated for effective response. The basic methods of
business communication are of three types, namely oral, written/verbal communication and
non-verbal.
A) ORAL/VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is the communication where the message or information exchanges by
spoken words. This is also refer to as oral communication in that, in this instance, information
is transmitted by the word of mouth. Verbal communication is a two-way process involving
two or more people proximate in space and time. Effective oral or verbal communication
requires communicators to possess good pronunciation skills, good articulation of words or
syllables as well as competence in sentence structure. Verbal communication implies
communication through words of mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other.
It can be done by both face to face and also through mechanical devices. And definitely both
will take place an important position in the organization. In an organization face to face
communication can be done through conference, seminar, group discussion, personal
interview, etc. Mechanical devices play an important role in modern business communication
process which include signals, telephone, mobile, e-mail, fax etc.
*Forms of Verbal/Oral Communication
Verbal or oral communication can be categorised into various forms such as:
a) Interview- This is often referred to as a two-party conversation with a specific purpose.
Interviews are part of a system of handling problems or queries of individual and allows for
confidentiality and flexibility in responding to personal issues where necessary. Interviews
are also principally used in the recruitment and selection process where job applicants are
interviewed to determine their suitability for the positions they applying for. Other forms of
interviews include grievance and disciplinary interviews, appraisal interview and exit
interviews.
b) Meeting: A meeting is defined as an assembly of people coming together in accordance
with legally defined rules and procedures for the purpose of discussing the business of the
group as required by law. Meetings may be convened within the organisation at any level.
They may also be used to bring members of the organisation into contact with other
organisations. Meetings are normally held for a number of purposes such as:
i) provision of information to people who may require them
ii) creation of involvement
iii) participation and interest
iv) discussion of ideas and problems for which members may be seeking solutions
v) provision of details of report and for purposes of co-ordinating an activity
c) Telephony: The telephone is one of the most common methods of verbal communication.
In this instance, communication may take place between two or more parties and in different
locations or within the organisation’s premise. When appropriately used, this method of
communication could be very effective as it provides immediate feedback and may be
relatively less expensive. Other forms of verbal communication include oral presentation and
public addresses.
 Advantages of Oral Communication
1. Speed: Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag between the
transmission and reception of massage.
2. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener: You might spend hours drafting
a memorandum, letter or report only to have recipient scan if superficially or not read it at all.
In a personal contact, however, you have much more command over the receiver’s attention.
3. It saves time: Where action is required to be taken immediately, it is advisable to
communicate orally.
4. It saves money: At one time you can communicate with more than one person and it saves
money as compared to the written communication when it is within the organization.
5. It allows instantaneous feedback: When you speak directly to one or more listeners, you
can respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can revise quickly if you have used the
wrong word and offended or confused your audience.
6. Supplemented by non-verbal clues: The person receiving oral communication can
combine it with the expressions and other non-verbal clues around the speaker, the message
can be better understood.
7. It is extremely useful while communicating with groups at meetings, assemblies, etc.
 Limitations of Oral Communication
Although it has many advantages, oral communication is not always the best approach. It
suffers from the following disadvantages:
1. No evidence: There is no documentary proof of oral communication and as such the
impact of oral communication is purely temporary.
2. The lengthy messages are not suitable for such type of communication, because of poor
retention power of human being.
3. Expensive and time consuming when the communicator and receiver are far removed from
each other or when the people who need to communicate are separated by longer distance,
personal contact is expensive and time consuming. Even a cross-town trip for a half-hour
meeting can take most of the morning or afternoon, depending upon traffic or weather.
4. Not appropriate when the matter is controversial.
5. Serious deliberation is not possible: A serious thought is not possible on the subject
because the receiver has to take an immediate decision in response to the communication
received.
6. More prone to physical noise: An oral message has more probability of getting distorted
because of physical noise of speech, somebody interfering in between, and likewise.
7. Oral massages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a part of
permanent record.
 TWO SIDES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
The sender and the receiver are the two sides of oral communication. As sender, what are the
different methods for making oral communication effectively are described in other section of
chapter but as the receiver oral evaluation may include both positive comments and areas for
improvement. Like feedback on any assignment, it is helpful to offer constructive criticism
without personally attacking the character of the speaker. Let us suggest the following to
receivers for providing oral or written feedback to oral presentations:
*Be descriptive. Describe what you observed the speaker doing rather than passing
judgment, e.g. say “I did not hear a concluding statement” rather than “That was a stupid way
to end your presentation.”
*Be specific. Give the speaker enough information so that she/he can improve for the next
presentation, e.g. say “I would increase the font size on your PowerPoint slides because I had
trouble reading the slides” rather than “Your visual aids were ineffective.”
*Be positive. “Sandwich” comments such that you begin with a positive comment, then offer
suggestions for improvement, and end with a positive comment.
*Be constructive. Give specific suggestions for improvement rather than simply telling the
speaker what they did wrong.
*Be sensitive. Use tactful language in giving feedback rather than offering blunt suggestions
or comments, e.g. say “Speak a bit louder so those in the back of the room can hear you”
rather than “I couldn’t hear a word you said—speak up!”
*Be realistic. Give the speaker feedback about things that he/she can actually change. Telling
a speaker that she/he is too short is not helpful.
B) WRITTEN/VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Written communication is best suited when the communicator and the receiver are beyond
oral communication medium. The executives in all organizations can maintain effective inter
departmental and intra departmental connection through messages by written words. The
process of communication involves sending message by written words. Written
communication covers all kinds of subject matter like notices, memorandums, reports,
financial statements, business letters etc. This type of communication simply means a process
of reducing message into writing which is extensively used in organizations. Formal
communication, must always be in writing such as rules, orders, manuals, policy matter etc.
 PURPOSE OF WRITING
The systematic filing of written communication is one of the important aspects of
communication. Filing along with indexing is necessary because of the poor retention power
of human being. The purpose of preserving written messages is to provide necessary
information readily and without any delay and when it is needed. However, the following
gives the main purpose of writing the messages
1. Future references: The limitation of human mind and poor retention power cannot be
overlooked. Written messages can be preserved as records and reference sources. Various
media of communication can be filed for future reference. Thus, keeping records are essential
for continuous operation of the business.
2. Avoiding mistakes: In transmitting messages, earlier records help in reducing mistakes
and errors and also prevent the occurrence of fraud.
3. Legal requirements: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. That is
why some executives think that even if some messages have been transmitted orally, they
should later be confirmed in writing.
4. Wide access: Communication media having become very fast, written communication
enjoy a wide access. If the communicator and the receiver are far from each other, written
communication sent through post or e-mail is the cheapest and may be the only available
means of communication between them.
5. Effective decision-making: Old documents help effective decision-making in a great way.
Decision-making process becomes easier if old records are available. Because the messages
provide the necessary information for decision-making purpose.
 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING
1. Unity: Unity of writing implies a condition of being one. The principle of unity applies on
three levels. First, the individual sentences must be unified. Second, the individual paragraph
must be unified. Third, the totality of the message must be unified.
2. Coherence: To achieve clarity in a written communication the principle of coherence
should be there. Relation and clarity are two important aspects of coherence. The principle of
coherence applies to sentences, paragraphs and to the message as a whole.
3. Avoid jargon: As far as possible, the writer should avoid jargon. Jargon is a language
which is special to science, commerce, technology, trade or profession. In private language
with persons in the field, jargon may be incorporated. In other cases, jargon can be used, but
the only thing is that the words used must be clear to others as well.
4. Accuracy: The subject matter must be correct and accurate. The manner in which the
message is transmitted must be correct. Accuracy in writing can be achieved by careful
checking and editing.
5. Brevity: A writing should be shorter by using few words for many. Brevity not only saves
the time but also gives grace to the writing. Business communication must be brief and direct.
C) NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of words. A
verbal contact, therefore, suggests an oral contact and a verbal evidence denotes oral
evidence. Non-verbal communication refers to the type of communication that does not use
words. Non-verbal communication is closely associated with the power of observation. The
receiver of the communication should be in a position to see, hear and even feel the
communicator. The receiver of the communication should be in a position to clearly see the
face, the gesture, the tone, the dress, the appearance and also hear the voice of the
communicator. Since it is through observation, non-verbal communication may be both
intended and unintended. It is intended when the communicator tries to convey certain
messages to the target group through conscious gesture, postures and other forms of body
language. Non-verbal communication is unintended when the body language, posture or
appearance of the communicator is interpreted by the receiver, even though it is not done
consciously. A sloppy posture or a causal attire (cloths) may be interpreted as lack of
seriousness, although the speaker may be quite intent.
 Importance of Non-verbal Communication
1. For conveying ideas related to geography, maps, charts, graphs etc. At a glance, the
receiver can understand the matter, because non-verbal methods can present a large amount
of data in a compact form.
2. For traffic signs and signals, non-verbal communication is absolutely essential because
there must be instant response from the drivers or pedestrians.
3. Every human being normally respond quickly to colours, pictures or sounds than to any
language.
4. The only method to convey illiterate people through non-verbal symbols.
A) Body Language
Body language means the changes that occur in the body position and movements that shows
what the person is feeling or thinking. Much of it is involuntary and unconscious most
persons are not aware of their body language. But it makes powerful impact on others. Body
language can be divided into conscious and unconscious:
1. Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habit and cultural customs are
as follows:
Biological: Certain body shapes, skin colour and features cause persons to have some kinds
of gestures, expressions and postures. Besides, we constantly try to adjust and adapt our body
to our environment which we may or may not find comfortable.
Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habit in the process of adapting
oneself to the environment. They also arise from one’s occupation which requires constant
posture or movement of certain kinds. Certain speaking styles and phrases are also
occupational habits.
Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking straight in the eye
of elder or senior, are culture specific. Customs of receiving guests, introduction, social
conduct also include some gestures.
2. Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used. Actors are
specially trained for this, skilled communicators, especially good presenters also make
conscious use of body language. No one can gain full control of one’s body language, but it is
possible to enlarge one’s awareness of one’s body and gain a good deal of control on one’s
posture, movements and voice modulation. If we develop increased sensitivity to our own
body language, our ability to read other’ body language is increased.
 APPEARANCE
A person’s general appearance depends on several things. Two of the important factors that
contribute to appearance are grooming and personal hygiene. Care of skin, nails, feet and hair
are expected standards. A person who neglects these aspects makes an unpleasant impression.
Appearance makes the first impression, lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness in
grooming, clumsy clothes make a negative impression. Poor health is easily reflected in the
appearance.
 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
It is said that the face is the index of the mind. The thoughts of the mind and the feeling of the
heart often find expression on the face. A cheerful or appreciative smile, displeased frown, a
look of surprise and several other expressions of the face can convey, with or without words,
the attitude, feelings and reaction of the communicators. There are people who are good at
reading facial expressions. Good communicators, be they speaker or listener, learn to read
and interpret facial expressions.
 EYE CONTACT
Eye movements is a key part of facial behaviour, directing other’s attention or showing
surprise or happiness and other emotional displays. Eye contact between speaker and listener
is necessary for indicating that both are interested in the communication. While making an
oral presentation it is important to create rapport with the audience with eye contact.
Presenters make it a point to take in the whole audience with a sweep of the eye, making brief
eye contact with as many as possible. The comfort level for eye contact is three to five
seconds, if eye contact is held more than 3 to 5 seconds it can cause discomfort to the other
person. It is commonly believed that avoiding eye contact indicates that the speaker is lying,
yet some liars may hold unblinking eye contact and watch to see your reaction. Persons who
lack self-confidence also generally avoid eye contact. However, the rules and customs of
culture influence how people use their face and eyes.
 SMILE
A smile is a very potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to communication. A
natural, pleasant smile carries great significance in establishing and sustaining human
relationships. The significance of smile is beautifully brought out in the saying, “You are
never fully dressed unless you wear a smile.”
 POSTURE (BODY POSITION)
Posture refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The position of hands and legs and other
parts of the body reveals not only an individual’s state of mind—whether he is vibrant, alive
and dynamic, nervous and jittery, confident and self-assured etc. but also his grip on the
subject matter of communication. An efficient speaker stands tall, feet together with the
weight directly over the instep keeping his chin on a line parallel to the floor or at right angles
to the backbone. Standing in this posture before a group is essential for successful speaking.
A speaker with a drooping shoulder and a posturing stomach seems to be tired and worn out.
The sitting posture also show your personality. In a group discussion a participant when takes
a turn to speak changes his posture. However, different situations demand different postures.
One may keep one’s back straight from the waist up, both the feet may be on the floor, one
slightly in front of the other. The walking posture may convey how confident or diffident,
energetic or withdrawn a speaker is. For gracefully a speaker should remember to move his or
her legs freely from the hips, lift to move his or her feet from the floor, walk in straight line,
avoid stride or taking tiny steps. For effective speaking, naturally one should cultivate how to
shift his or her posture, how to shift the weight of the body on the legs while speaking and to
learn where to place his or her hands.
 GESTURES
Gestures play a significant role in making the intent of the communication effective and
content productive. The gestures like playing with the ring, twisting a key chain or clasping
one’s hand tightly may indicate the state of mind of the speaker affecting both the encoding
and decoding of his/her message in communication. An efficient speaker learns to inculcate
appropriate gestures by practising the same in front of mirror. He/she also seeks the guidance,
in this regard, from his/her friends and colleagues. However, in the use of gestures one should
be constantly self-evaluating judging and using the right gesture for the right impact. It is also
true that on making gestures one should be careful and cautious about the cultural limitations,
sexual implications, moral bindings. Gestures do add meaning to the message but they may
turn awkward if not used keeping time, place and person in the communication. Some
example are handshake, sitting position, thumbs up, hand to face, head nod, collar pull,
thumb and finger rub, eye signals, wink of the eye etc.
 CLOTHING AND ACCESSORIES
Clothing is very important aspect of body language. It requires judgement to make a subtle
impression by what you wear. The colour, design, cut and fitting, combine to make up the
dress. In India we have several choices as it is acceptable to wear clothing of national style or
of western style. Appropriateness for the occasion is essential, the formality of the occasion,
the time of the day, the season, the cultural background of the people who will be present and
the conventions of your own organization should provide good guidance.
Accessories like tie, footwear, jewellery need careful selection and should be comfortable to
wear. Handbag or briefcase is included in accessories. Whatever you carry on your hands
ought to look comfortable and gracefully carried, otherwise, it will convey a poor image.
 ENERGY
Energy and enthusiasm as an aspect of body language is hard to describe, but most people
have experienced the impact of a person with a high level of energy. State of physical and
mental health play a large part in body language, a healthy person is energetic and maintains
a certain level of enthusiasm in work. A person’s enthusiasm is reflected in the style, it is
usually infectious and make listeners also feel enthusiastic.
D) VISUAL COMMUNICATION
In the context of business communication, visual communication refers to the transfer of
information through diagram, display boards, flips charts and other forms of visual aids.
Visual aids exploit sight, which assists the human memory and thereby stimulates the
business person’s level of understanding. In business communication, certain difficult
processes are made easy through the use of visual aids.
Types of Visual Aids
The following are the various types of visual aids.
a) The White Boards
White boards, which is used with markers, is common in every classroom and it is now the
most accessible visual support. The board can be used for drawing very simple diagrams.
Once the diagram or the drawing is on the board, the presenter should turn to facilitating
effective explanation.
b) Objects and Models: In certain instances, real objects are used for presentations because
the audience may want to see them. Model, on the other hand, are replicas of actual objects
which facilitate effective learning when the real objects are too complex to be exhibited
physically. Examples include models of aircraft, cars or building.
c) Poster, Diagrams and Charts: A poster consists of lettering or pictures or both. The
purpose of poster is to enhance the speaker’s presentation. A diagram may range from a
simple organisational chart to a complex rendering of a three-dimensional object. Diagrams
are particularly valuable in showing how something works. A flip chart is a series of pictures,
words, diagrams. It is called a flip chart because it is made up of several pages that you flip
through. A flip chart is the best used when the subject to be discussed needs illustration.
d) Tables and Graphs
e) Strips and Slide Projectors
f) Overhead Projectors (OHP)
g) Video Tapes/Videos Cassette Recorders
Functions of Visual Aids
i) They can show how things look
ii) They can show how things work
iii) They can show how things relate to one another
iv) They can emphasize important points

3.0 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is divided into external and internal communication. External
communications are those communications which are occurring outside the organization like
communication with other companies, with government, general public etc. Internal
communications are those which are inside the organization. Internal communications are
further divided into two parts, formal or official and informal.
Formal: Formal communication flows along prescribed channels which all members
desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow.
Informal: Along with the formal channel of communication every organization has an
equally effective channel of communication that is the informal channel often called
grapevine, because it runs in all directions Horizontal, Vertical, Quasi-vertical. It flows
around water cooler, down hallways, through lunch rooms and wherever people get together
in groups.
3.1 FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal systems of communication, in the organisation setting, are the types of
communication which pass through the official channels in the organisation. In this case, the
flow of communication is always backed by some degree of authority.
Illustration
For example, if the Chief Executive Officer originates a written memorandum for his
departmental heads convening a crisis meeting, this may be referred to as formal
communication. Through formal communication systems, the organisation disseminates all
forms of policies, directives and instructions and guidelines for implementation. This form of
communication is very successful because of the authority that backs it up and the possibility
of applying sanctions in case of non-compliance.
ADVANTAGES
1. It passes through line and authority and consequently ensures the maintenance of authority
as well as accountability of the executives’ in-charge.
2. It helps to develop intimate relations between immediate boss and his subordinates.
3. It keeps uniformity in the dissemination of information.
4. It flows systematically and the information is trustworthy.
5. Source of information is known which creates harmony amongst the employees.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Increases the workload of various managers as communication is to be transmitted through
them.
2. Widens the communication gap between the executives and employees at the lower level.
3. It is time consuming because it follows the scalar chain of authority. The communication
flows from one authority level to another and it takes too much time.
3.1.1 DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
When the communication flows from higher level to lower level, it is called downward
communication. Order, individual instructions, policy statements, circulars etc. fall under
downward communication.
BENEFITS
1. Helps to explain to subordinates the organizational plans, policies program and procedures,
work methodology etc. necessary information for performing the job.
2. Helps to convey to the subordinates the expectations of management from them.
3. Acts as a mean to control the activities of the subordinates with active feedback.
4. Provides motivation to the subordinates.
PROBLEMS
1. Sometimes the message may be distorted in the transmission from one level to another
level.
2. If a particular authority is not present on the time of passing information it may leads to
delay in transmission of the message.
3. Sometimes when the workload is unevenly distributed among the employees it creates
overload or unload of work which causes dissatisfaction among the employees.
How to make effective
1. Managers should be adequately informed.
2. Managers should be clear about how much to communicate.
3. Some authority should delegate to lower levels to shorten the line of communication.
4. Information should be passed on to the correct person.
3.1.2 UPWARD COMMUNICATION
This communication flows the message from subordinates to superiors. It is reverse of the
downward communication or communication flows from lower level to upper level.
Benefits
1. Provides feedback to the superiors.
2. Introduction of new schemes without unduly opposition from the employees.
3. Helps in to promote harmony between the management and the employees.
4. Problems and grievances are redressed.
Problems
1. Employees fear that their criticism may be interpreted as a sign of their personal weakness.
2. Bypassed superiors feel insulted which leads differences between the relationship of the
superiors and employees.
3. Great possibility of message distortion.
Methods/Channels of upward communication
1. Subordinates tell their problem and through discussion find out the solution for a particular
problem with the help of superiors.
2. If employees having any complaint and suggestion about working environment, policy and
procedure, peer group etc., then they write to management without giving identification of
themselves and drop into the box. And the management frequently checks these grip boxes
and find out the solution of problem.
3. It is very effective method of upward communication. Organization celebrates their
anniversary, arrange sports meets for their employees, doing some kind of social welfare
activities like plantation, providing food for flood affected areas etc. are the mode of social
gathering where superiors and subordinates are at the same platform and share their emotions,
feeling and thought more comfortably.
4. It is just opposite to grip box system. Here, identification of employee is not hidden. Any
employee can write directly to the higher level about the problem which he/she had.
5. It emphasizes in the psychological aspect of human being. A superior act as counsellor and
he counsels the problem facing employees. Counselling does not mean that treating only
problem facing employees but also for the better prospect or how employees do better in their
workplace.
How to make effective
1. Superior should take initiative to get close to the subordinate staff.
2. Keeping the line of communication short as much as possible.
3. Timely redress the grievances of the employees.
3.1.3 HORIZONTAL/LATERAL COMMUNICATION
This communication flows between persons at the same hierarchy level either of the same or
other department or division of the organization.
Benefits
1. It develops mutual trust and confidence amongst employees of same level which help in
maintaining or promote understanding between similar position holders of different
departments.
2. If employees at similar position communicate to each other for a given task it will create or
develop the feeling of co-ordination among various departments.
Problems
1. Sometimes it creates rivalry among employees of various departments.
2. Proximity shows the liking and disliking of an employee who is near by another in respect
of space. Like in any organization HR department and Marketing department are near to each
other then manufacturing department. So proximity exists between HR and Marketing
department and they favour each other as compared to Manufacturing department.
3. Biasing shows the liking and disliking of an employee due to religion, caste, family
background, personality etc.
 Methods of horizontal communication
1. Face-to-face discussion: When individual communicate directly to another. Face-to-face
communication minimises the problem of misinterpretation and quick feedback makes the
communication more effectively.
2. Telephonic conversation: When the employees are busy with their work or they are sited
far from each other than telephonic conversation become more relevant against face to face
conversation. It saves time but sometime.
3. Periodical meeting: Periodical meeting means meeting between employees on weekly,
monthly, quarterly, annually basis where all the members are assembled and discuss on
predetermined issues.
4. Memorandum: Memorandum is a written form of communication which transmits
between different departments in the same organisation. It is also called inter office letter.
3.2 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
It has now been established that a significant amount of communicating is done in
organisations informally, even when it is official. Put another way, much information is
passed on by word of mouth among interested colleagues who have received it from various
sources- briefings, memoranda, visits, reports etc. Employees prefer to use of informal
communication as this removes from them (employees) the responsibilities arising out of the
use of the formal patterns and structures.
It should be noted, however, that informal communication might be malicious and full of
half-baked truths and if not monitored regularly and correctly, it could led to mistrust and
confusion in the organisation. Some aspects of informal communication are discussed below.
3.2.1 Grapevine
The grapevine is one major route for informal communication. The grapevine refers to the
totally unofficial communication system which has been constructed informally and which
constantly changing. Even though the grapevine is an informal source of communication, it
has become an important source of information in organisations which managers cannot
ignore in the day-to-day administration of organisations.
Factor responsible for the grapevine phenomenon
1. Feeling of certainty or lack of direction when the organization is passing through a difficult
period.
2. Feeling of inadequacy or lack of self-confidence on the part of employee, leading to the
formation of gaps.
3. Formation of a clique or favoured group by the managers, giving other employees a feeling
of insecurity or isolation.
Characteristics of the grapevine
The major characteristics of the grapevine are as follows:
i) Management has absolutely no control over this of communication
ii) It is perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal
communiques issued by top management
Forms of grapevine communication
1. Single chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’ who tells it to ‘C’ and so on it
goes down the line. This type of communication flows from one person to another person
through single chain or communication flows one by one. When ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’
who tells it to ‘C’ and so on. One interesting fact comes out from this type of communication
that when one person passes certain information to other and they treat the message as
confidential or secret which further communicated by another with same feeling of
confidentiality and secrecy.

B C D E F

2. Star chain: In this type of chain person speaks out and tells everyone the information
he/she has obtained. This chain is often used when information or a message regarding an
interesting but non job related nature is being conveyed. Sometimes it also called gossip
chain.

B
A

C D

3. Cluster chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to a few selected individuals who
again inform a few selected individuals. And the information flows in similar manner to other
individual.
4. Probability chain: The probability chain is a random process in which a transmission of
the information to other in accordance with the laws of probability and then these tell still
others in a similar manner. The chain may also be called random.
 Merits
1. Under grapevine message travel or transmitted faster than any other form of
communication because group formation is based on individual’s own liking and disliking.
2. It supports other channels of communication.
3. Feedbacks are quickly comes out from this type of communication.
4. When an individual communicates with other individual through grapevine it will develop
the cohesiveness and maintain or promote harmony between members of group.
5. By using grapevine communication, employees feel emotional relief. Because they can
communicate with other without the feeling of inadequacy and without threat of higher
authority.
Demerits
1. There is a great possibility of distortion of message between members of group.
2. Transmission of message depends upon willingness of sender and what method they used
in grapevine which causes sometimes transmission of incomplete information.
How to make effective
1. The managers should try to spot the leaders. So the harmful rumours do not reach the
employees.
2. Involve the workers in the decision making process.
3. The management should immediately use the official channels to contradict the rumours
RUMOURS
Rumours serve as the basis of grapevine and the two exist side by side. Rumours have been
noted to emerge as a response to situations that are important to employees, when there is
ambiguity and under conditions that arouse anxiety. Rumours may glare up for a short period
of time and information received from one part of the organisation may be contradicted by
that from another source. Rumours may persist for a long as the circumstances giving rise to
them prevail and can only be brought under control when attempts are made to fill the
information void by providing information to those who need it.
The negative consequences of the grapevine and rumours
Even though grapevines and rumours provide one benefit for both the organisation and the
employees, they may have serious implications for the organisational communication system.
Some of the effects are:
(a) Because messages pass primarily by word of mouth, in corridors and other meeting
places,
 senior managers may find it difficult to assess their impact and/or hold them in check.
(b) Even where senior managers have access to the messages the information may be
transient, inconsistent and unreliable.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in a way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially. Different
types of barriers are as follows:

1. PHYSICAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL BARRIERS:

a. Noise - The noise created by external factors like traffic, playing of loud music, trains and
airplanes, or by crowds of people, affects our communication.

b. Time & distance - Time becomes a physical barrier when people have to communicate
across different time zones in different countries. The physical distance between people who
need to communicate can also cause problems because it does not allow oral or face-to-face
communication.

c. Defects in communication system – Mechanical problems and defects in instruments of

communication also create physical barriers, as in a faulty fax machine or typewriter.
Similarly, a computer that hangs, or a dead telephone line can lead to non-transmission of
messages. eg. No range in mobile, technical problem in mike or speakers.

d. Wrong selection of medium – The sender selects the medium which is not familiar to the
receiver.

e. Physiological defects like stammering, hearing defects, mumbling while speaking etc.

2. LANGUAGE OR SEMANTIC BARRIERS: Language is the main medium of

communication and words are its tools. Language proves to be a barrier at different levels,
such as semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammar), phonological (pronunciation, intonation,
pitch etc.) and finally linguistic (across languages) Thus, language barriers can arise in
different ways:
a. Jargon or unfamiliar terminology - There are some special terms or technical words used
by people belonging to a certain group or field of work such as doctors, lawyers, computer
software engineers or college students. They use words which are their own, specialised
jargon which cannot be understood by anyone outside their group.

b. Difference in language – Unfamiliar language becomes a barrier when people do not

know each other’s language. This barrier can be overcome by using a common medium of
communication, as in a classroom. Translation is also an important way of overcoming this
barrier.

c. Words are of two kinds: extensional and intentional words. Extensional words are clear in
their meaning and therefore do not create barriers – such as words like boy, chair, garden etc.
Intentional words are words that describe and they can be understood differently by different
people, according to the meaning that a person gives to the word. Thus good, bad, beautiful
are intentional words, and a simple sentence “like she is a good girl” can create confusion
because the meaning of the word “good” is unclear.

d. Sometimes, the same word is used in different contexts, giving rise totally different
meanings. A word like =hard’ for example can be used in different ways: hard chair, hard-
hearted, hard drink, having a hard time – all these use the same word but the meanings are
different.

e. Barriers can be created when we come across words, which have the same sound when
pronounced, but which mean very different things. Examples: words like fair and fare; bear
and bare; council and counsel.

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS: Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers are

created in the mind. Communication is a mental activity and its aim is to create
understanding. But the human mind is complex and not all communication can result in
understanding. There are several kinds of psychological barriers which can come in the way
of understanding.

(a) Emotions: Emotions are among the most common psychological barriers to
communication. The emotion may be connected to the communication received or it may be
present in the sender’s or receiver’s mind, even before the communication takes place. In
both cases, it acts as a barrier. Emotions can be positive, like happiness and joy, or negative,
like fear, anger, mistrust etc. Both positive and negative emotions act as barriers, if they are
not kept in check.

(b) Prejudice: A prejudice is an opinion held by a person for which there is no rational basis
or valid reason. It can be against something or someone, or in favour of it, but it becomes a
barrier to a meaningful communication. Prejudices are based on ignorance and lack of
information, e.g., prejudices about certain communities or groups of people.

(c) Halo effect: Sometimes our reactions to people are not balanced or objective; they are of
an extreme nature. Either we like a person so much that we can find no shortcomings in
her/him, or we dislike someone so much that we can see nothing good in her/him. In both
cases, we commit errors of judgment and fail to understand the person.

(d) Self-image or different perceptions: Every person has in her/his mind a certain image of
herself/himself. She/he thinks of herself/himself in a certain way. This is their perception of
themselves, their self-image. One’s self-image is the product of one’s heredity, one’s
environment and one’s experiences, and thus every person’s self-image is unique and
different from the others. Self-image can create a barrier because we accept communication
which is compatible with our self-image. We avoid or reject communication, which goes
against our perception of ourselves.

(e) Closed Mind: A closed mind is one which refuses to accept an idea or opinion on a
subject, because it is different from his idea. Such persons form their opinion on a subject,
and then refuse to listen to anyone who has something different to say about it. A closed mind
may be the result of some past experience or just habit. It is very difficult to remove this
psychological barrier.

(f) Status: Status refers to rank or position. It could be economic, social or professional
status. In any organisation, hierarchy creates differences in rank, and this is a normal
situation. Thus, status by itself does not cause barriers; but when a person becomes too
conscious of his status, whether high or low, then status becomes a barrier. For instance, in a
business organisation, a senior executive who is unduly conscious of his seniority will not
communicate properly with his juniors, and will refrain from giving them the required
information. Similarly, if a junior is acutely conscious of his junior status, he will avoid
communicating with his seniors, even when it is necessary (g) Inattentiveness and
Impatience: Sometimes the receiver may not pay attention to the sender’s message, or he may
be too impatient to hear the message fully and properly. Such barriers are common in oral
communication.

Overcoming psychological barriers:

1. Adopt flexible and open-minded attitude

2. Training of listening skills

3. Exposure to different environment, views will help to broaden outlook

4. Listening with empathy helps in making oneself more adapting to other‘s perceptions.

4. Cross-cultural barriers: Mary Allen Guffey defines communication as ‖”the complex

system of values, traits, morals and customs shared by a society.‖

Cultural diversity within a country, and cultural differences between people from different
countries, are a major cause of barriers. This is because people are conditioned by their
cultures, and they develop certain habits of working, communicating, eating, dressing etc.
according to their cultural conditioning. They find it difficult to get through to people who
come from an alien culture, and who have different habits. A simple thing like a greeting to
welcome a person is vastly different in India from a greeting in, for example, an Arab
country, or in Japan. Food and dress habits of a different culture can make a person
uncomfortable. Concepts of space and time are also different across cultures; for example,
Indians do not mind sitting close to each other and sharing space in offices or in public
places. However, a European would not be able to tolerate such intrusive behaviour.
Similarly, people who come from a culture where time is very valuable will be impatient with
those who come from a culture with an easy-going attitude towards time, where everything is
done in a slow, unhurried way.

a. Cultural diversity

b. Time

c. Space

d. Food

e. Manners

f. Decision making
Overcoming Barriers:

Barriers disrupt communication and interfere with understanding. They must be overcome if
communication has to be effective.

Physical barriers are comparatively easier to overcome. The use of loudspeakers and
microphones can remove the barriers of noise and distance in crowded places like railway
stations. Traffic signals and non-verbal gestures of the traffic policeman remove physical
barriers on the roads. Technological advancement has helped in reducing the communication
gap arising due to time and distance .It is possible to make an alternative arrangement, should
the technological instruments fail. A back-up plan helps in tidying over any snag.

Language or Semantic Barriers can be overcome if the sender and the receiver choose a
language which both of them understand very well. Help from a translator or an interpreter
also helps in overcoming the language barrier. Exposure to the target language and training
oneself in the acquisition of skills of the given language too help in overcoming the language
barrier. Language barriers can be avoided by careful study and accurate use of language.
Clarity should be the main objective when using language. Jargon should be avoided.

Psychological barriers, as also cross-cultural barriers are difficult to overcome, as they

are difficult to identify and even more difficult to address. Even these can be avoided or
reduced by adopting a flexible and open-minded attitude. The ultimate aim is to build bridges
of understanding between people – that is the main aim of communication. Training oneself
to listen to different views, exposing oneself to different environments help in broadening
one’s outlook and cultivating tolerance to multiple views. Teaching oneself to listen with
empathy helps in making oneself more open to others perceptions. While dealing with
psychological or cross-cultural barriers the sender should make it a point to–

(i) Use language that is politically neutral and correct.

(ii) Present views in simple and objective manner

(iii) Focus on the objective of communication

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Note that any communication processes whereby there is no action and reaction between the
sender and receiver is ineffective. The receiver must be able to respond to the message being
sent by the sender. These are some of the tips for effective communication
i) Be honest while communicating. Dishonesty will somewhere show up along a line.
ii) Take interest in the people you are communicating with. Remember that people are more
attracted towards those who have interest in them, and pay more attention to what they say.
iii) Think before you speak or put pen to paper: what message are you trying to convey?
What outcome do you want to elicit?
iv) Be direct and not aggressive. Lots of flannelling around can make the people lose interest
and miss a vital point.
v) Don't use jargons, acronyms and technical expressions, unless you are sure that your
listeners do understand.
vi) Do not fall into the trap of using long words just because they are written down.
vii) Take time. Whether in the speech or in paper, rushing will make you seem nervous,
unconfident and downright scared.
7’Cs OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Experts generally agree that there are 7 Cs of effective communication which are applicable
to both written and oral communication. They are listed below.
a) Completeness- For communication to be complete, I must convey all facts required to the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set and
convey the message accordingly.
i) A complete communication develops and enhances the reputation of an organisation;
ii) it is cost saving as no crucial information is missing that will require resending any other
message that will in the first instance if the message is incomplete;
iii) it leaves no question in the mind of the receiver and
iv) it assists greatly in decision making by the receiver or reader of the message as all that is
required is given.
b) Consideration- Consideration implies ‘stepping into the shoes of others’. Communication
should take into consideration the receiver’s viewpoint, mind-set, educational level, emotion
and so on.
i) Consideration emphasizes the “you” approach.
ii) Emphasizes with the receiver.
iii) It emphasizes what is possible as against what is impossible.
iv) lays stress on positive words that will endear the communicator to the receiver of his/her
message.
c) Concreteness- Concreteness implies being particular and clear rather than being a general
statement.
i) Communication that is concrete is supported with facts and figures.
ii) uses words that builds reputation and
iii) the message that is concrete can never be interpreted.
d) Conciseness- Conciseness deals with conveying the message in the least possible number
of words without leaving any facts out.
i) The message that is concise saves time as well as cost.
ii) It highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and needless words.

iii) It provides the message in limited and concise words

iv) it is more appealing and comprehensible to the receiver of the message, and

v) It is not repetitive in nature.

e) Clarity- Clarity has to do with laying emphasis on a specific message at a time.

i) This makes understanding very easy.

ii) it enhances the meaning of the message, and

iii) exacts, appropriate and concrete words are made use of when the communicator wants to
make his/her message clear.

f) Correctness- Correctness implies the communication has no error of any kind, be it

grammatical, semantic or phonological. Correct communication is exact and well-timed. It
boosts the confidence level of the communicator and has greater impact on the receiver. It
makes use of precision, accurate facts and figures, and appropriate and correct language.

g) Courtesy- Courtesy implies the message that is being sent expresses the sender’s respect
for the receiver. The sender should be polite, reflective and enthusiastic. Courtesy
communication is positive and focuses on the receiver and it is not biased

5.0 ATTITUDES IN THE WORKPACE

Since ethics shape the concept of right and wrong that are accepted by an individual or social
group, people’s attitudes toward work, fellow workers (superiors and subordinates) and day
to day activities may vary, especially because of their varying backgrounds, race, religion,
culture, etc

5.1 Fundamental Provisions of Attitude

It has been suggested by researchers that attitudes are related to motives. So, depending on an
individual’s motives, attitudes can provide the following fundamentals: Knowledge,
expression, instrumental device and ego-defensive mechanism:

a) Knowledge: Attitudes provides a knowledge base and framework within which new
information can be placed.

b) Expressive: Attitudes become a means of expression. They enable individuals to indicate

to others the values they hold and thus are able to express their self-concept and adopt or
internalise the values of a group.

c) Instrumental: Attitudes held would determine the manner one behaves towards a person
or object in a particular way; either positively or negatively.

d) Ego-defensive: Attitude may be had in order to protect a person’s ego from an undesirable
truth. A person who believes in honesty will discourage any form of behaviour that may
result to cheating or dishonesty as in examinations. Based on the person’s attitudes, he has
developed a strong ego that will resist all forms of dishonest practices.

 Attitude Change

Attitude once held are difficult to change; however, there are certain circumstances that may
cause a person to change his attitudes. The following are some of the factors that can assist in
attitudinal change:

a) The characteristics of the persuader, which is the one endeavouring to effect the change

b) Presentation of issues that may cause a person to change from positive to negative or vice-
versa as a result of the manner in which issues are presented convince him/her.

c) Audience characteristics: Depending on the expectations of a speaker, attitudes can change

if the speaker wants the target audience to have a positive perception about him.

d) Outcome of attitude: A person may change his attitude if he expects to get some rewards
for the change or if some form of punishment will be meted out if he fails to change

 CONFLICT IN AN ORGANISATION

The workplace is an assemblage of people from diverse origin, culture, linguistic and
educational backgrounds. Coupled with all this is the fact that each individual has his/her
own peculiarities. The interplay of such disparate aggregation of humans, without some
control by some authorities, may only be compared to sanatorium. To maintain peace and
sanity, it is only to be expected that such an assemblage must device a set of regulatory
principles of right and wrong that are acceptable by individuals and social groups.

Conflict is an inevitable situation in an organisations, it can be a serious problem to

organisational effectiveness. Conflict has always had a less positive side and it is always
considered very bad. But as to whether conflict is bad or not we need first to define what it is.

Conflict in an organisation is defined and interpreted in many ways. However, for the
purpose of organisational communication, conflict may be defined as any behaviour intends
to obstruct the achievement of some other persons’ goals. Conflict is based on the
incompatibility of goals and arises from opposing behaviours. It can be viewed at the
individual, group or organisational level. The behavioural approach to conflict defines it as
the disagreement that occurs within and among people in a work group. Here, conflict with
interpersonal relations and also within individuals.

 Types of Conflict

The types of conflict which are possible in organisations are:

a) Intrapersonal Conflict- i.e within the individual which may arise from stressful conditions
of work.

b) Interpersonal Conflict- i.e between individuals. This is the most common types of conflict
which is present in workgroups because of the different views and objectives of the
participants.

c) Conflict between individuals and groups

d) Conflicts between groups in the same organisation i.e inter-group conflict

e) Inter-organisational conflict- i.e between two or more organisations

 Sources/Causes of Conflict

Conflict can be said to occur either on a horizontal axis, that is between individual managers
or between workers working at the same level or on a vertical axis, between workers and
managers. Many conflicts relate to economics aspects of pay and access to resources in the
organisation. The main sources of conflict discussed here are internal and can summarised
under the following headings:
a) Money: The ratio of profits to wages- a conflict between workers and managers and
among workers themselves may arise where a sum of money is to be shared

b) Job: Rates of pay are different for each job and sometimes one group claims a job,
possible to safeguard their future security or loss of earnings, if the job is given to others. The
right to do the job can lead to disagreement between groups on demarcation line “between
jobs and this frequently occurs.

c) Goal: Managers are concerned with efficiency and workers with security. Managers may
want newer, more efficient machinery; this may displace workers as few of them will be
needed. Conflict may occur between marketing and finance managers ass their policies and
interests often differ.

d) Environmental factors: Downward fluctuations in the market for a product are a threat to
workers security”. Such problems may cause conflicts even within union, if the rank and file
do not think their leaders are going sufficiently to secure their jobs.

e) Authority and Power: Workers are pressing for more, say in decisions, which affect their
lives. This is vertical conflict. In addition, subordinates may resent the fact that there is
always a superior above them.

f) Nature of work: The social-technical system organises people in a particular way which
often leads to a boring job, no control of the pace of work, no responsibility of group identity.

g) Individual differences: In society, human beings are not alike in their nature. Interest,
attitudes, and aspirations. Because of this basic difference and when they cannot
accommodate each other, conflict arise.

h) Cultural differences: Culture is said to be the way of life of people. This way of life
differs from one culture to the other. This cultural differences among people sometimes cause
tension and lead to conflict.

i) Clashes of interests: in organisations, interests of workers sometimes clash with that of the
employers and when this happens, conflict is inevitable.

j) Social change: In society, as in organisations, there is usually a difference between the

way the old and the new generation react to social change. The way the new generation react
to, say, moral norms may be different from that of the old. When this happens, there will be
conflict. In this sense, conflict is an indication of disequilibrium.
k) Conflicting roles: Sometimes an employee may be expected to perform a role outside his
normal role in the organisation. When this happens, he may step on another employee’s toe
and conflict or power tussle may arise. The same is true of a situation where an employee
views a task as his own responsibility another employee comes in to take over the
responsibility.

l) Unpredictable policies: In a situation where a change in rules and regulations or policies

is not communicated to employees, there is bound to be confusion and this may lead to
conflict.

m) Different personal values: An employee might be asked to perform a task that is against
his moral or ethical belief. When this happens, there will be conflict.

 Methods of Solving Conflict

Although a certain number of organisational conflicts may be seen as inevitable, there are a
number of ways in which management can attempt to avoid the harmful effects of conflict.
The under-listed techniques may be of immense help in situations where one is a participant
and in situations where one is a facilitator:

a) Acting promptly: It should be noted that the longer a problem goes unattended to, the
greater the chances that it will escalate into a major issue, if the conflict involves emotions,
the parties will need time to cool off, 24-48 hours should be sufficient.

b) Scheduling a meeting: Whenever possible, meet face-to-face so that the participants can
take advantage of non-verbal cues.

c) Using Active Listening: Every conflict has two sides and each party believes his or her
side is the accurate or “right” side. Both parties want to be heard and understood. Before a
conflict can be resolved, both parties must be able to separate what happened from how they
feel about it. Paraphrasing can be valuable in this effort.

d) Focusing on the problem not the person: Laying blame delays resolution. The parties
must respect themselves and each other

e) Brain storming: Parties should look for win-win opportunities, and negotiate, if
necessary.
f) Formalising the solution: Putting the solution on paper allows both parties the
opportunity to see as well as hear it and minimises the likelihood that they will later disagree
on the solution.

g) Implementing the solution and setting a follow-up: The follow-up creates an air of
accountability.

 Conflict Management Style

Conflict as it has been said, is inevitable in organisations. Conflict also comes from a variety
of sources such as individual differences, personality differences, values, clash of interests,
etc. When conflict is embraced as a way of life, one can make the most ou of the conflicting
situation by taking the situation as an opportunity to make things better. There are five
conflict management styles identified: Accommodating, Avoiding, Collaborating, Competing
and Compromising

a) Accommodating

b) Avoiding

c) Collaborating

d) Competing

e) Compromising

6. 0 MECHANIC

Mechanic are various devices at the disposal of a writer to assist the reader in deciphering a
text. These include punctuation, use of italics, capitalisation, abbreviations and spelling and
paragraphing.

6.1 PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH

Punctuation is the system of symbols (.,! - : etc) that we use to separate sentences and parts of
sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark. The
punctuation marks in English language are discussed below.

6.1.1 Quotation Marks

The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to language and even from
country to country within the English-speaking world. In North American usage, you should
place double quotation marks (") before and after directly quoted material and words of
dialogue: One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best film
ever made about potato farming." May be replied, "This is the last cookie." You also use
quotation marks to set off certain titles, usually those of minor or short works -- essays, short
stories, short poems, songs, articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate
publications, you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for
titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems, long musical
works, and television and radio programs.

Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy Flower," which was later
made into a movie entitled Flower Child, starring Tiny Tim. Sometimes, you will use
quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to as terms, though some publishers
prefer italics. I know you like the word "unique, "but do you really have to use it ten times in
one essay? "Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective and
sometimes a verb.

6.1.2 End Punctuation

The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the period, the question mark and
the exclamation mark. You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation
marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use periods with
imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or excitement attached: Without a doubt,
Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce. Turn right at the stop sign. Bring me a cup
of coffee and a slice of bread. When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong
emotion, you may end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation mark:

Look out below!

Leave this house at once!

I hate him!

Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly, if at all. You
should use the question mark at the end of a direct question: Who's on first? Where is my
flowered cape? Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period: He wondered who
was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair. She asked if she could play volley ball. The
teacher asked who was chewing gum.
6.1.3 The Comma

Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style: some writers use
commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly. Most modern North American
style guides now recommend using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the
option of using a comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain. For instance, the use of a
comma before the "and" in a series is usually optional, and many writers choose to eliminate
it, provided there is no danger of misreading: We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before
leaving for Ghana. (Comma unnecessary before "and") We ate apples, plums, strawberry and
paw-paw. (comma needed before "and" for clarity) Comma Usage

1. Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent clauses (unless the
independent clauses are very short):

I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like trout for
the next week. (commas with two independent clauses).

She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with short clauses)

2. Use a comma after an introductory adverbial clause and, often, after an introductory phrase
(unless the phrase is very short): After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign,
an anonymous donor contributed an additional N10,000. (after introductory adverb clause)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet. (after introductory
prepositional phrase) In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no
comma with short, closely related phrase)

3. Use a comma to separate items in a series:

Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved:
constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling drunken audience members, and
transporting heavy equipment to and from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional
unless needed to prevent misreading)

4. Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical elements. A non-
restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the
word it is modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra information to a
sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of
meaning, the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off non-
restrictive elements with commas: The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with
grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true
democracy. A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what it
modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You should not set off
restrictive elements with commas: Those residents in Lagos who do not hold secure, well-
paying jobs must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity. Note that
you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive elements or other
parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes. Enclosing parenthetical information in
parentheses reduces the importance of that information:

Mr. Mumuni driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.

5. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it emphasises the
material: Mr. Mumuni's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary.

Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with commas.

Superfluous Commas

Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is knowing when not to
use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of personal taste, there are certain
instances when you should definitely avoid a comma.

Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

7.0 COMMON ERRORS IN SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

Errors are enduring mistakes which people make, sometimes without being aware that
something is missing in the speech act. Where a mistake may be corrected by the same
person that has committed it, errors are seldom corrected because listeners do not usually
want to embarrass the speaker and the speaker is invariably unaware of his or her fault. Some
of the commonest errors involve: mixture mix-up of Subject and Object, mixture of singular
and plural forms, multiple application of rules, misuse of word-formation rules and over-
generalization.

7.1 Mixture of tenses

For all speakers of English, whether first (L1) or second (L2) language speakers, tense is an
aspect of grammar to which much attention must be paid. I written English, in particular, the
mixture of tenses should be avoided. For example,
 He said he came here always- wrong

He said he comes here always- right

7.2 Mix-up of Subject and Object

The mix-up of subject and object is a common error, especially committed by L2 users of
English.

As a Nigerian, the country should honour him- wrong

As a Nigerian, he should be honoured by the country- right

7.3 Mixture of singular and plural forms

Many people tend to use singular and plural forms of words indiscriminately. When a noun
reflects an entire group of persons or things, the group is taken as entity.

a) The team, made up of officials and players, arrive on schedule- wrong

The team, made up of officials and players, arrive on schedule- right

b) One of them are late- wrong

One of them is late- right

c) Nobody are here- wrong

All of them are here- right

7.4 Misuse of word-formation rules

Some users of English sometimes use word-formation rules wrongly. This practice has the
tendency of generating grammatically incorrect sentences.

He found a scholarship scheme to take care of his desire- wrong

He finds a scholarship scheme to take care of his desire- right

He founded a scholarship scheme to take care of his desire- wrong

He founds a scholarship scheme to take care of his desire- right

10.5 Concord
In grammar, the term concord is referred to the agreement between or among different parts
of a sentence. An adjustment in the structure or form of a part of the sentence may trigger an
adjustment in the structure or form of another of the sentence. For examples:

The boy comes here regularly

The boys come here regularly

The boy came here yesterday

7.6 Over-generalization

Errors of concord also occur when people over-generalise concord rules. For instance, there
is a concord rule that makes it obligatory for the verb to be in the past tense because of the
adverb yesterday.

The spaceship blasted off yesterday

Nevertheless, the word formation rule that correctly generated the example above has been
over-generalized in the sentence below.

The astronaut broadcasted from space.

7.7 Faulty Parallelism

This has to do with expressing the elements of the sentence that are of equal importance by
parallel grammatical constructions. When this is not done, the sentence will be guilty of
faulty parallelism, e.g

The flowers were beautiful and of great variety- wrong

The flowers were of great beauty and variety- right

7.8 Misplaced Modifiers

In the sentence, modifiers are expected to be placed as near as possible to the word/words
which they modify, e.g

We were told that he was killed by telephone- wrong

We were told through telephone that he was killed- right

7.9 Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier occurs when an element in the sentence, usually a participial phrase, has
nothing to modify, e.g

Walking round the school, the administrator’s office was seen- wrong

As we walked round the school, the administrator’s office was seen-right

7.10 Incomplete or Illogical comparisons

Comparisons should be free of illogicality, especially when sentences are written. The
comparisons should also be complete, devoid of any ellipsis, e.g

John is better than any student in his class- wrong

John is better than any other student in his class- right

7.11 Split Infinitives

The infinitive is a single grammatical unit, hence it should not be separated or be split, e.g

He used to punctually attend lectures-wrong

He used to attend lectures punctually- right

7.12 Faulty subordination

Faulty subordination occurs when the most important idea of a sentence is not put in the main
clause, e.g

He has just become the CEO of his company when he had an accident- wrong

He had an accident just as he became the CEO of his company- right

8.0 MEETING

What is a Meeting?
A meeting is get-together of a group of persons to discuss ways and means to deal with a
specific time-bound task assigned. The members of the group share common experience,
common concern and common interest.
According to W.H. Newman, ‘A committee of a group of people specially designated to
perform some administrative acts. It functions only as a group and requires the free
interchange of ideas among its members.’
Hicks and Gullet defines the term, ‘A committee is a group of people who meet by plan to
discuss or make a decision for a particular subject. Because committee meets by plan, we do
not include group that occur spontaneously or informally in the definition of a committee.’ A
meeting is formally arranged gathering for the purpose of discussing an issue concerning a
large number of persons.
OBJECTIVES OF MEETING
A meeting may have any of the following objectives:
 To inform and explain the information to the members.
 To understand the situation.
 To get feedback from the members.
 To exchange ideas and experience among the members.
 To persuade members to accept changes.
 To resolve conflicts and confusions.
 To take decisions of matters affecting the group or the organization.
 To generate a positive attitude among the participants.
TYPES OF MEETING
❖ On the basis of function:
1. For giving information: This type of meetings is conducted for sharing information and
gathering views and opinions of the participants or members on that information.
2. For consultation: The consultative meetings are held to consult the members for their
views and opinions to reach an effective decision.
3. For execution of ideas: This type of meetings is held to gather new ideas or suggestions
for the execution of a task. When the cooperation of the members is required for the effective
dealing with a task such meetings are held.
❖ On the basis of their formality:
1. Structured meeting: Like parliament, state assemblies, company shareholder’s meetings,
management-union negotiations, university senate, councils and executives bodies.
2. Semi-structured meeting: Like committees, managing councils and general bodies of
voluntary organizations, briefing sessions, advisory bodies and management meetings.
3. Unstructured meeting: Like group discussions, ad hoc meetings of task groups and
brainstorming sessions.
PROCEDURE OF CONVENING A MEETING
Notice
The word ‘notice’ is derived from the Latin word meaning knowledge. The term in relation to
a meeting signifies the bringing of knowledge of the meeting to the person concerned. A
meeting is to be properly held only when notice of meeting is served to the concerned
persons. The notice informs the members as to the date, time and place of the meeting, the
issue to be discussed in the meeting and if possible, respective contribution expected from
different participants of the meeting.
Agenda
An agenda is a list of topics covered in a meeting. A well prepared agenda will assist
Chairperson in directing the business of the meeting and ensuring that decisions are reached
in an efficient manner. A copy of the agenda must be sent to the members along with the
agenda of the meeting. All the items included in the agenda must be serially arranged. If any
change is to be done in the order, the approval of the members is needed. Preparing agenda is
very useful practice:
1. If it is circulated in advance, it helps the members to come prepared for the meeting.
2. Since agenda has a set order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
3. It ensures that only matters relevant to that particular meeting are discussed.
4. It ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion.
5. It facilitates the preparation of the minutes.
The following points should be kept in the mind while drafting the agenda:
1. It should be clear and explicit.
2. It should be in a summary form.
3. The routine items should be put first and the other matters later.
4. All the matters of similar or allied character should be placed near each other on the
agenda.
5. All the items included in the agenda must be within the scope of the meeting.
6. All the items included in agenda must be written the scope of the notice calling the
meeting.

ABC Motors India Ltd.

Lucknow
Notice is hereby given to all the members that the next quarterly meeting of the Board of
Directors will be held on Tuesday, 20th February, 2023 at 11:30a.m. in the Board room.
Agenda
1. Conformation of Minutes of the last meeting.
2. Matters arising from the minutes.
3. Financial irregularities in Naya Nagar branch.
4. To appoint a committee for employees’ welfare.
 5. Any other matter with the permission of the chair.
6. Date of next meeting.
Secretary

Minutes of Meeting
During the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in the agenda are discussed serially
one by one. All the participants express their views/opinions and discuss amongst themselves
the pros and cons of each item of agenda. Finally, they arrive at some conclusions or
decisions, which are always kept on official records. We call them as minutes of a meeting.
Thus minutes are the official records of the proceedings of the meeting. In other words, these
are the brief of discussions held and decisions taken at the meeting. It is the duty of an
authorized person to retain all such discussions, deliberations and decisions in writing
specifically.
The purpose of writing minutes is:
1. To serve as the formal record of discussion.
2. To serve as a background for future discussions.
The minutes of a meeting must contain:
1. Date and the number of meeting.
2. A list of name of those who attended the meeting.
3. A list of those who did not attend and from whom apologies were received.
4. The record of conformation of the previous minutes and any amendments agreed to by the
committee.
5. The essential, relevant background to the topic under discussions.
6. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/resolution, and if appropriate, of
those individuals/bodies responsible for taking subsequent action.
7. Where discussion of a specific case leads to a policy issue, it is important that a separate
minute be written on the policy issue.
TYPES OF MINUTES
1. Minutes of resolutions. In this type of minutes, only the resolutions passed at a meeting
are recorded and no reference is made to any discussion preceding the resolutions.
 Decision, which are within the power of the committee, are introduced by the
words...............‘it was
resolved that............’
 Sometimes the members of the meeting are not empowered to take decision on the
given subject. They can only recommend their opinion to the higher authority who can take
decision. Such recommendations, which needs to be referred to an officer or others for
approval, are introduced by the words...............It was resolved to recommend...............’
Examples
 It was resolved that Sri Y.K.Yadav be and hereby appointed as the Deputy Manager
of the company with effect from 01/03/2023, at a consolidated salary of ₦40, 000 per month
and other benefits as per rules of the company.
 Since the changes are required to be approved by the Managing Director, it was
resolved to recommend omitting clause 7 of the employment contract of the Managing
Director.
2. Minutes of narration. Minutes of narration are somewhat similar to a report. Here, in
addition to the resolutions passed, a brief account of the discussion and the voting pattern is
also included.

REPORT WRITING

A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event, progress of

action or some business activity. It is a written statement of results, events, qualities,
conditions, progress or interpretation of records. A report is a basic management tool used in
decision-making. A report carries information from someone who has it someone who need
it.
ORAL AND WRITTEN REPORTS
An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may consist in the communication of an
impression or an observation. But written report is always preferred because:
1. An oral report can be denied at any time. But written report is a permanent record.
2. An oral report tends to be vague. In written report, the writer tries to be accurate and
precise.
3. A written report can be referred to again and again.
4. Distortion during transmission reduces.
Types of Business Reports
❖ On the basis of legal formalities
1. Informal reports: It is written in the form of a letter from one person to another. Informal
reports typically do not follow any prescribed form or procedure. They do not have any
uniform structure. They are prepared according to the convenience and requirements of the
organization. These reports may be informative or recommendatory.
2. Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is
presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority.
 Statutory: A report prepared according to the form & procedure laid down by law is
called statutory report.
 Non-statutory: Formal reports which are not required under any law but which are
prepared to help management in framing policies or taking other important decision
are called non-statutory report.
❖ On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.
1. Periodic or routine reports: They are prepared and presented at regular prescribed
intervals in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted daily. Branch Manager of
banks submits periodic reports to the Head office on the quantum of business transacted
during a particular period.
2. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the
desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular branch are
special reports. Special reports deal with non- recurrent problems.
❖ On the basis of functions a report can be informative.
If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is informative. On the
other hand, if it analyses the facts, draw conclusions and make recommendations, it may be
described as analytical or interpretative or investigative.
❖ On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have a
 Problem-determining report
 Fact-finding report
 Performance report
 Technical report etc.
❖ On the basis of the number of persons interested with the drafting of reports, we can have:
 Reports by individuals
 Reports by committees or sub-committees.
Characteristics and Purpose of a Good Report
 Precise and brief
 Accuracy
 Clarity
  Relevant
 Reader-oriented
PURPOSE OF BUSINESS REPORT
1. It presents factual information to management.
2. It records fact and results of investigation or survey for future references.
3. It provides useful information to shareholders, customers, creditors and general public.
4. It makes recommendation for future use.
Guiding Principles of Writing a Report
1. The report should be addressed to some definite authority, i.e. the Managing Director or
Board of Directors.
2. It should contain a short and clear title to know about the report at a glance.
3. As the report is generally drafted on the advice or request of some reader, it should quote
the term of reference so that it should be clear why the report is required.
4. The body of the report should be planned and should be logical in sequence preferably
with headed paragraph.
5. The recommendations, if any, should be boldly marked so as to invite immediate attention.
It may be signed by the officer responsible for it and it should be dated.
Preparing a Report
The following five steps are suggested to write a report.
 Investigating the source of information
 Taking notes
 Analysing the data
 Making an outline; and
 Writing the report
Structure of a Report
1. Letter form: For informal reports, letter form is recommended. Its main part is heading or
the title, data, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close and signature. The body of
the letter is further divided into:
(i) Introduction: It presents the terms of reference and the subject of study. (It states problem
with the term of reference and relevant circumstances).
(ii) Findings: The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.
(iii) Recommendation: It logically follows the findings given in the last paragraph of the
body.
2. Memorandum: It is simplest than letter form. The date is mentioned at the top. It is
followed by the name of the person to whom the report is addressed, the name of the writer
and the subject of the report. Next follows the actual text and the conclusion. As in the letter
form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with heading and sub-heading.
MEMORANDUM
Date:........................
To: ............................
From: ........................
Subject: ....................
Body of Letter .......................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
Format of Memo for Report Writing
3. Letter-text combination form: Long reports are usually written in the letter text
combination form. A complete report in this form is divided into three major parts:-
(I) Introductory Parts
 Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
 Cover page
 Title page
 Preface
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations
 Abstract/summary or synopsis
(II) Body of the Report
 Introduction
 Research methodology
 Analysis/ Discussion or description
 Finding
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
(III) End Matters
 List of references
  Glossary
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Index
(A) Introductory Parts
1. Letter of Transmittal or Letter of Presentation
A letter of transmittal is routine letter written to transmit the report from the writer to the
reader. It provides a permanent record of transfer, it shows the date on which the report was
submitted, and it states the name and position of writer, whom the report was authorized,
invite readers’ comments and suggestion. Scope of the report, refers to writers source of
information and highlights special features.
2. Cover Page
Basically it protects the manuscript from damage and gives the report a neat appearance.
Some of the organizations have their own cover page in printed form in which name and the
address of the company is printed on them. Otherwise, it contains title of the report, date, its
number, if any and classification like secret, top secret etc.

3. Title Page
The title page showing title of the report, the author name, name of the authority for whom
the report was written, year and month of completion etc.
4. Preface
It is an introduction to a report which contains almost all the information about the contents,
indicating sometimes the limitations in the report. It includes prefatory words before a report
is offered to the readers.
5. Acknowledgement
Unless you have given credit elsewhere, mention diligently the name of persons and
organization that have helped you in the preparation of the report. In doing so we are sincere
and courteous in our language and expression.
6. Table of Contents
What are the different contents you should use in your report and where it can be mentioned
or explained in the report are easily understood by the table. It is advisable that contents
should be followed by the respective page number.
7. List of Illustrations
A comprehensive and systematically prepared report may contain illustrations or a number of
figures or pictures or maps and page number where they can be located.
8. Abstract/Summary
The synopsis gives the reader a quick grasp of the substance of report. An abstract is a
condensed form of the report. In fact, the abstract states what report is all about, what the
significance of the project or report. A summary on the other hand is the entire report in a
nutshell. An abstract is shorter than the summary.
(B) Body of the Report
1. Introduction
The purpose of introduction in a report is to introduce the subject to the readers. It includes:-
 Historical and technical background.
 Organization of the material.
 Scope of study, specifying its limitation and qualification.
 Authorization for the report and terms of reference.
 Definitions of special terms and symbols, if their number is small.
It should contain a clear statement about the objective and subject of report, i.e. enough
background to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating.

2. Research Methodology
Any report not considered as a good report until a writer has not specified from where and
how they collect the data. Data are of two kinds, primary and secondary data. Primary data
are those data which are taken or used by the writer first time and secondary data are those
data which are already used somewhere.
3. Analysis/Discussion or Description of the Data
It is the main part or section of the report. This part includes analysis, synthesis and
interpretations. It systematically presents the various aspects of the issue under headings and
subheadings. The main function of this part is to present data in an organized form, discuss
their significance and analysis and the results that flow there from. It includes charts, graphs,
statistical table etc.
4. Findings
In this part the expected solution that comes from the investigation are presented together
with the respective merits and demerits of each. There is a clear explanation of each solution.
Findings are arranged and presented in chronological or logical sequence. With respect to the
chapters, it may include pictures, maps, charts, tables, diagrams etc.
5. Conclusions
It is basically ending part of the investigation; the significant results should be summarized
clearly. All conclusions must be supported by what has gone before; nothing new should be
included at this stage. If their number is large, they may be itemized in the descending order
of their importance.
6. Recommendations
If your report is short than you should combine conclusion and recommendation on the same
section because they are closely associated. But in long reports, this practice makes confusion
in the mind of the reader and also difficult to explain by the writer. Recommendation
suggests the course of action to be taken and indicate the results in effect. It should clearly be
defined from the conclusion and the act as the reasoning for decision making.
(C) End Matters
1. List of References
In this section writer give credit to the author concerned by listing them to the end of report.
When the reference are in small number than it cited on the bottom of subsequent page where
the reference is used as a footnote. And when they are in large number than we should attach
a separate sheet.
2. Glossary
A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and their explanations. Again as the
list of reference if they are in small number then it puts on footnotes but if large then they
come under the separate section of glossary.
3. Bibliography
A bibliography is a serially numbered list of published and unpublished works which are
consulted before or during the preparation of a report. The bibliography may also include
works recommended for the further study. The element of the bibliography are: the last name
of the author, other part of name, title of the book, edition if any, name of publisher, place of
publication and year of the publication.
Example:- Kotler, P., Marketing Management; edn: 12th ; Pearson Education; New Delhi;
2007.
4. Appendices
It contains charts, diagram, statistical table which is needed to support the main body of the
report. But such data that the reader can safely omit while reading it without any loss of
understanding of the contents of the report. And if he/she wishes to examine in detail the
supporting or related evidence and documents he/she should be able to find it in the
appendices.
5. Index
The index is intended to serve as a quick guide to the material in the report. By this reader
can easily find out any topic of the contents with their subsequent page number and it is in the
form of alphabetical order. It is useful in the long or bulky reports. In short, reports table of
contents is finding suitable to this purpose.