TIMBER

Chapter-7

Prepared By: Er. Basant Lekhak

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 1

Outline:

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 2

 Introduction:
• Wood is a hard and fibrous substance found inside the bark of the tree
and forms a major part of the trunk and branch of the tree.
• Wood which is useful in structural and other engineering purpose is
called timber.
• Simply, timber denotes structural wood obtained from trees and
suitable for building or other engineering purposes. It is applied to the
trees measuring not less than 600 mm in circumference of the trunk.
• The terms timber and wood are often used synonymously, but they
have distinct meanings in building industry. Wood is the hard, fibrous
material that makes up the tree under the bark whereas timber may be
defined as a wood which retains its natural physical structure and
chemical composition and is suitable for various engineering works.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 3
 Introduction:
• Timber is one of the oldest materials of construction.
• Timber is an important civil engineering material and
t i m b e r, a s a b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , h a s l o w h e a t
conductivity, good shock absorber, has good sound
absorption property, has good electrical resistance,
easily available, easy to transport and handle, easy to
work, repair and alteration, has good looking texture
and possesses high salvage value.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 4

• Timber may have three forms:
Standing Timber:- A timber contained in a living tree is known as
standing timber.
Rough Timber:- A timber which is obtained after felling a tree and
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length is known as rough
timber.
Converted Timber:- When rough timber is further sawn and cut into the
suitable commercial/market forms such as battens, beams, planks,
posts etc. is called converted timber.
• From the prehistoric times to till date, timber has been used in variety of
ways in building construction, bridge construction, in tunnels and many
other engineering activities.
• Timber is very widely used in buildings as doors, windows, frames,
temporary partition walls etc. and in roof trusses and ceilings apart
from formwork. Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 5
 Classification of Tree:
Depending on the mode of growth, trees are classified into two
categories: Trees

Exogenous Trees Endogenous Trees

Conifer Trees Deciduous Trees

Soft Woods Hard Woods

Fig:-Classification of Trees

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 6

• Endogenous Tree:-
These trees grows inwards.
In the endogenous trees, plants grow by the addition of new
cells only at the end of the previous year’s plant height.
Such a tree grows upwards without becoming thicker and
broader. They remain thin and slender.
The timber from these trees has very limited engineering
applications.
Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo, cane, palm etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 7

• Exogenous Tree:-
These trees grows outwards.
In the exogenous trees, plants grow by the addition of new layer of
cells all around those grown in previous year. This process
naturally results in increase in the height as well as diameter of the
plants.
These trees grow outwards by the addition of one concentric ring
every year. These rings are known as annual rings. These rings are
useful in predicting the age of tree.
Most of the timber used in major engineering purposes is obtained
from this category of trees.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 8
Exogenous trees are further subdivided as: Conifer and
Deciduous.
qConifer Trees:-
These are evergreen trees having pointed needle like leaves.
They show distinct annual rings.
These trees yield soft woods which are generally light
colored, resinous, light in weight and weak.
The examples of conifer trees are deodar, chir, fir, pine, kail,
cedar etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 9

qDeciduous Trees:-
These trees have flat broad leaves. The leaves of these trees
fall in autumn and new ones appear in spring season.
Generally, they do not show distinct annual rings.
These trees yield hard woods which are usually strong,
heavy in weight, durable, dark colored and non-resinous.
The examples of deciduous trees are oak, teak, shisham, sal
etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 10

 Comparison Between Soft Wood and Hard Wood:
Item/Property Soft Wood Hard Wood
Color Lighter Darker
Growth Faster Slower
Weight Lighter Heavier
Density Low High
Annual Rings Distinct Indistinct
Medullary Rays Less distinct Distinct
Source Conifer Trees Deciduous Trees
Heart Wood and Sap Wood Can not be distinguished Can be distinguished
Strength Strong in tension, but weak in Equally strong in tension,
compression and shear compression and shear
Conversion Easy Difficult
Resinous Material Exists in pores Does not exist
Fire Resistance Less Moderate
Examples Deodar, Chir, Fir, Pine, Kail, Oak, Teak, Shisham, Sal etc.
Er. Basant LekhakCedar etc.Env, MA Eco, LLB*
BE Civil, MSc 11
 Growth of Tree:
• There are two ways in which trees grow up: the endogenous
growth and the exogenous growth.
• In the endogenous growth, a plant grows by the addition of
new cells only at the end of the previous year’s plant height.
Such a tree, obviously, grows upwards without becoming
thicker and broader. They remain thin and slender. They
remain thin, slender and knotted. The endogenous timbers are
practically useless as structural timber and they have very
limited engineering applications.
• Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo, cane, palm etc.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 12
Growth of Tree:

• In the exogenous growth, a plant grows by the addition of new layer of

cells all around those grown in previous year. This process naturally
results in increase in the height as well as diameter of the plant.
• These trees grow outwards by the addition of one concentric ring
every year. These rings are known as annual rings. These rings are
useful in predicting the age of tree. Almost all the structural timber
that are used in major engineering purposes are derived from the trees
having exogenous growth.
• Examples of exogenous trees are deodar, chir, teak, shisham etc.
• The rate of growth of trees varies with the season, soil and the types of
tree. Spring is the season of rapid growth. The late summer and early
fall is the season of slower growth. In winter, growth almost stops.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 13

Structure of Tree:

A tree basically consists of three parts:

qStem or Trunk:
It supports crown and supply water and nutrients from the
roots to the leaves through branches and from leaves back
to the roots.
The trunk accounts for about 80% of the total bulk of
wood.
qRoots:
Roots implant tree in the soil, absorb water and mineral
substances contained in the subsoil and supply these to the
stem or trunk.
qCrown:
It consists leaves and branches.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 14

From visibility aspect, structure
of tree can be divided into two
categories: Macrostructure and
Microstructure.

• Macrostructure:
The structure of timber visible to
naked eye or at a small magnification
is called macrostructure.
The macrostructure of the timber
can be studied by cutting the trunk in
three directions: cross-sectional,
longitudinal and radial.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 15

Detailed cross-sectional view of the trunk of an exogenous tree is shown in figure.
Cross-section shows following basic parts/components of the tree: bark, cambium layer, sap wood,
annual rings, heart wood, pith and medullary rays.

Fig:- Cross-section ofCivil,

Er. Basant Lekhak BE trunk of MA
MSc Env, anEco,
exogenous
LLB* tree. 16
1. Pith:
The pith or medulla is the innermost central portion or core of the tree.
It varies in size and shape for different types of trees.
It consists of cellular tissues and it nourishes the plant in its young age.
Wood of this zone is of black, brown or grey in color.

2. Heart Wood:
Inner annual rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood.
The dark colored timber surrounding the pith is known as heart wood.
In fact, it is the dead portion of the tree and does not take an active part in
the growth of tree.
It imparts rigidity to the tree and hence it provides strong and durable
timber for various engineering purposes.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 17
3. Sap Wood:
Outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer constitute the sap wood.
The part of timber lying between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap
wood.
It is normally light in color and weight.
It shows recent growth and it contains sap.
It takes an active part in the growth of the tree and the sap moves in an upward
direction through it.

4. Cambium Layer:
A thin layer of sap lying between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium layer.
It indicates sap which has yet not been converted into sap wood.
If the bark is removed due to any reason, the cambium layer exposed and the cells
cease to be active resulting in the death of tree.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 18

5. Annual Rings:
These are the distinct concentric rings formed around the pith.
Every year, one such ring is formed. Hence the total number of annual rings in the
section of trees denotes its age in year. Thus annual rings are useful in predicting the
age of tree.
The annual rings of sap wood are less sharply defined than those of heart wood.
The spacing of rings is very close in the heart wood than in the sap wood near the
cambium layer.

6. Medullary Rays:
The thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer are known as medullary
rays.
Medullary rays have mainly two functions:
• To carry sap from outer most to inner parts of the tree and nourish it.
• To hold together the annual rings of heart wood and sap wood.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 19
7. Inner Bark:
Inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark.
It protects the cambium layer from the injury.
8. Outer Bark:
Outer skin or cover of the tree is known as the outer bark.
It protects the wood from extreme weathers and from mechanical injury.
It is the outermost protective layer and it sometimes contains cracks and fissures.

• Microstructure:
The structure of timber that apparent only at great magnification is called
microstructure.
When studied under the microscope, it is clear that timber consists of living and
dead cells of various sizes and shapes.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 20
 Characteristics of Good Timber:
Followings are the characteristics or qualities of good timber:
• A freshly cut surface of timber should have hard and shining
appearance.
• A freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell.
• The color of the timber should be dark and should be uniform.
• The timber should be free from defects such as knots, flaws,
shakes, twists, cracks etc.
• The density of timber should be more. The timbers with
heavy weights are considered as sound and strong.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 21
 Characteristics of Good Timber:

• The timber should be durable and should be capable of

resisting the actions of fungi, insects, chemicals, adverse
weathering agencies etc.
• The timber should possesses good elasticity.
• The timbers should have straight and compacted fibres.
• The timber should offers good resistance to fire. Timbers
having dense texture offers good resistance to fire.
• The timber should be hard and should offers resistance to
penetration by another body.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 22
 Characteristics of Good Timber:
• The timber should be strong for working as a structural
members such as joists, beams, posts etc.
• The timber should produce clear ringing sound when struck.
• The timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the
teeth of saw and should be capable of being easily planed or
made smooth.
• The structure of timber should be uniform. The medullary
rays should be compact. The annular rings should be regular
and closely located.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 23

 Characteristics of Good Timber:
• The timber should have low water permeability.
• The timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical
wear and abrasion.
• The timber should be capable of receiving paints, varnishes
etc. easily.
• The timber should be capable of retaining its shape and size
during conversion or seasoning.
• The timber should be tough enough to resist shock.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 24

 Uses of Timber:
Timber is an important civil engineering material and it is one of the
oldest materials of construction.
Generally, timbers are used for various purposes. They are:
• For construction purposes:
For making doors, windows, ventilations, house posts, beams, trusses,
poles, partition walls, lintels, ceilings etc.
For piles, bridge construction etc.
For flooring, roofing etc.
• For furniture:
For tables, chairs, beds, boards, cabinets etc.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 25
 Uses of Timber:
• For formwork or false work:
For formwork of concrete, centering of arch, scaffolding, shoring etc.
• Others:
Used for temporary bridge construction and boat construction.
Used in musical instruments, agricultural instruments, sport goods,
local hand tools and goods carriers etc.
Used for railway sleepers, railway coach, packing cases, toys, kitchen
goods, play boards etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 26

 Seasoning of Timber:
• Freshly felled tree has a very high moisture content around
100 – 250% based on the dry weight. Higher the moisture
content lower will be its strength characteristics. For this
reason, the water is to be removed before the timber can be
used for any engineering applications.
• Wood has the ability to absorb or give off moisture until its
moisture content is in equilibrium with that of its surrounding
environment. So seasoning of timber is done to bring the
moisture content that will match the average humidity of the
working environment.
• A well seasoned timber may contain about 10 – 12% moisture
and considered quite safe for timber in any construction.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 27
 Seasoning of Timber:
• Seasoning of the timber is the process of reducing the percentage
of moisture or sap presents in a freshly felled timber in order to
prevent it from possible shrinkage, uneven cracking, warping,
decay etc. and make it fit for any engineering applications.
• Simply, seasoning of timber is the process of reducing the
moisture of timber in order to prevent the timber from possible
fermentation.
• Very rapid seasoning after removal of bark should be avoided
since it causes case hardening and thus increases resistance to
penetration of preservatives.
• Seasoned timber should be protected from exposure to the rain
and excessively high humidity.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 28
 Objectives of Seasoning:
Some of the objectives of seasoning of timber are as follows:
• To reduce the useless weight of the timber and thereby to
lower the cost of handling and transportation.
• To minimize the chances of development of defects such as
shrinkage, warp, split, decay etc.
• To increase hardness, stiffness and strength of timber.
• To increase the life of timber i.e. to make timber more
durable. (To increase durability of timber)

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 29

 Objectives of Seasoning:
• To increase thermal and electrical resistance capacity of
the timber.
• To provide dimensional stability and retention of shape
and size of the timber components.
• To improve the workability of timber.
• To make timber safe from attack of fungi, insects and
adverse weathering agencies.
• To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints,
varnishes, preservatives etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 30

 Methods of Seasoning:
Various methods of seasoning are: Natural Seasoning and Artificial
Seasoning.
qNatural Seasoning:
There are following methods of natural seasoning:
§ Air Seasoning
§ Water Seasoning
qArtificial Seasoning:
There are following methods of artificial seasoning:
§ Kiln Seasoning
§ Chemical Seasoning
§ Electrical Seasoning
§ Boiling
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 31
qNatural Seasoning
§Air Seasoning:
This is still the most common process/method of seasoning used
throughout the world.
In this method, the log of wood is sawn into planks of
convenient sizes and stacked under a covered shed in cross-wise
direction in alternate layers so as to permit free circulation of air.
The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the
size of planks. However the rate of drying is very slow. It
usually t akes about 2 – 4 years to make timber fi t for
engineering purposes (moisture content down to 12 – 15%).

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 32

qNatural Seasoning
§ Air Seasoning:
Air seasoning reduces moisture content of
the wood to 12 – 15%.

Air seasoning is simple,

highly economical,
does not require skilled
supervision and is
applicable to thicker
timber section as well
as thin section.
But it is a very slow process
and it keeps valuable land
and timber for
longer periods.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 33
§ Water Seasoning:
In this method, logs of wood are completely immersed in
running stream of water, with their larger ends pointing
upstream.
Consequently, the sap, sugar and gum are leached out
and are replaced by water.
The logs are then taken out of water and allowed to dry
under a shed having free circulation of air. The water
from timber dries out and the timber is seasoned.
It is a quick process but the elastic properties and
strength of the wood are reduced.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 34
qArtificial Seasoning
Artificial seasonings are the quick process of
seasoning and moisture content can be controlled as
per the requirements.
The defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping
are less as compared to natural seasoning.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 35

§ Kiln Seasoning:
Kiln seasoning is adopted for rapid seasoning on large scale to any
moisture content. This is the modern method of seasoning any type of
timber in a short time.
In this method, the timber is seasoned, in a specially designed kiln,
under controlled temperature and humidity condition with proper air
circulation and ventilation system.
Initially, the kiln is heated to low initial temperature and maintains it
for some time. The initial low heat is essential to avoid cracking or
splitting of timber.
Once the timber has been at low temperature for some time, the
temperature of kiln is raised. The rise in temperature should be such
that the timber retains original strength and elastic properties.
Humidity controls the warping and cracking of timber. Circulated air
causes the uniform drying of timber and ventilation reduces the
excessive heat.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 36
§ Kiln Seasoning:
Due to uniform drying in controlled way, any moisture
content can be obtained from kiln seasoning. But timber
obtained is of inferior quality than that from natural
seasoning.
With the help of kiln seasoning it is possible to reduce the
moisture content to as low level as 6%, which is acceptable
in all major types of construction.
This process is quick but costly. It requires skilled
supervision. It takes four to five days for complete in
normal condition.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 37
§Chemical Seasoning:
Chemical seasoning is also known as salt seasoning.
In this method, the timber to be seasoned is immersed in a
solution of suitable salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in
ordinary ways.
The interior surface of timber dries first in advance of exterior
one and chances of formation of external cracks are reduced.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 38

§Electrical Seasoning:
In this type of seasoning, the high frequency alternating current is
passed through the green timber with the help of induction coil.
Initially, green timber offers less resistance to the flow of electric
current. The resistance increases as the timber dries internally
which also results in the production of heat.
This is the most rapid method of seasoning but it involves costly
equipment, high initial, running and maintenance costs, so this
process is uneconomical on commercial basis.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 39

§Seasoning by Boiling:
In this method, the timber is immersed in water and the water
is heated to boiling temperature for a period of about 3 – 4
hours. It is then taken out and dried very slowly under a shed.
The period of seasoning and shrinkage are reduced by this
method but it affects the elasticity and strength of wood. It is
quick but costly method.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 40

Comparison Between Natural Air Seasoning and Kiln Seasoning:

Item/Aspect Natural Air Seasoning Artificial Kiln Seasoning

Moisture Content Difficult to reduce the Moisture content can be

moisture content below 12 – reduced to any desired level
15%
Nature Economical and simple Expensive and quite
technical
Quality of timber Air seasoned timber is more Kiln seasoned timber is less
liable to the attack of insects liable to the attack of
and fungi insects and fungi
Space Requires more space for Requires less spacing for
stacking stacking
Speed/Time Slow Process Quick Process

Strength Gives stronger timber

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB*
Gives a little weak timber 41
 Defect of Timber:
A defect in timber may be defined as any undesirable
character that lowers its strength, durability or quality.
Since timber is a natural product, developed through many
years of growth in the open air, exposed to varying climatic
conditions, it is prone to many defects.
Defects affect the quality, reduce the quantity of useful
wood, reduce the strength, spoil the appearance and favour
its decay.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 42

 Defect of Timber:
As far as possible, these defects should be avoided during
conversion for use or each individual piece must be inspected
before use.
Defects can be developed in timbers during growth of tree,
after felling the tree, due to fungi, due to insects etc.
Various natural defects in timber may be classified mainly into
two categories:
• Defects that develop during growth of tree
• Defects that develop after felling the tree

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 43

• Defects that develop during growth of tree:
qShakes
Shakes are serious and common defects. In a simple language, they are also called cracks or fissures. Shakes
are sort of cracks or fissures which partly or completely separates the fibers of wood. Separations make the
wood undesirable when appearance is more important.
Shakes may result from shrinkage on aging, movements caused by winding action on growing tree, freezing
of sap in the cell during growth, temperature different during different season etc.
Following types of shakes are commonly occur:
§ Star Shakes:- These are radial splits or cracks
wide at the circumference and diminishing towards
the centre of the tree. This defect may arise from
severe frost and fierce heat of sun (i.e. temperature
difference during different season).
§ Heart Shakes:- Heart shake occurs due to shrinkage
of heart wood. Cracks start from pith and run towards
sap wood. These cracks are wider at center and diminish
outwards. These defects usually occurs in over-matured
trees.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 44

§ Cup Shakes:- Cup shake appears as curved split which
partly or wholly separates annual rings from one another.
These are caused due to excessive frost action on the sap
present in the tree, especially when the tree is young.

§ Ring Shakes:- When cup shake defect runs for full

circumference of the annual ring, it is called ring shake.

§ Radial Shakes:- A radial shake is a crack starting from the

bark and extending towards the center. Radial
shakes are similar to the star shakes but radial shakes are fine,
irregular and numerous.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 45

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 46
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 47
qRind galls:
It is a curved swelling found on the body of the tree.
They are usually caused by the growth of layers of sap wood
over wounds left after the branches have been cut off in an
irregular and improper manner.
qTwisted fibres:
Twisted fibres are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of
young tree in one direction.
Timber with twisted fibers is unsuitable for sawing. The timbers
having this defect are mostly used for posts and poles in an
unsown condition.
qUpsets:
These are also known as the ruptures and they indicate the wood
fibers which are injured by crushing or compression.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 48

qKnots:
Knots are formed at the bases of branches cut off from the tree.
The wood fibres from where branch has been removed receives nourishment from the stem for a pretty long time.
This phenomenon result in the formation of dark and hard ring, known as knot.
As knot breaks the continuity of the wooden fibers, it form a source of weakness.
Knots classified on the basis of size are as: pin knots, small knots, medium knots and large knots.
qWind cracks:
When wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks, such shrinkage results into cracks
known as wind cracks. These cracks formed only on the exterior surface.
qCoarse grains:
The tree growing very fast have their annual rings quite widened. The timber having widened annual rings is
known as coarse grained timber.
This type of timber possesses less strength.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 49

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 50
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 51
qDruxiness:
This is the defect in which white decayed spots of timber
remain concealed under healthy wood. Druxiness is a defect of
timber in which the top surface of timber indicates white spots.
This defect is probably caused due to access of fungi.
qFoxiness:
This defect is indicated by reddish or yellowish brown stains or
spots round the pith.
Foxiness may be caused due to growth of tree in marshy soil or
commencement of decay in standing tree due to over maturity.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 52
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 53
• Defects that develop after felling the tree:
qBow:
It is a curvature of the timber in the direction of its length.
qCup:
It is a curvature in the transverse direction of the timber.
qTwist:
It is a spiral distortion along the length of the timber.
qWarp:
When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to
be warped.
qSpring:
It is a curvature of the timber in its own plane.
qCheck:
A check is a crack which separates fibers of wood due to rapid
drying. It does not extend from one end to the other.
qSplit:
When a check extends from one end to the other, it is known as split.
Thus split is a separation of fibres of wood extends from one end to the other.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 54
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 55
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 56
qCase hardening:
It is the defect caused due to unequal drying of the exterior
surfaces under compression and the interior surfaces under
tension due to rapid drying.
qHoney combing:
Various radial as well as circular cracks develop in the internal
portion of the timber due to stress developed during drying. The
timber thus assumes the honey-comb texture and the defect so
developed is known as the honey combing.
qCollapse:
Due to uneven shrinkage, the wood sometimes flattens during
drying. This is known as collapse.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 57
Others:
• Defects due to action of fungi: (Diseases of Timber)
The common defects caused in timber by fungi are white rot, wet rot, dry rot, brown rot, heart rot, blue stain, sap
stain etc.
qDry Rot:
Fungi of certain types feed on timber and during feeding, they attack on timber and convert it into dry
powder form. This is known as the dry rot.
It is the decomposition of felled timber caused by the action of various fungi. The fungi reduces fibres to
fine powder and the timber looses its strength.
It is highly infectious and causes tremendous destruction.
Dry rot occurs at places where there is no free circulation of air such as improperly ventilated basements,
rooms etc. and in damp situations like kitchen, toilets etc.
Most favorable conditions for the rapid growth of fungi responsible for dry rot are absence of sunlight,
dampness, presence of sap, stagnant air and warmth.
Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily attacked by the dry rot. Improper storage of the timber may
also leads to the dry rot.
Dry rot can be prevented by using well seasoned timber free from sap. It can also be prevented by the
provision of well ventilated system and minimizing the sources causing dampness.
When the part of timber is seriously affected by the dry rot, the damaged portion may be completely
removed and the remaining unaffected portion should be painted with the solution of copper sulphate.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 58
 qWet Rot:
Some varieties of fungi cause chemical decomposition of the timber and in doing so, they
convert timber into a greyish brown powder. This is known as the wet rot.
Alternate dry and wet conditions favour the development of wet rot.
If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timber are exposed to rain and wind, they become easily
liable for the attack of wet rot.
To prevent wet rot, the well seasoned timber should be used for exterior work or for underground
work and it should be covered by tar or paint for protection against moisture.

• Defects due to action of insects:

Insects usually causing defects in timber are:
qTermites:- Also known as white ants; make tunnels inside the timber in different directions.
qBeetles:- Small insects; forming very small diameter pin holes in the timber; attack sap wood
of all species of hard wood.
qMarine borers:- Generally found in salty water; make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking
shelter.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 59

 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Timber:
Physical Properties:
• Colour and Odour:
Most trees are characterized with a typical color and odour. So the color and
odour of trees varies from one to another.
Walnut wood has typical dark brown color. Freshly cut teak wood has golden
yellow shade. Deodar and pine show light white colors.
Timber with dark in color indicates hard and strong timber whereas light color
indicates timber of low strength.
As regards odour, quite a few timbers are immediately identified by their
characteristics smell. Teak wood has an aromatic smell. Pines smell of resins.
Generally, a freshly cut surface of timber gives a sweet smell and an unpleasant
smell indicates decayed timber.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 60

 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Timber:
Physical Properties:
• Specific Gravity:
Wood is one of the lightest materials used in engineering fields. Its specific
gravity is always less than one. Thus, wood floats in water.
Woods show good deal of variation in their specific gravity. Some varieties
may be as light as 0.3 whereas in other varieties of timber the specific
gravity may approach to 0.9.
Specific gravity of timbers depend on their structure and presence of pores
in them.
Heart wood is heavier than sap wood in the same tree. Hard woods are
always denser than soft woods.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 61

• Moisture Content:
All woods are porous in nature to some extent. Further, all woods are
hygroscopic in nature.
They gain moisture from the atmosphere depending on moisture content of their
cells as well as the humidity in the atmosphere.
Wood may absorb moisture more than 2 to 2.5 times than its own weight.
The natural Moisture Content of wood = 100
where, = Weight of the natural wood sample.
= Weight of the same sample after it is oven dried.
A moisture content of 12 – 15% of air seasoned wood is considered quite safe
for timber in any construction.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 62

• Grain:
In the normal wood, the fibres grow parallel to the length of the tree
trunk. This type of structure is called a straight grain. The fibers may
be very tightly and closely packed giving rise to a fine grained texture
in wood. In other cases, they may be comparatively broad and quite
wider. The structure is then termed coarse grained.
Sometimes the fibres do not grow essentially parallel to the trunk.
These may be arranged in a twisted, spiral or interlocked manner. This
type of structure is called cross grained.
• Density:
Higher the density of timber, greater will be its strength.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 63

• Shrinkage and Swelling:
The newly cut wood loses moisture when subject to drying
naturally or artificially. On drying, the wood undergoes
shrinkage.
Similarly, dry wood on getting rain soaked or wetted may
undergo considerable swelling.
Shrinkage and swelling are related to the behavior of cell
walls of wood tissue towards water.
Thick walled cells shrink more than the thin walled cells. It
is for this reason that hard woods shrink more than soft
woods.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 64
Mechanical Properties:
• Compressive Strength:
Timbers from most of the trees are amazingly strong under compressive
loads – 500 kg/ - 700 kg/ (compressive strength parallel to
fibers/grains).
Other things being same, the compressive strength parallel to grain is
much more than that perpendicular to grain in the same type of wood.
• Bending Strength:
The most important use of timber as beams is based on the fact that
wood has very high bending strength.
It may vary from 300 – 900 kg/ or more.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 65

Mechanical Properties:
• Tensile Strength:
Wood is very strong to tensile forces acting parallel to grain
but v ery w eak whe n t hes e for ces a re m ade t o ac t
perpendicular to the grain.
Thus the tensile strength of some wood ranges from 500 –
2000 kg/ parallel to the grain whereas same values lie
between 10 – 100 kg/ for the same varieties when
tested perpendicular to grain.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 66

 Deterioration or Decay of Timber:
While using timber in engineering constructions, we should always
be concerned with the problem of decay or deterioration of timber
with age.
Tim ber is said to be deterio rated o r decay ed wh en s ome
undesirable changes developed in timber that it loses its value as an
engineering material.
Following are the some common causes of decay of timber:
• Alternate wet and dry conditions
• Bad stacking or storage of timber
• Fungi for developing diseases in timber such as blue stain,
brown rot, dry rot, white rot, sap stain, wet rot etc.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 67
 Deterioration or Decay of Timber:

Following are the some common causes of decay of timber:

• Bad or improper seasoning
• Insects such as beetles, marine borers, termites etc.
• Keeping timber in contact with damp wall, damp earth etc.
• Using seasoned timber without applying suitable preservative
on its surface.
• Using unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat
of paint or tar.
• Using timber below ground level without application of
preservatives.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 68
 Preservation of Timber:
The preservation of timber is the art of treatment to increase the
life of timber and make timber structurally safe and durable for
engineering use.
It is essential to protect the timber from the attack of destroying
agencies such as fungi, insects etc. otherwise life as well as
strength of timber decreases gradually.
Objectives of Preservation of Timber:
The preservation of timber is carried out to achieve the following
objectives:
• To increase the life of timber
• To make the timber durable
• To protect the timber from the attack of destroying agencies
such as fungi, insects etc.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 69
 Requirements of Good Preservative:
A preservative may be defined as a chemical compound that
when used on the timber makes the timber poisonous for
insects and fungi without affecting the structural properties of
timber.
Following are the basic requirement of good preservative:
• It should be strongly toxic to fungi, insects etc.
• It should penetrate easily into the timber.
• It should not be washed out by water nor should it change
in composition under ordinary climatic conditions.
• It should cover a large surface area with comparatively
small quantity of the preservative.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 70
 Requirements of Good Preservative:
Following are the basic requirement of good preservative:
• It should have no destructive affect on the strength of the
timber.
• It should be harmless to human beings and animals.
• It should be non-corrosive to metals.
• It should be pleasant in color and give an attractive
appearance to the wood work.
• It should offer high resistance to moisture and dampness.
• It should not cause timber more inflammable.
• It should be economical and should be available readily.
• It should be free from unbearable and unpleasant smell.
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 71
Types of Preservatives:

Following are the common types of preservative used in timber:

qWater Soluble Salts:
- Woolmen salts consisting of creosote and sodium fluoride.
- Zinc chloride
- Magnesium silica chloride
- Salts of arsenic and copper
- Borax
qOrganic Group:
In this type, poisonous preservative material is mixed with volatile solvent.
Because of its high cost, it is rarely used.
qTar Group:
Because of its unpleasant smell and appearance, it is used in hidden portion of timber members,
underground works, rough timber works etc.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 72

Method of Preservation:

Following are the methods employed to preserve the timber:

• Charring: This method is considered as one of the oldest methods of timber treatment. It is carried
out without application of any preservatives.
Generally charring is done at the lower ends of the posts which are going to be embedded in the
ground surface.
In this treatment method, the surface to charred is immersed in water for half an hour and it is
then burned/charred upto a depth of about 15 mm over a wood fire. The charred portion is then
quenched in water. By doing this, a layer of coal is formed around the surface. This layer is
resistant to moisture and it is not attacked by white ants, fungi etc. The entire process is known
as charring.
• Tarring: Tarring is the coating of timber with tar or tar mixed with pitch.
The coal tar is heated to make it workable and applied to the timber by brush.
The coal tar has unpleasant smell and appearance. Hence the tarring is adopted for rough timber
work, hidden portion of wooden members and wooden parts embedded in ground surface.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 73

• Painting: Paints are also considered as the good preservatives of wood as they form a thin layer in
the surface of timber, which acts as a barrier for defective environmental factors.
Painting should only be done for well seasoned timber otherwise it will block the pores of wood
and cause internal decay of timber.
Solignum paints are the common paints used to preserve timber from white ants as they are very
toxic in nature.
• Creosoting: In this method, the timber surface is coated with creosote oil and this process is known
as creosoting. Creosote is a black or dark brown oily liquid.
A well seasoned timber is dried and placed in an airtight chamber. Then the air is pumped out from
the chamber and creosote oil is pumped in at pressure of about 9 kg/ at 50⁰C to saturate the
timber with oil. After the period of 1 – 2 hours, it is taken out from the chamber. This oil preserves
the timber from rot and attack of insects but produces undesirable color and smell.
• Ascu Treatment: Ascu is the preservative found in the form of powder. This powder is soluble in
water.
To prepare the solution of this material, 6 parts by weight of powder is dissolved in 100 parts by
weight of water (6% solution of ascu). This solution is sprayed on the timber surface. This
preservative gives timber protection against the attack of white ants. The surface treated by this
method can be painted, varnished, polished or waxed.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 74

• Fire Proofing of Timber: Wood can not be made fire proof, but some chemical treatment
may increase the resistance against fire attack.
Soaking timber in ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, zinc chloride etc. improves
the fire resisting capacity of timber.
• Abel’s Process: In this process, the timber surface is cleaned and first coated with a dilute
solution of sodium silicate and then with a cream like paste of slaked fat lime and finally
with a concentrated solution of soda.
This process improves the fire resistance capacity of timber.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 75

Commercial Forms/Products of Wood:
Many wood based products have been developed to economise on the use of timber. We discuss here about some
wood based products.
§ Veneers:
Veneers are the thin sheets of the wood of superior quality, having thickness varying from 0.4 mm to 6 mm.
These are obtained from suitable type of log of wood by cutting with rotary saw or in a rotary peeling machine.
The veneers after being removed are dried in kilns to remove moisture.
Veneers are widely used to plywood, batten boards, lamin boards etc. Veneers may be glued to inferior wood to
improve its appearance.
The most suitable wood for obtaining veneers is walnut. However, other species like teak, sissoo, rose wood etc.
are also used.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 76

§ Plywood:
The meaning of term ply is a thin layer. Plywood is an assembled product made up of plies or
veneers and adhesives.
In any type of plywood, odd number of plies or veneers are glued together under pressure with grain
alternately in opposite direction. The graining of plies gives strength and dimensional stability to the
plywood sheets.
Simplest type of plywood consists 3 layers of plies. The ply lies in the middle is called central ply.
The other two sides plies are called face ply and back ply.
The plywoods are used for various purposes such as doors, windows, furniture, partition, ceiling,
decorative purposes, packing purposes etc. It is also used for concrete form work.
It is available in various sizes.

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 77

§ Batten Boards: Veneers

The batten board is a board having core made up of strips of wood,

called battens, each usually 80 mm wide, forming a slab which is
glued between atleast two surface veneers.
The directions of the grains of core battens is at right angles to that of
the adjacent outer veneers.
These batten boards are light, strong and do not crack or split easily.
These are widely used for making door and window panels, partition 80mm
walls, ceilings, packing cases, furniture etc.
§ Lamin Boards:
Lamin boards have a core of strips of wood, called lamina, each not
exceeding 7 mm in width (3 mm – 7 mm in width), glued together to
form a slab which in turn is glued between two or more outer veneers.
The directions of the grains of core laminas is at right angles to that
of the adjacent outer veneers.
These lamin boards are light, strong and do not crack or split easily.
These are widely used for making door and window panels, partition
walls, ceilings, packing cases, furniture etc.
7mm
Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 78
§ Block Boards:
Block boards have a core of strips of wood, called blocks, each
not exceeding 25 mm width, forming a slab which is glued
between atleast two surface veneers.
The directions of the grains of core blocks is at right angles to
that of the adjacent outer veneers.
Block boards are cheaper than lamin boards. These are used in
bus bodies, river craft, furniture making, partition wall, door and
window panels etc.
25mm
§ Fiber Boards:
These are rigid boards and also known as pressed wood or
reconstructed wood.
These are made by pressing together fibrous materials such as
fibers of wood, cane, vegetables etc. The fiber mass is first
heated to suitable temperature and then pressed hard in that hot
state. Its thickness varies from 3mm to 12 mm. The weight of
fiber boards depend on the pressure applied during manufacture.
The fiber boards are used for partition wall, wall and ceiling
cladding, doors, floor finish, bus bodies etc. It is also used as
insulating boards. Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 79
§ Impreg and Compreg Timbers:
It is a class of processed timber products. In the impreg and compreg timbers, the veneers are treated
with suitable types of resins. The type of resin used, the method of treatment and type of veneers
used give rise to a variety of such treated timbers.
In the impreg timber, the veneers are immersed in resins, commonly phenol formaldehyde, at
ordinary temperature and pressure. Once the tissue is saturated and the resin is set, the consolidated
mass is cured at raised temperature of about 150 C. It is then finally given a proper finishing
treatment and is marketed under different trade names such as Sunmica, Formica, Sungloss etc.
The compreg timber is prepared by curing the resin impregnated timber at high temperature and high
pressure. This type of curing results into a timber of high density and strength that is quite durable.
Compreg and impreg timbers are widely used for moulds, furniture, decorative articles etc.
Advantages of compreg and impreg timbers are:
- Beautiful appearance
- Strong and durable
- Resistance to acids and other solutions
- Almost impervious outer surfaces

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 80

 Thank you

Er. Basant Lekhak BE Civil, MSc Env, MA Eco, LLB* 81