Fluid Mechanics I

Alfredo Soldati

April 19, 2021

1
Summary i
Lecture 1 - Statics
Lecture 2 - Fluid Dynamics
Lecture 3
Lecture 4 - Fluid motion in pipes
Lecture 5 - Fundamental equations for viscous flows
Lecture 6 -
Lecture 7
Lecture 8
Lecture 9 - Macroscopic balance equations
Lecture 10 - Momentum conservation equation
Lecture 11
Lecture 12
Lecture 13
2
Suggested Books

M. M. Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliff (NJ) 1980 (available to students)

3
Lecture 1 - Statics
Statics

Definitions of the important fluid properties

Definitions of the forces acting in statics

4
 We can imagine one small parcel of fluid of mass ∆m, volume
∆V , and surface S as in the figure.

The differential surface element

dS is characterized by the versor
normal to the surface and
external.

In fluid statics, the fluid parcel will be at equilibrium under the

action of

body forces (for instance, magnetic, electric, gravitational)

surface forces

5
Fluid Density

The density (of a fluid) is defined as the ratio between mass and
volume. It is an intensive property, indicating that it does not
depend on the overall quantity of material.
 
∆m kg
ρ = lim
∆V →0 ∆V m3

To define the density, we have of course to limit ourselves to the

continuum hypothesis.

6
Pascal’s Law

In any closed, static fluid system, a pressure change at

any one point is transmitted undiminished throughout the
system.

from which the Pascal’s Law follows:

The pressure force which is generated at any one point
P in a fluid has direction perpendicular to any surface
containing the point and modulus (strength) independent
of the surface orientation.
[eardrum]

7
Balance of Forces

gravity (g = 9.8066)

dF~G = ~g dm = ρ~g dV

N
surface force pressure ([p] = Pa = m2
)

dF~P = −pdS~ = −p~

ndS

where p is the value of the pressure at the point and dS~ is the
surface vector.

8
Balance of Forces

The fluid volume is in equilibrium when gravity and pressure forces

are equal. We must integrate the gravity force
Z Z
~
FG = ~
dG = ρ~g dV
V V

and the pressure force

Z Z
F~P = ~ =
(−pdS) (−p~
ndS)
S

Using the Gauss’ (Divergence) Theorem, we obtain a volume

integral which allows to compare the two forces:
Z
F~P = ~
(−∇pdV )
V

9
Equilibrium of a Fluid Element

F~P + F~G = 0
Z
~
(−∇pdV + ρ~g dV ) = 0
V
Since the volume over which we are integrating is arbitrary, the
integrand must be zero everywhere, thus the Law of the statics
of fluids follows:
~ + ρ~g = 0
−∇p

This is a vectorial equation with 3 (on the Earth) scalar

component equations.

10
Reference system

On the Earth the reference system is such that the

normal-to-the-earth component is antiparallel to the gravity.
z

dp ˆ ˆ 0)
i = ρ~gx = ρgx i(=
~g dx
ẑ
dp ˆ ˆ 0)
ŷ y j = ρ~gy = ρgy j(=
dy
x̂ dp
k̂ = ρ~gz = −ρgz k̂ = −ρg k̂
dz

11
Hydrostatics equation

In this frame of reference, we can then reduce our vectorial

equation to a scalar equation only along the vertical direction; we
have thus the relation for the statics of fluids (liquids):

dp
= −ρg
dz

12
Example: underwater pressure

If z < 0,

dp = −ρg dz
p(0)
Z Z0
⇒ =− ρg dz
p(z) z

p(0) − p(z) = ρgz|0z = ρgz

p(0) is the atmospheric

pressure.

p(z) = patm − ρgz

13
Homework

Oil well.

14
Archimede’s Principle
A body immersed in a fluid receives a pressure force
equal in modulus but opposite to the gravity force acting
on the dislocated fluid.

15
Archimede’s Principle

(p0 is a reference pressure)

dFt = −dxdz(p0 − ρgyt )

dFb = dxdz(p0 − ρgyb )

dFtot = dFb − dFt = dxdz(yy − yb )ρg = ρg dV

16
Homework

Archimede’s push for a sphere.

dV = r cos φdθdr · r dφ

17
Homework

Equilibrium height of salt water and lagoon across an ideal dam.

18
Atmospheric Pressure & Density

The law for the statics of a fluid holds also in the atmosphere:

dp = −ρg dz

However, over the Earth the temperature decreases with the

altitude. The average decrease gradient is 6.5◦ C /km, then we have

T (z) = T0 − αz

19
Since air is a gas, if we assume the perfect gas law to hold we
have
p RT M
= ⇒ρ=p
ρ M RT
with R = 8314, M = 29. Therefore,
Mg
dp = −ρg dz = −p dz
RT

dp MG
=− dz
p RT

20
Integrating from zero level to level z,
Zp Zz
dp Mg
=− dz
p RT
p0 z0

With z0 = 0,
Zp Zz
dp Mg
=− dz
p R(T0 − αz)
p0 0

p Mg T0 − αz
⇒ ln = ln
p0 Rα T0
and finally
  Mg
T0 − αz αR
p(z) = p0
T0

21
The reference conditions at 0 are:

T0 = 293K ; p0 = 101325Pa

R = 8314 ; α = 6.5 · 10−3 ; M = 29 ; g = 9.8066

So, for instance, on Mount Kilimanjaro,

p(5000m) = 54577Pa ' 0.53atm

22
Atmosphere density

RT (z)
p(z) = ρ(z)
M
RT0
p0 = ρ0
M
p(z) ρ(z) RT (z)
=
p0 ρ0 RT0
 Mg
T0 − αz ( αR −1)

ρ(z) = ρ0
T0
ρ0 = 1.38kg /m3 ⇒ ρ(5000m) = 0.83kg /m3

23
Surface Tension

N 
Surface tension: σ = m

A bubble is like a small balloon: an inside pressure larger than the

outside one is necessary to maintain the slope.
The figure on the right represents
half a bubble, or a bubble
attached to a surface.
The surface tension acts only in
the vertical direction. We want
to compute the force balance
along the vertical direction.

24
The overall force exerted by the external pressure is

Fext =
Z2π Zπ/2
= pe R cos θdθRdφ
0 0
Zπ/2
(1)
= 2πR 2 pe cos θdθ
0
π/2
cos2 θ
= 2πR 2 pe
2 0
2
= −πR pe

25
In an analogous fashion, the force exerted by the inertial pressure
(in the vertical direction) is

Fint = πR 2 pi

and the force exerted by the surface tension is

Fσ = −2πRσ

The balance reads Fint + Fext + Fσ = 0, thus

πR 2 pi = πR 2 pe + 2πRσ

2σ Pressure required to maintain

(pi − pe ) =
R
the bubble.

26
In an analogous fashion, the force exerted by the inertial pressure
(in the vertical direction) is

Fint = πR 2 pi

and the force exerted by the surface tension is

Fσ = −2πRσ

The balance reads Fint + Fext + Fσ = 0, thus

πR 2 pi = πR 2 pe + 2πRσ

(pi − pe ) Surface tension necessary to

σ= R
2 maintain the bubble.

26
Questions:

How can a bubble start?

Miracles in a glass of Champagne.
Compute the same for a ”cylindrical” bubble of infinite length.

27
Lecture 2 - Fluid Dynamics
While fluid statics involves no motion, fluid dynamics involves
motion and the forces that are generated by motion.

28
Viscosity

The viscosity is a fluid property that determines the ease at which

the fluid flows. It is the physical property that relates momentum
flux to the velocity gradient:
The larger the viscosity, the larger is the force which must be
applied to produce the same deformation (velocity gradient).

viscosity = µ[Pa · s]
m2
kinematic viscosity = ν[ ]
s

29
Viscosity

The viscosity is a macroscopic property which is a direct

consequence of molecular motion.
Blue molecules are accelerating
layer 2, whereas Red molecules
are decelerating layer 1.
Macroscopically, we see friction
caused by the viscosity.

30
Viscosity

To give an operational definition of viscosity, we perform the

following idealized experiment:
We have two parallel plates, very
large of surface A. Fluid is in
√
between and the gap is h  A.
We apply a force F to the top
plate, which moves with velocity
U (constant); the bottom plate is
fixed.

31
Viscosity

Experimentally we observe:

For constant U and h, the force F is directly proportional to

the area a: F ∝ A;
F
A is a unique, monotonically increasing function of the ratio
U
h.

F
has pressure units mN2 , but it is not a pressure since it acts
 
A
“in” the plane of the F force.

32
Viscosity

We define:
F
shear stress τ = A;
U
shear rate ΓS = h.

Then, for the two observations, we have:

dτ
τ = τ (ΓS ) and >0
dΓS
So the shear stress for a given fluid is an unique function of only
the shear rate and this function is monotonically increasing.

33
Viscosity

dτ
When dΓ S
= constant, the fluid is called Newtonian. In this case,
viscosity is thus defined as

τ
µ= [Pa · s]
Γ

For all fluids, in general,

τ = µ (ΓS ) · ΓS

34
Viscosity

Real experiments cannot be performed on a very large (”infinite”)

flat plates. They are performed in what is called a Couette
viscometer.
Plate velocity: ΩR
ΓS = ΩR h
dA = L · R · dθ (L is the height of
the cilynder)

RΩR
dF = τ dA = µΓS dA = µ Ldθ
h

35
Viscosity

Typically, for a newtonian fluid (µ = constant) the operative plot

is as follows:

The actual measure is taken on the torque:

Z 2π Z 2π
Ω R3 ΩL
T = dF · R = µ Ldθ = 2πµR 3
0 0 h h
Th
⇒µ=
2π R 3 ΩL
36
Viscosity

However, we already know what viscosity is and how we can

measure it: we know that in winter we have to change the oil in
the car engine. Motor oil is characterized by the label ”S.A.E.”
(Society for Automotive Engineers). The number following (e.g.
30) is the time in seconds it is necessary for 60ml of oil to empty a
container through a hole of 1.76cm.

37
Sphere

Forces acting on a sphere in a fluid

From a static point of view:
D3 D3
F~G = gravity force = ρP π ~g ; F~B = buoyancy force = −ρF π ~g
6 6
The equilibrium equation is
D3 D3
 
~ ~
FG +FB = 0 ⇒ ρP π − ρF π (−k̂g ) = 0 ⇒ (ρF − ρP ) = 0
6 6
It follows that the sphere is in equilibrium only if ρP = ρB ;
otherwise, for ρP > ρF (e.g. particles) or ρP < ρF (e.g. bubbles),
the sphere starts moving.

38
Sphere

Dynamics of a sphere immersed in a fluid

In steady motion, a sphere moving in a fluid will experience a drag
force. Supposing that the sphere is heavier than the fluid and falls,
we have that:

The gravity force drives the

sphere [constant];
The buoyancy force acts opposed
to the gravity [constant];
The drag force opposes to the
motion.

39
Sphere

Computation of the drag force

Historically (and currently) to compute the drag force on a sphere
one must make experiments. Experiments should be (and are)
made for the entire range of the several parameters involved. We
want to measure FD . We assume that the drag force is a function
of v (sphere velocity), D (sphere diameter), ρF (fluid density), µ
(fluid viscosity); we have then five parameters: F , v , D, ρF , µ.
Let us imagine we have made all the necessary experiments. To
suitably describe the results we need to group the parameters. We
can use the
Buckingham theorem:
If there is a physical relation that involves a certain number of
physical parameters (M), which have N physical dimensions
involved, then the ralation can be cast in terms of M − N
40
dimensionless groups.
Sphere

For the falling sphere we have:

m
[F ] = N = kg · s2
m
[v ] = s
kg
[ρF ] = m 3

[D] = m
N kg
[µ] = Ps · s = m2
· s = g mm2 ss2 = ms

We have N = 3 physical dimensions (kg ,m,s); then, our relation

can be cast in terms of M − N = 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless groups
(we will call them Π1 and Π2 ).

41
Sphere

The Buckingham theorem gives us the possibility of a

mathematical solution to identify the two parameters which are
dimensionless. However, here we try to reason: we can, for
instance, make the force dimensionless:

group proportional to inertial forces: ρF v 2 D 2 ;

group proportional to shear forces: µ Dv D 2 .

Then we have three possibilities:

FD FD ρF v 2 D 2
; ;
ρF v 2 D µ Dv D 2 µ Dv D 2

42
Sphere

We choose two among these numbers:

FD
ρF v 2 D
= inertial drag force
forces of the fluid
ρF v 2 D 2 inertial forces of the fluid
µ Dv D 2
= viscous (shear) forces of the fluid

Then we can have the following physical relation (which accounts

for all the involved variables:
ρF v 2 D 2
   
FD vD
=f = f ρF
ρF v 2 D 2 µ Dv D 2 µ

and we can express the drag force as

 
vD
FD = ρF v 2 D 2 · f ρF
µ
where f is still unknown.
43
Sphere

Usually, f is caled cD (drag coefficient) and some constants are

added as follows:
2
 
1 2 πD vD
FD = ρF v cD ρD
2 4 µ

The dimensionless number ρD vµD is called Sphere Reynolds’

number
vD
ReP = ρF
µ

44
Sphere

Plotting the results of the experiments, we get the following

45
Sphere

Plotting the results of the experiments, we get the following

46
Sphere

Plotting the results of the experiments, we get the following

47
Sphere

Regimes are defined by the value of the Reynolds number:

24
ReP < 1 : Stokes regime (analytic) cD =
ReP
1 < ReP < 103 : Transition regime cD = 18 ReP−0.6
103 < ReP < 105 : Newton regime cD ' 0.45

Note on drag crisis: when ReP becomes large then, the boundary
layer becomes turbulent and the wake becomes smaller. N.B. the
wake is loss of energy. A smaller wake → less waste of energy.

48
 See supplemental material 2
( slides from Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid
Motion )

48
Sphere

Equation of motion of a sphere in a fluid

We use the momentum conservation equation:
X d(m~v )
F~i =
dt
i

So the variation of the momentum (m~v ) is equal to the sum of all

the forces acting. In our case, ~v is the velocity of the sphere and m
is its mass. We consider the three external forces:
3
gravity: F~G = m~g = π D6 ρP ~g
3
buoyancy: F~B = −π D6 ρF ~g
2
drag: F~D = 12 ρF (~ u − ~v |π D4 cD (ReP )
u − ~v )|~

Note that in the expression of the drag force we are using the
relative velocity: u~ is the fluid velocity and ~v is the sphere velocity.
49
Sphere

The equation of momentum conservation is thus:

πD 3 πD 3 1 πD 2 dmP ~v
ρP ~g − u − ~v )|~
ρF ~g + ρF (~ u − ~v | cD (ReP ) =
6 6 2 4 dt
This is a general equation which will describe the motion of a
sphere. We will solve it starting from simpler cases. Note that the
term (~u − ~v )|~
u − ~v | is important because it retains the square of
the velocity modulus but also the direction of the relative velocity.

50
Sphere

Steady-state free fall of a sphere in still fluid

In this case, u~ = 0 and dm~v
dt = 0.
We also assume that the sphere moves in Stokes’ regime:
24
cD = Re P
.

D3 1 πD 2
π g (ρP − ρf ) − ρF v 2 · cD (ReP ) = 0
6 2 4
Substituting the expression for cD (ReP ):

D
3 1 π
2
2 24
D
π
 g (ρP − ρF ) = ρ F v
6 2 4 ReP

51
Substituting the expression for ReP :
D 1 2 1 24µ
g (ρP − ρF ) = ρ
F v

6 2 4
ρF
D
 v
Finally, we find the so-called free-fall velocity or terminal velocity.

D 2 (ρP − ρF )g
v=
18 µ

52
Sphere

Exercise: Free-fall velocity of a raindrop

Consider a small raindrop (mist):

D = 50µm = 50 · 10−6 m

ρP = 1000kg /m3 ; ρF = 1.2kg /m3

µF = 2 · 10−5 Pa · s ; g = 9.81m/s 2
⇒ v = 0.06m/s
Is this value reliable? We must check if the Reynolds number is
below 1 (limit of application of the Stokes law):
Dv
ReP = ρF = 0.2
µ
So the derivation is reliable.
53
Lecture 3
Sphere

Dynamics of a sphere in a fluid

Here we consider the more general case in quich the fluid is moving
and the sphere undergoes transient motion. The complete
momentum balance equation is:
πD 3 πD 3 1 πD 2 dmP ~v
ρP ~g − u − ~v )|~
ρF ~g + ρF (~ u − ~v | cD (ReP ) =
6 6 2 4 dt
We assume that:
The sphere moves in Stokes flow (ReP < 1);
The mass of the sphere is constant (i.e. no
evaporation/burning/condensation).
24 24µ
Then, for cD = ReP = u −~
ρF D|~ v| the equation becomes
d~v 1 24µ πD 2 3
| + (ρ − ρ ) πD ~
mp = ρ
F (~
u − ~
v ) |~
u −
 ~
v

P F g
|~ −
~v| 4

dt 2  ρ
F D u 6
54
Sphere
3
Noting that mp = ρP πD
6 and µ = νρF ,
πD 3 d~v 1 24µ πD 2 πD 3
ρP = (~u − ~v ) + (ρP − ρF ) ~g
6 dt 2 D 4 6
d~v 18µ
= u − ~v ) + fracρP − ρF ρP ~g
(~
dt ρP D 2
Naming
ρP − ρF
ρ̂ =
ρP
and the characteristic time of the particle
ρp D 2
τP =
18µ
we get
d~v u~ − ~v
= + ρ̂~g
dt τP

55
Sphere

Let us solve this equation in a simplified setup:

A small sphere is still at point

P = (0, 0). A stream is flowing
at uniform velocity ~v . At time
t = 0 the sphere is left free to
move under the combined action
of gravity and stream.

56
Sphere

Our equation is a 1st order diferential equation in ~v and a 2nd

order in the particle position ~x [coordinates (x, y )]. Since it has
two components, we need four initial conditions (t = 0):

x(0) = 0
y (0) = 0
ẋ(0) = 0
ẏ (0) = 0
~ = (V , 0). The equation becomes
For the flow, V

d~v ~ − ~v
V
= + ρ̂~g
dt τP

57
Sphere

In components:
dvx V − vx
=
dt τP
dvy vy
= − + ρ̂g
dt τP
or
V − ẋ
ẍ =
τP
ẏ
ÿ = − + ρ̂g
τP
We can now integrate separately the two components.

58
Sphere

x direction:
dẋ V − ẋ
=
dt τP
dẋ dt
=
V − ẋ τP
t
− ln(V − ẋ) = + C0
τP
 
t
V − ẋ = C · exp −
τP
At t = 0 we have ẋ = 0, so
V − 0 = C · exp(0) ⇒ C = V
then   
t
ẋ = V 1 − exp −
τP

59
Sphere

 
ẋ
Normalized velocity along x: V = 1 − exp − τtP .

τP is an order of magnitude for the time it takes to reach the wind

velocity V . It is also called ”Relaxation time”.

60
Sphere

Integrating once more,

 
t
x(t)Vt + V τP · exp − + C2
τP

Using the initial condition x(0) = 0,

0 = V τP + C2 ⇒ C2 = −V τP

and finally
 
t
x(t) = V τP e −ti/τP − 1 +
τP

61
Sphere

 
x
Normalized position along x: V τP = exp − τtP − 1 + t
τP .

After the relaxation time, the curve relaxes onto a straight line.

62
Sphere

y direction:
dẏ ẏ
= − + ρ̂g
dt τP
dẏ
= dt
ρ̂g − τẏP
 
ẏ
−τP ln ρ̂g − = t + C 00
τP
 
ẏ 0 t
ρ̂g − = C exp −
τP τP
 
t
ẏ (t) = ρ̂g τP − C exp −
τP
Considering the boundary condition
ẏ (0) = 0 ⇒ C = ρ̂g τP
  
t
ẏ = ρ̂g τP 1 − exp − 63
τP
Sphere

Taking the limit of the velocity, we obtain the free-fall velocity:

ρP − ρF g ρP D 2 (ρP − ρF )gD 2
lim ẏ = ρ̂g τP = =
t→∞ ρP 18µ 18µ
And we easily find
 
t
y (t) = ρ̂g τP t + ρ̂g τP2 exp + C2
τP
that considering the boundary condition

y (0) = 0 ⇒ C2 = −ρ̂g τP2

becomes  
−t/τP t
x(t) = ρ̂g τP2 e −1+
τP

64
Sphere

Plotting the results:

65
Sphere

Note that if τP is small the transient phase can be neglected.

If we then want to examine a drop which is burning (e.g. a fuel
drop), the balance equation changes as follows:

d(m~v ) X ~
= Fi
dt
i

dm d~v X
~v +m = F~i
dt dt
i
?

?: inertia is lost through evaporation

66
Lecture 4 - Fluid motion in pipes
Pipe

Suppose we have to design a pipeline which must transport a

certain fluid with given characteristics, densiry and viscosity. The
specification we have to respect is the flowrate.

The pipe has length L [m] and diameter D [m]. To drive the flow
we must apply a force (a pressure difference between the pipe
cross-section in 1 and the one in 2 .

67
Pipe

Q = volumetric flowrate m3 /s
 

w = mass flowrate [kg /s]

v = average velocity [m/s]
P1 = pressure in 1 [Pa]
P2 = pressure in 2 [Pa]
Of course, P2 < P1 , or ∆P = P2 − P1 < 0. |∆P| is the pressure
drop.
The average velocity is computed as (D is the cross section of the
pipe)
Q
v = D2
π 4

68
Pipe

To know the relationship between pressure drop and the other

parameters (in particular, the flow rate) we must resort to
experiments. Assuming Newtonian, incompressible flow, and
aiming at applying the Buckingham theorem, our parameters are
D[m] ; L[m] ; |∆P| [N/m2 ]
v [m/s] ; ρ[kg /m3 ] ; µ[Pa · s]
So we have 6 parameters and 3 physical units, thus 3 dimensionless
numbers Πi :
L
Π1 =
D
|∆P|
Π2 =
ρv 2
ρv 2
Π3 =
µv /D
69
Pipe

Starting from the relation

 
|∆P| Dv ρ L
=f ,
ρv 2 µ D

after running many experiments the function f , which is unknown

theoretically, can be determined empirically. Before doing this, the
equation can be simplified: we can easily infer that the dependence
of |∆P| on the length of the pipe is linear (pumping fluid along a
pipe twice as long will be twice as expensive).
 
|∆P| L Dv ρ
= · f
ρv 2 D µ

70
Pipe

Defining the Reynolds’ number as the ratio between inertial and

viscous forces,
ρv 2 ρvD
Re = µv =
D µ
it results
|∆P| L
2
= · f (Re)
ρv D
where f (Re) is called friction factor.

71
In the literature and in manuals it is possible to find two different
expressions for f :

|∆P| D
fF (Re) = Fanning friction factor
2ρv 2 L
|∆P| D
fM (Re) = 1 2 Moody friction factor
2 ρv
L

The Moody (or Darcy) friction factor is four times the Fanning
friction factor; it is largely used by civil and mechanical engineers.
The diagrams showing the dependence of the friction factor on the
Reynolds’ number are called Moody diagrams.

72
Pipe

73
Pipe

74
Pipe

Smooth pipes
We will use, with the majority, the Fanning friction factor. In
pipes, the friction factor has the following depencence on the
Reynolds’ number:

75
Pipe

Laminar flow

Re < 2100
16
f =
Re
This expression is exact and can be evaluated analitically under
certain hypotheses.
The pressure drop is thus
|∆P| D 16
=
2ρv 2 L Re
|∆P| D 16µ
2
=
2ρv L ρvD
So the dependence of the mean velocity on the pressure drop is
|∆P| D 2
v= ·
32 Lµ 76
Pipe

Often, though, we want to know which flowrate corresponds to a

certain pressure drop:

πD 2
Q = flowrate = v
4
And we find the Hagen-Poiseuille equation:

π |∆P| 4
Q= D
128 Lµ

77
Pipe

Turbulent flow

4000 < Re < 105

Empirical relations are derived: Blasius equation

f = 0.079Re −1/4

Von Karman - Nikusadse equation

1 h √ i
√ = 4.0 log1 0 Re f − 0.4
f
1 h √ i
√ = 1.7 ln Re f − 0.4
f

78
Pipe

Note that
forRe < 2100 ∆P ∼ v

forRe > 2100 ∆P ∼ v 1.75

79
Pipe

Rough pipes
Normal pipes are machined and not perfectly smooth.
DN is the nominal diameter. k is the (dimensional) absolute
roughness.  = DkN is the (non dimensional) relative roughness.

For normal commercial pipes, usually k scales with the pipe

diameter, so when D increases k also increases, but  remains
constant. 80
Pipe

So, for commercially available pipes we can use the empirical

correction to the Blasius law:

f = 0.046Re −0.16

For all different roughtnesses we ca use the empirical formula of

Colebrook:  
1 k 4.67
√ = −1.7 ln + √ + 2.28
f D Re f

81
Pipe

Example 1 - Capillary viscometer

We have a fluid of which we want to measure the viscosity. We
have one capillary viscometer, which is a long pipe with a small
diameter D = 10mm = 10−3 m.

When we drive a flowrate Q in the pipe we can measure the

pressure. For Q = 60mm3 /s, |∆P| = 200Pa. We can use the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
π |∆P| D 4
µ= = 0.8
128 L Q
µ = 0.8Pa · s
However, before releasing this number, we must verify wheter the
hypotheses are correct: Is the flow laminar?. 82
Pipe

To compute the Reynolds number, we must know density (ρ) and

velocity (v ) of the fluid/flow:

4
ρ = 1200kg /m3 ; v = Q = 7.7 · 10−4 m/s
πD 2
ρvD
Re = = 0.011
µ
which is less than the laminar/turbulence transition threshold.

83
Pipe

Example 2 - Pumping power (given to the flow)

In an horizontal pipe of diameter D, constant, the forces acting at

the two sections 1 and 2 are
πDi 2 πDi 2
F1 = p1 , F2 = p2
4 4
where p1 and p2 are the pressures at sections 1 and 2, respectively.
The forces are oriented as in figure.

84
Pipe

The net force is

πD 2
F = (p1 − p2 ) [N]
4
The work, J, to displace the mass m contained in the pipe of a
length ∆L is J = F · ∆L[N · m = Joule].
The displacement ocurs in a time ∆t which is ∆t = ∆L v . Therefore
the power P given to the fluid to displace it of a length ∆L in a
time ∆t is
J πD 2
P= = (p1 − p2 ) v = |∆p| Q
∆t 4

85
Pipe

Pipes of non-circular cross-section

When a pipe has a non-circular cross-section, we must introduce
the concept of an equivalent diameter, which is called hydraulic
diameter, DH , which is computed as
4 · volume of flux 4 · conduit cross-section
DH = =
wetted surface wetted perimeter
For a pipe with circular cross-section, DH = D.
The friction factor may then be computed just replacing D with
DH .

86
Pipe

Example 1
◦
Water at 93 C flows in a smooth pipe of D = 100mm with a
flowrate of 100m3 /h. Compute the pressure drop per meter of
◦
tube length. Data for 93 C are:
ρ = 960kg /m3 ; µ = 0.31 · 10−3 Pa · s
4Q 4 · 0.0277
Q = 100m3 /h = 0.027m3 /s ; v = 2
= = 3.54m/s
πD π · 0.01
The Reynolds number is Re = ρvD 6
µ = 1.09 · 10 . Even though we
are at the limit of the range of applicability, we use the Blasius
formula:
f = 0.079 · Re −0.25 = 2.4 · 10−3
and the pressure drop per meter is
|∆P| v2 Pa
= 2ρ f = 5.77 · 102
L D m 87
Pipe

Example 2
Compute pressure drop per unit length and power per unit length
for an horizontal smooth pipe of diameter D = 50mm which
transports a flowrate Q = 0.01m3 /s of oil with density
ρ = 980kg /m2 and viscosity µ = 0.1Pa · s.

88
Pipe

Example 2
Pressure drop per unit length is
v2 Q2
 
∆p 4
= 2ρf = 32ρf 2 5 v= Q
∆L D π D πD 2
∆p
∆L
f = 0.079 · Re −0.25 [smooth pipe]
ρvD 4ρQ
Re = = = 2.5 · 103
µ πµD
so the flow is turbulent.
∆p
= 11.368Pa/m
∆L
P ∆P
= Q = 113.6W /m
∆L ∆L
89
Lecture 5 - Fundamental equations
for viscous flows
Fundamental equations

The fundamental equations which describe viscous flows are

derived from microscopic balances. We will derive here these
conservation equations, which we will use to obtain the local
behavior of the variables in viscous flows.
These equations, although known for about 150 years, are very
difficult to solve ad are a great challenge also for present day
supercomputers.
See

Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall

White, Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill

90
Fundamental equations

We will derive the equations starting from the conservation laws

for physical systems:

Conservation of mass (continuity)

Conservation of momentum (Newton’s second law)
Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics) [we
won’t cover this]

91
Fundamental equations

In a given fluid system, the unknown which we must find are the
velocity ~v , the thermodynamic pressure p, and the absolute
temperature T .
Under the hypothesis of local thermodynamic equilibrium, we have

ρ = ρ(p, T ) ; µ = µ(p, T ) ; k = k(p, T ) ; h = h(p, T )

and we must know them.

Note: of course, in case the fluid has more species than one, we
should write one balance equation for each species, including
possible reactions, etc.

92
Conservation of mass

Let us consider a fixed control volume, which is

∆V = ∆x · ∆y · ∆z:

93
Conservation of mass

”Rate of mass change” = ”Flowrate IN” - ”Flowrate OUT”

The mass in the control volume is m = ρ∆V . The rate of mass
change is
∂m ∂ ∂ρ
= (ρ∆V ) = ∆x∆y ∆z
∂t ∂t ∂t
The flowrate (IN-OUT) across surface normal to x is

∆(Flowrate) = ρ vx |x ∆y ∆z − ρ vx |x+∆x ∆y ∆z

and considering all the directions we have

 
∆(Flowrate) = ρ vx |x ∆y ∆z + ρ vy |y ∆x∆z + ρ vz |z ∆x∆y +

− ρ vx |x+∆x ∆y ∆z + ρ vy |y +∆y ∆x∆z + ρ vz |z+∆z ∆x∆y

94
Conservation of mass

The equation becomes

∂ρ  
∆x∆y ∆z = ρ vx |x ∆y ∆z + ρ vy |y ∆x∆z + ρ vz |z ∆x∆y +
∂t 
− ρ vx |x+∆x ∆y ∆z + ρ vy |y +∆y ∆x∆z + ρ vz |z+∆z ∆x∆y

Dividing by ∆V = ∆x∆y ∆z,

∂ρ (ρvx )|x+∆x − (ρvx )|x

=− +
∂t ∆x
(ρvy )|y +∆y − (ρvy )|y
− +
∆y
(ρvz )|z+∆z − (ρvz )|z
−
∆z

95
Conservation of mass

Assuming that our fluid is continuous and in the limit of an

infinitesimallt small volume, we can write for example
(ρvx )|x+∆x − (ρvx )|x ∂ ρvx
lim =
∆x→0 ∆x ∂x
Then  
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
=− (ρvx ) + (ρvy ) + (ρvz )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Using the compact Einstein’s notation, in which repeated indices
indicate summation, we have
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρvi ) = 0
∂t ∂xi
or, in vectorial form,
∂ρ ~
+ ∇ · (ρ~v ) = 0
∂t
96
Conservation of mass

Integral derivation (for the most curious)

We can obtain the same equation also working on a
non-infinitesimal volume.

97
Conservation of mass

Time variation of the mass enclosed in the volume V :

Z Z
∂ ∂
ρdV = ρdV
∂t V V ∂t
(we can bring the derivative inside the integral, because time and
space are independent)
Net mass flux across the surface:
Z Z
− ρ~v · n~dS = ~ · (ρ~v )dV
∇
S V
(using Gauss theorem) The balance equation is then
Z Z
∂ ~ · (ρ~v )dV
ρdV + ∇
V ∂t V
and since V is completely arbitrary
∂ρ ~
+ ∇ · (ρ~v ) = 0
∂t
98
Conservation of mass

Incompressible fluid
If ρ is constant and uniform,
∂ ρ ∂v ∂ρ
 + ρ i + vi =0
∂t ∂x i ∂x i
and continuity reduces to
∂ vi ~ · ~v = 0
= div~v = ∇
∂xi
The fluid is then said to be divergence free.

To understand the concept, one

can imagine an elastic paper
sheet, where area (instead of
volume) is preserved.

99
Lagrangian derivative

Consider the generic property Q of one fluid particle. The fluid

particle moves freely in space along a trajectory and in time. If dx,
dy , dz, and dt are arbitrary variations of the four independent
variables, then the total differential is
∂Q ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
dQ = dx + dy + dz + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Since we are following a fluid parcel, space and time variations are
related by the velocity components: dx dt = vi ; then
i

dQ ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
= vx + vy + vz +
dt
|{z} |∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
{z } |{z}
1 2 3
1 : material (Lagrangian) derivative; 2 : convective derivative;
3 : (local) time derivative.
100
Lagrangian derivative

Usually, to indicate the material derivative, the following symbol is

used:
DQ
Dt

101
Conservation of momentum

Momentum conservation equation - Cauchy

equation
We start from the Newton’s second law in this form:
X
m~a = F~i = F~resulting
i

where ~a is the acceleration of a small fluid parcel of mass m and

volume ∆V . F~i is each single external force applied to the small
fluid parcel. This equation, per unit volume ∆V , becomes:
X F~i X  
N
ρ~a = = ~ ~ ~
fi = fb + fs
∆V m3
i

where f~b = ρ~g is the body force and f~s is the surface force.
102
Conservation of momentum

The surface force, f~s , comprises all the forces exerted on the
surfaces bounding the control volume. Important: we consider
positive a force exerted by the fluid at larger coordinates. This
means that positive forces, acting normal to the surface, put the
elemental volume under traction.

τij is the general component of

the stress tensor. i identifies the
axis perpendicular to the surface
over which it is acting, j
identifies the direction along
which it acts. It has the
dimension of a pressure [N/m2 ].

103
Conservation of momentum

The components acting normal to the surface are identified with

the letter σ:
τii = σii

To exemplify how
we derive the
equation focus on
the x direction
alone:
Dvx
ρ = fs,x + fb,x
Dt

104
Conservation of momentum

fb,x = ρgx
1

fs,x = [ σxx |x+∆x ∆y ∆z − σxx |x ∆y ∆z +
∆V  
+ τyx |y +∆y ∆x∆z − τyx |y ∆x∆z +


+ τzx |z+∆z ∆x∆y − τzx |z ∆x∆y ]
Under the continuum assumption, in the limit of ∆V → 0 we have
∂ σx,x ∂ τyx ∂ τzx
fs,x = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
and analogously
∂ τx,y ∂ σyy ∂ τzy
fs,y = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ τx,z ∂ τyz ∂ σzz
fs,z = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z 105
Conservation of momentum

The component equations can be written as

Dvx ∂ σxx ∂ τyx ∂ τzx
(x) ρ = + + + ρgx
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
and writing the stress tensor
 
σxx τxy τxz
¯=
σ̄  τyx σyy σyz 


τzx τzy σzz

we can write the full equation as
 
Dvi ∂ vi ∂ vi ∂ τij
ρ =ρ + vj = + ρgi
Dt ∂t ∂xj ∂xj
or
D~v ~ · σ̄
ρ =∇ ¯ + ρ~g
Dt
~ is a vector; ∇
¯ is a tensor; ∇
[σ̄ ~ · σ̄
¯ is a vector]
106
Conservation of momentum

Problem: The Cauchy equation is a differential equation in which

unknowns are ~v (one vector, three components) and σ̄ ¯ (one tensor,
nine components).
¯ as a function
In order to solve this equation, we need to express σ̄
of the fundamental variables (p, ~v ).
The material, fluid, deforms under external actions. We can define
and describe the deformation rate via the deformation tensor
∂ vi
ij =
∂xj

The Cauchy equation is not specific for a fluid: to derive one

equation for a fluid we must use constitutive equations which
describe the response of the material (stresses) to a certain
deformation rate.
107
Navier-Stokes equations

Navier-Stokes equations
We start from the Cauchy equations and we proceed under the
hypothesis that the fluid is Newtonian; consequently

Fluid is continuous and the stress tensor is a linear function of

the deformation rate tensor;
Fluid is isotropic;
In absence of motion, the tension state is isotropic (i.e. we fall
in the case of fluid statics)
The stress tensor is symmetric.

108
Navier-Stokes equations

The non-diagonal terms of the stress tensor are

 
∂ vi ∂ vj
τij = µ +
∂xj ∂xi
The diagonal terms must provide the isotropic tension state in
absence of motion
 
∂ vi 2
σii = −p + 2µ + λ − µ div~v
∂xi 3
where λ is the bulk viscosity (' 0; it is 0 in monoatomic gases).
For λ = 0, we have

σij = −pδij + τij
 
τij = µ ∂ vi + ∂ vj − 2 µδij div~v
∂xJ ∂xi 3

i = j δij = 1
Where the Krönecker delta is defined as δij =
i 6= j δij = 0 109
Navier-Stokes equations

Substituting in Cauchy equation,

   
Dvi ∂ ∂ vi ∂ vj 2 ~
ρ = −pδij + µ + − µ δij ∇ · ~v + ρgi
Dt ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3

Dvi ∂p ∂ 2 vi 1 ∂ 2 vi
ρ =− +µ 2 + µ + ρgi
Dt ∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xi xj
and in vectorial form

D~v ~ + µ∇2 ~v + 1 µ∇(

~ ∇~ · ~v ) + ρ~g
ρ = −∇p
Dt 3

110
Navier-Stokes for incompressible flows

Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible

fluid
The condition for incompressibility is

~ · ~v = 0
∇

In this case, the N-S equations become:

Dvi ∂p ∂ 2 vi
ρ =− + µ 2 + ρgi
Dt ∂xi ∂xj

111
Navier-Stokes equations

If we write gravity as the gradient of a potential energy,

~
ρ~g = −∇(ρgh) ~ We can then write
= −ρg ∇h.

∂P ∂p ∂h
− =− − ρg
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
where P is the equivalent pressure, which includes both
contributions of pressure and gravity.

112
Navier-Stokes equations

For a Newtonian and incompressible fluid, the final set of equations

is given
by continuity and Navier-Stokes equations:
∂ vi

∂xi
= 0
 2
∂p
 ρ ∂∂tvi + ∂ vi
vj ∂x j
= − ∂xi
∂ vi
+ µ ∂x j
2 + ρgi

These equations are four scalar equations, which can be solved for
the four scalar uknowns (p, vx , vy , vz ) with suitable boundary
conditions.

113
Lecture 6 -
Boundary conditions

We have derived a set of differential equations from the application

of the conservation principle to mass and momentum: continuity
and Navier-Stokes equations. These equations are a set of four
scalar equations which allow for the solution of the four unknowns
p, ~v . To apply these equations, ew need also the boundary
conditions.
At a fluid-solid interface, the fluid ”adheres” to the surface and
moves with the velocity of the surface. In particular, we have

No-penetration condition: the fluid cannot pass through the solid

(condition on normal velocitya);
No-slip condition: the fluid moves with the same velocity of the
solid (condition on tangential velocity ).

114
Boundary conditions
Mathematically, if we take
ξ tangential coordinate of
the solid surface
η normal coordinate of the
solid surface
n~ normal unit vector to the
solid surface
~t tangential unit vector to
the solid surface
we get
∂η
No-penetration : ~v · n~ = ∂t (= 0 if the solid does not move);
∂ξ
No-slip : ~v · ~t = ∂t (= 0 if the solid does not move);

115
Boundary conditions

At a fluid-fluid inteface both the velocity and tangential stress

must be continuous at the interface.
In the next, we will see examples of applications of the
Navier-Stokes equations to unidirectional flows with suitable
boundary conditions.

116
Unidirectional flows

Exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations are available in a

limited number of cases. Among these, are the following examples
in which the velocity has only one component (unidirectional)
which varies only along one direction. Thes flows are also steady
(strictly steady) and thus only laminar.

117
Unidirectional flows

Plane Poiseuille flow

118
Unidirectional flows

The problem is the flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid

through two parallel walls which are very large compared to the gap
(L  H; W  H). The flow is driven by a pressure gradient along
the x direction. There is motion only along x, so vy = vz = 0.
Continuity equation:
∂ vx ∂ v
y ∂ v
z
+  +  =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ vx
=0
∂x
This condition corresponds to the condition of fully developed flow:
the velocity vx cannot vary along x. In addition, we assume
(symmetry) that the flow is independent on the coordinate z, so
vx = vx (y ).
∂
Steady state translates to =0. 119
∂t
Unidirectional flows

The Navier-Stokes equations can be simplified:

!
∂ v ∂ v ∂v ∂v
x + vx x + vy x + vz x

ρ =
∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂y
(x)
∂P ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx ∂ 2 vx
− +µ 2 +µ 2 +µ 2
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P ∂ 2 vx
0=− +µ 2
∂x ∂y
∂P
(y ) 0=−
∂y
In this case, if we assume that ~g is directed along y , the pressure
distribution is typically hydrostatic; in other words, the flow does
not infludence the pressure distribution P = p + ρgh.
∂P
(z) 0=−
∂z 120
Unidirectional flows

It then results P = P(x) and vx = v )x(y ), so

∂ 2 vx dP
µ 2
=
∂y dx
The left term is function of y , the right one is function of x; we
can then integrate
1 dP 2
vx (y ) = y + c1 y + c2
2µ dx
The boundary conditions are

vx (y = ±1/2) = 0

121
Unidirectional flows

Finally we obtain

"  2 #
H2

dP 2y
vx (y ) = − 1−
8µ dx h

The maximum velocity is at y = 0:

H2
 
dP
vx,max = −
8µ dx
The average velocity is
H/2
H2
Z  
1 dP
< vx >= vx dy = −
H −H/2 12µ dx
The volumetric flowrate is
WH 3
 
dP
Q =< vx > ·W · H = −
12µ dx
122
Unidirectional flows

Plane Couette flow

This problem ha the same geometrical configuration as the
preceeding one, but the flow is not driven by a pressure gradient,
but rather by a moving wall. The pressure is uniform and constant
in the entire flow domain.

123
Unidirectional flows

The upper wall moves with a constant velocity U. With the same
hypotheses used for the previous example, and considering ∂∂xP = 0,
we have that the Navier-Stokes equations become:

d2 vx
(x) 0=
dy 2
dP
(y ) 0=−
dy
dP
(z) 0=−
dz
with the continuity equation
∂ vx
=0
∂x

124
Unidirectional flows

Boundary conditions are The shear stress in this case has

only one component which is not
vx (y = 0) = 0 zero:

vx (y = H) = U dvx U
τyx = µ =µ
dy H
and integrating N-Sx we obtain
It is constant and uniform across
vx (y ) = c1 y + c2 the flow.

which applying the B.C. becomes

y
vx (y ) = U
H

125
Unidirectional flows

Poiseuille flow in a pipe

This problem is exactly the same as Poiseuille flow in a plane
channel: only the geometry is different.
The fluid is uncompressible and Newtonian; the flow is steady and
unidirectional and it is driven by a steady pressure gradient.

∂• ∂•
vz 6= 0 ; vθ = 0 ; vz = 0 ; ;
∂t ∂θ

126
Unidirectional flows

The equations become:

∂ vz
(continuity) =0
∂z
(⇒ fully developed motion)
∂P
(NSr ) =0
∂r
1 ∂P
(NSθ ) − =0
r ∂θ
(⇒ pressure is hydrostatic in the directions normal to the flow)
 
∂P 1 ∂ ∂ vz
(NSz ) − +µ r =0
∂z r ∂r ∂r

127
Unidirectional flows

We observe that P = P(z) and vz = vz (r ); we can thus write

 
1 d dvz dP
µ r =
r der dr dz

Integrating,
dvz 1 2 dP
r = r + c1
dr 2µ dz
and integrating again
1 2 dP
vz (r ) = r + c1 ln r + c2
4µ dz

128
Unidirectional flows

The boundary condition at the wall is obvious:

vz (R) = 0

while the other boundary condition is more tricky:

dvz
=0
dr r =0

This translates te condition for a symmetric profile, for a shear

strss null at the pipe center and allows for a solution which is not
unbounded. Applying these B.C., we find the final solution

R2
   r 2 
dP
vz (r ) = − 1−
4µ dz R

129
Unidirectional flows

The average velocity is

ZR 2    r 2 
1 R dP
< vz > = − 1− 2πr dr
πR 2 4µ dz R
0
Z R 
r3
 
2 dP
= − r − 2 dr
4µ dz 0 R
2
 
R dP
= −
8µ dz

The maximal velocity is

R2
 
dP
vmax = −
4µ dz

130
Lecture 7
(See pdf document)

131
Lecture 8
(See pdf document)

132
Lecture 9 - Macroscopic balance
equations
Macroscopic balance

For a certain category ow flows, we may be interested only in the

overall characteristics, and not in the detailed flow structure. To
obtain the relevant governing equations, we will apply the
conservation principle to specific control volumes. We will restrict
ourselves to the following control volume:
The control volume
is characterized by
an unidirectional
shape with
impermeable walls.
The fluid can enter
from section 1 and
leaves from section
2.
133
Macroscopic balance
Inlet flowrate
The flowrate is computed by a
dot product of the velocity vector
~
~v with the area vector dA.

w = flowrate [kg /s]

~ = ρ vk dA
dw = differential flowrate = ρ·~v ·dA

where vk is the component of

velocity locally normal to the
surface.
Z
w= ρ vk dA
A

From now on v = vk for sake of

simplicity. 134
Macroscopic balance

Mass conservation
The time variation of the total mass between sections 1 and 2
equals the difference between the mass flowrates:
Z2
∂
(< ρ > A) dz = w1 − w2
∂t
1
where < • > means an average over the cross section.
Z
w1 ρv dA =< ρ v >1 A1
A1
Z
w2 ρv dA =< ρ v >2 A2
A2
Z2
∂
⇒ < ρ > Adz =< ρv >1 A1 − < ρv >2 A2
∂t
1
135
Macroscopic balance

Energy conservation
The quantity conserved here is γ, which is the energy per unit
mass:
1
γ = e + v2 + g h
2
Where e is the internal energy of the system (molecular motion),
v 2 /2 is the kinetic energy, and gh is the potential energy.
We apply the conservation principle to two sections
which are infinitesimally close:

   
∂ 1 2
ρ e + v + gh A =
∂t 2
   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ q̇ ∂ ẇs
=− ρv e + v 2 + gh A − (hρv i A) + +
∂z 2 ∂z ∂z ∂z

136
Macroscopic balance

The terms in the equation are

∂
ρ e + 21 v 2 + gh A : time variation of the energy of


− ∂t
the system;
∂
ρv e + 21 v 2 + gh A : advection term (difference


− ∂z
between the energy entering and leaving the volume with the
flowrate);
∂
− ∂z (hρv i A): energy associated with the work
(pressure)needed to move the flow in and out the control
volume;
∂ q̇
∂z : thermal exchange with the walls;
∂ ẇs
∂z : shaft work (a pump, a compressor, etc.).

137
Macroscopic balance

Integrating from 1 to 2,
Zz2   
d 1 2
ρ e + v + gh Adz
dt 2
z1
     
1 2 1 2
= ρv e + v + gh A1 − ρv e + v + gh A2 +
2 1 2 2
+ hρv i1 A1 − hρv i2 A2 + q̇ + ẇs

138
Macroscopic balance

Under the following assumptions:

∂•
steady state ( ∂dt = 0);
density and temperature (therefore, e) uniform across the
section;
pressure uniform across the section;

the energy conservation equation becomes:

1
0 =ρ1 e1 hv i1 A1 + ρ1 v 3 1 A1 + ρ1 gh1 hv i1 A1 +
2
1
− ρ2 e2 hv i2 A2 − ρ2 v 3 2 A2 − ρ2 gh2 hv i2 A2 +
2
+ p1 hv i1 A1 − p2 hv i2 A2 + q̇ + ẇs

139
Macroscopic balance

Under the same assumptions, the mass conservations tells us:

ρ1 hv i1 A1 = ρ2 hv i2 A2 = ρ hv i A
Dividing the energy conservation equation by ρ hv i A, we obtain
1 v3 1 1 v3 2
e1 + + gh1 − e2 − − gh2
2 hv i1 2 hv i2
p1 p2 q̇ ẇs
+ − =− −
ρ1 ρ2 ρ hv i A ρ hv i A
and rearranging
1 v3 2 2 1 v3 1 2
e2 − e1 + v − v 1 + gh2 − gh1
2 hv i32 2 2 hv i1
p2 p1 q̇ ẇs
+ − = +
ρ2 ρ1 ρ hv i A ρ hv i A
q ws
140
Macroscopic balance

hv 3 ii
Defining αi = hv i3i
,

1 1 p2 p1
e 2 − e 1 + α2 v 2 2
− α1 v 2 1
+ gh2 − gh1 + − = q + ws
2 2 ρ2 ρ1
αi represents how non-uniform the velocity distribution is over the
cross-section.
Homework: compute the velocity distribution and αi of several
typical flows (Couette, Poiseuille, etc.).
In differential form,
 
1  2
 p
de + d α hv i + g dh + d = dq + dws
2 ρ

141
Macroscopic balance

The definition of internal energy is, from thermodynamics,

 
1
de = T dS − p d
ρ
where T and S are respectively the temperature and the entropy
of the system, d ρ−1 is its volume variation and pd ρ−1 is the

expansion work. We can then write

     
p 1 1 1 1
de + d = T dS − pd +p + dp = T dS − dp
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
and substituting in the energy conservation equation
1   dp
T dS − dq + d α hv i2 + g dh + = dws
2 ρ

142
Macroscopic balance

The second principle of thermodynamics states that

dlv = T dS − dq ≥ 0

dlv is the proportion of mechanical energy which is irreversibly

transformed into heat; if it is equal to zero, the process is
reversible and dq = T dS, otherwise dq = T dS − dlv and the
process is irreversibile.
We finally obtain the Bernoulli equation, a form of conservation
of energy:
1   dp
d α hv i2 + g dh + = dws − dlv
2 ρ

143
Macroscopic balance

The Bernoulli equation states the conservation of energy for a

stationary thermodynamic system:  we can  have energy
1 2
transformation from kinetic ( 2 d α hv i ) to potential (g dh) to
piezometric ( dp
ρ ) and viceversa. It is possible to feed the system
with energy from the outside (dws ) and we can waste some energy
(dlv ) due to the irreversibility of the desired process.

144
Lecture 10 - Momentum
conservation equation
Momentum conservation equation

145
Momentum conservation equation

We can write the momentum conservation equation in differential

form (applied to the small elemental volume characterized by dz).

∂ ∂ ∂ h ~i ∂ F~
[ρ h~v i A] = − [ρ hv · ~v i A] − pA − + ρ~g A
∂t ∂z ∂z ∂z
1 2 3 4 5

1 Time variation of momentum in the control volume;

2 Advection of momentum by the flow;
3 Pressure force;
4 Force exerted by the fluid on the external pipe;
5 Body force (gravity).

146
Momentum conservation equation

Integrating over the curvilinear coordinate, z, between the sections

1 and 2, we obtain:
Zz2
∂
ρ h~v i Adz =
∂t
z1
Zz2
~2 + p1 A
= −ρ2 hv · ~v i2 A2 + ρ1 hv · ~v i1 A1 − p2 A ~1 − F~ + ρ~g Adz
z1
Under the hypothesis of steady state, we have
∂•
=0
∂t
In addition, from the mass conservation equation,
∂m
= 0 ⇒ ρ1 hv i1 A1 = ρ2 hv i2 A2
∂t
147
Momentum conservation equation

And then
Zz2
~0 = ρ1 hv · ~v i A1 − ρ2 v ~· ~v2 A2 + p1 A
~1 − p2 A
~2 − F~ + ρAdz~g
1
z1

Zz2
~0 = ρ1 hv i hv · ~
v i1 hv · ~
v i 2 ~ ~ ~
1 A1 −ρ2 hv i2 A2 +p1 A1 −p2 A2 −F + ρAdz~g
hv i1 hv i2
z1
We observe that
hv · ~v ii
= frachv · v ii hv ii frach~v ii hv ii = β1 h~v ii
hv ii
with
v2 i
βi = 2
hv ii

148
Momentum conservation equation

Finally,
Zz2
~1 − p2 A
~0 = w [β1 h~v i − β2 h~v i ] + p1 A ~2 − F~ + ρAdz~g
1 2
z1

149
Examples of application

Jet impinging on a plate

The jet is in plane, no gravity
effect.
The pressure is atmospheric,
p1 = p2 .
The momentum equation reduces
to (x-direction)

0 = w (v1 − v2 ) − f
However, v2 = 0 and
F = ρv 2 A

150
Examples of application

Moving plate

The plate moves with velocity u

away from the jet. In this case,
the velocity v2 = u, but the
flowrate which reaches the plate
is
w = ρA (v1 − u)
The force is

F = ρ (v − u) A (v − u) = ρA (v − u)2

151
Examples of application

Paddled wheel

(This is a simplified version of the Pelton turbine)

The paddle moves at velocity

u = RΩ. However, the flowrate
always finds a paddle at the same
distance.

The force is
F = ρvA [v − RΩ]
152
Lecture 11
(See pdf document)

153
Lecture 12
(See pdf document)

154
Lecture 13
(See pdf document)

155