COMMUNICATION SKILLS COURSE OUTLINE

1. Communication skills: from course outline to traditional forms of

communication
2. Meetings
3. Interviews
4. Communication as a tool of management
5. Filing
6. Forms of mass media
7. External aspects of communication
8. Grammar
9. Objectives for communication in an organization
10.Technology and communication – impact
11.Business letters
12.Communication skills: from course outline to report writing

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COMMUNICATION SKILLS COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introduction.

2. Purpose and process of communication.

3. Informal and formal methods of communication transmission.

4. Principles and essentials of effective communication.

5. Barriers to effective communication.

6. Factors to consider in choosing communication.

7. Forms of communication.

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Def: Communication skills is the ability to convey information to one another efficiently and
effectively
Effective communication is very essential in any type of organization. Therefore it is important
to understand various concepts and skills of communication so at apply them effectively in any
given situation. ",

DEFINITION AND MEANING

The word communication originates from the word 'communis’ which means common. So
communication is an act by which a person shares the knowledge, feelings, ideas, information
etc, in ways such that each gains a common 'understanding of the meaning intent and use of the
language.

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Various people have defined communication in various ways. We have sociologists, educationist
and psychologists defining communication according to their disciplines to which they belong
e.g.

 When social interaction, involves the transmission of meanings through symbols, it is

known as communication.

 Communication is the purposeful process which involves source, message, channels and
receivers.
 Communication is the arrangements of environmental stimulus to produce certain desired
behaviour on the part of the organism. .

 Communication is the first principle in philosophy.

Therefore from all the foregoing definitions it can be concluded that communication is a process
of social , interaction, i.e. in a communication situation two or more individuals interact. They
try to tangibly influence the ideas, attitudes, knowledge and behaviours of each other.
communication is an. exchange of information, knowledge, Ideas or feelings taking place
between two people in a face to face situation, communication is not a mere exchange of
information but something more because in such situation along with the information one passes
the gestures, expressions, language, the manner of expression and tone-all these combined
together, create a sort of impact on both. Some kind of change occurs as a result of interaction.
This change may be visible in terms of knowledge and behaviour.

For communication to take place messages must be composed, transmitted and understand.

Note: Communication is the process of interaction where messages are composed, transmitted,
received and understood for feedback;

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THE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

All communication behaviour has a purpose. The main purpose or function of communication is
to effect change or guide other people’s behaviour. To achieve this purpose, various approaches
can be used. It can be informative commanding or instructing, influential or persuasive or
entertaining,

The purpose of communication is designed for a particular person, it could be for the
communicator himself or a particular individual or a group of individuals. This is therefore to
link people together in n11 organization to achieve a common purpose. In fact this is still
fundamental function of communication.

There are many ways of defining the term communication namely;

a) It is the art or (act) either natural or artificial of studying and receiving information from one
point to another using previously agreed symbols with an aim of establishing commonness.

b) It is he process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience and ideas.

c) Communication is a means of sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutual

understanding.

d) It is a two-way process in which the speaker must have a listener and the writer a reader to
share his experience.

e) Communication is the art of transferring information and ideas from one mind to another.

All these definitions point to the same thing; communication requires two partner at different
points, there is the sending and receiving of information. What must be noted is that the sender

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ought to receive satisfaction that his communication has been effective. This can only assess
through the feedback i.e. receives.

Importance

Exposure to the various concepts and skills of communication is important to the trainee as it
will help him/her communication effectively in a given situation. Without these concepts and
skills communication may be a very frustrating process that may lead to loss of valuable time as
well as money, friction among employees, loss of employment among others. Organizations that
value effective communication end up achieving the set goals at the required time. It is therefore
important to note that effective communication leads to efficiency.

Reasons for communication at work places. (Purpose)

The main purpose of all communication in an organisation is the general welfare of the
organization. Effective communication is required at all stages in order to ensure this welfare.

1. The Planning Stage

At this stage, information is needed on the various aspects of the enterprise namely:

a. the feasibility of the project being undertaken

b. finances involved
c. man-power required
d. marketing conditions
e. Publicity campaigns etc.

2. The Execution Stages.

At this stage;
a. Orders are issued to the employees to start work.
b. The workers associated with the project are constantly motivated and kept involved.

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 c. A sense of discipline is cultivated among them and,
d. Their morale is kept high

3. The Assessment Stage.

Here the manager is required to communicate with various sources both internal and external to
assess the success of the project etc.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION (PURPOSE)

a) Information; passing or receiving information.
This can be done either verbally or in written form. The information from the managers in
particular must be accurate and precise. Employees who are well informed end up being more
efficient and reliable.
Example- information about a company's products, availability of loaning facilities etc.

b) Advice.
Advice is very important because it may be used to influence one's opinion or behaviour. If well
meaning, the individual and organization is set to gain if advice is heeded. It may be disastrous if
not well handled.

c) Counselling.
This is an aspect of communication that is usually sought after. Most organization has set up
counselling departments which offer solutions to employee’s personal or domestic problems.
Such problems if not addressed may easily lower the morale and may affect other employees and
by extension the organization thus leading to low productivity.

d) Order.
It is an authoritative communication which is a directive to somebody. Usually orders come from
seniors to the subordinate to do something to modify or alter the cause of something he is already
doing or not to do something. Orders are absolutely necessary whatever the size of the
organization. It is important to note that the downward flow of information is d6minated by

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orders. E.g. All subordinate staff must report to work by 7.00 a.m. Monday-Friday, failure to
which disciplinary measures will be taken against those who defy'. By Management.

e) Suggestions.
Suggestions from all quarters and especially the junior staff are an important aspect in
communication. Everybody can thins and offer suggestions. The junior staff is given this
allowance are made to feel part and parcel of the organization. We must however note that not all
suggestions are acceptable, some may be turned down and can hurt, but all in all it gives a
healthy ground for communication.

f) Education.
This is very important purpose for communication. It involves teaching and learning and extends
over considerably long periods. The main purpose of education is widening knowledge as well as
to improve skills. It is carried on at three levels.
o at the management level
o at the level of employees
o at the level of the outside public.

Knowledge is multiplying fast, each new day brings with it innovations which if suitably applied
can revolutionize the work in an organization. Managers, employees and the public are required
to keep abreast of the latest innovations. Education can take peace through books, lectures,
seminars, case studies, tours etc.

g) Warnings.
Employees cannot be efficient without warnings; otherwise lots of things may go wrong.
Negligence, defiance, tampering with records, mishandling equipment, lack of regularity and
punctuality, gossiping pillaring office stationery and material, spreading rumours misleading new
employees are some of the actions that call for reprimand or warning. It is a forceful means of
communication as it carries with it a sense of urgency. Note that some warnings are general
whereas some are specific.

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h) Persuasion.
It is an effort to influence the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others, or to influence actions based
on those attitudes. 'For example, buyers have often to be persuaded to buy a particular article etc.
in place of the one they actually wanted to buy. In the office or factory, the lazy, the incompetent
and the disgruntled workers have 1O be persuaded to do their work. This is because human
nature is not amenable to coercion or repression. Whenever force is applied to command a
particular action, it breeds resentment and indignation. It is better persuasion than compulsion.

TERMS USED IN COMMUNICATION SKILLS.

The following are some of the terms commonly used in communication.

1. Transmitter, sender and source -are all used to refer to the person with intent to
communicate i.e. the person with information.

2. Receiver, recipient - both terms refer to the person the information is meant for.

3. Message - this is the information that is to be conveyed by the transmitter.

4. Channel - this is the system, method m- means that is used to send or receive
information - written communication - postal services or notice board. Oral - interview or
telephone system.

5. Medium - it is a way of communicating information and news to people e.g T,V

newspaper and radio language, gestures sign etc.

6. Media - all the organizations such as T.V, newspapers that provide information for the
public, medium is singular whereas media is plural. Mass media - the vessel used to
convey information to a large group of people e.g T.V, radio, newspaper etc. .
7. Print Media - newspapers, magazines etc. Electronic Media - TV radio etc.

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 8. Effective communication - this is a situation where the transmitter manages to get the
desired feedback from the recipient.

9. Previously agreed symbols - these are symbols of communication that are common to
the sender and the receiver e.g. familiar word, signs, signals, gestures etc.

10. Communication methods - these are the various manners or ways through which
communication takes place ego Verbal, written, sign language, body language, touch,
gestures, facial expression eye-contact etc.

Language as a tool of communication.

Language is a system of communication by written or spoken words used by people of a

particular country or area.

Of all medians of communication language plays the most central role in communication. This is
due to the following reasons.

a) It is the central instrument of all education as through it we are able to acquire all knowledge
and skills.
b) It is a vehicle of thought i.e. we do our thinking through a language. It is a creative power by
which we do our thinking.

c) It has important social implications as it helps to make us what we are and helps us determine
the level on which we establish relations with other people.

Words

It is essential to know as many words as possible because words help us to say precisely what we
want to say. It is also essential to have the ability to form accurate sentences which cannot be
interpreted in any other way than the one you intended. The sharing of ideas in any

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communication set up can only happen if the words used have the same meaning to both T and
R. For this to happen, T must be very clear in his aim for communication i.e. what does he want
to say and more important how he wants R to react to what he tells him. He must express it in
such a way that his use of language is free from ambiguity and also appropriate to the r level of
understanding.

The objective of communication will determine the choice of words and the value the T attaches
to them. He must therefore confine himself to symbols which he believes are familiar to the R. It
is essential therefore that the T knows the range of the Rs vocabulary and also have all accurate
knowledge of the accepted meanings of words ie current usage. He must also arrange them in
such a: way that their total meaning leaves no room for misinterpretation ie the words he chooses
must be just the right words rather than words which are nearly right.

In order to communicate effectively one must avoid the following; .

a) Misuse of words
b) Exaggeration
c) Use of foreign phrases (Latin - modus-operand
d) Repetition
e) Clichés e.g with those few remarks etc.
f) Idiomatic expressions not familiar to R
g) Circumlocution - coming in order
h) Verbosity
i) Ambiguity

The following sentences are ambiguous.

1. The principal was as anxious to please the students as the staff.

2. If the baby does not like milk, boil it.

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3. Seated in the train, the time seemed to pass almost to quickly.

4. Walking through the town, the streets looked deserted.

5. I had a good look at the town traveling by train,

6. A pliant is offered for sale by a lady with covered oak legs.

7. The speakers for next week will be found pinned on the notice-board.

8. The chairman told the managing director that he had been awarded an increase in salary.

9. The teacher told the student that the fault was his.

10. No unnecessary force was used to put an end to the uproar by the organizers of the meeting.
Indeed, group activity is impossible without communication because coordination and change
cannot be effected. Communication is essential for the internal functioning of an organization
specifically because:

1. It establishes and disseminates goals of an organization.

2. It develops plans for their achievements.

3. It organizes human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way.

4. It selects, develops and appraises members of an organization.

5. It leads, directs, motivates and creates a climate in which people wants to contribute.

6. It controls performance.

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Communication also relates the organization and its external environment. It is through
information exchange that manages become aware of the needs e.g, customers, availability of
suppliers, and the stockholders, the regulations of governments and the concern of a community.

It is through communication that any organization becomes an open system interacting with the
environment, a fact whose importance is emphasized throughout. Supervisors must communicate
with the subordinates and vice versa. This communication is a two-way process in which
everyone is both an originator and a receiver of communication

DIMENSION OF PURPOSE

a) The 'who' of purpose

The analysis of communication purpose or of success in achieving the purpose intended needs to
raise and answer the question for whom it was this intended.

When someone writes another must read it when someone speaks another must hear it.

One dimension of any analysis of communicative purpose in the discovering the intended
receiver for the message.

The communication may be intended to message for himself or others. Others who receive it
may not be those for whom it was intended. In any given communication system, there are at
least two hosts of desired responses. .
 The purpose from the communication points of view and
 From the receiver’s point of view.

When communication purposes of the source and receiver independent or complementary,

communication can continue when the purpose of the source and the receiver are incompatible
communication breaks down.

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b) The 'how' of the purpose

How does the source or receiver intend to effect behaviour, what kind of effect does he want to
produce? These questions need to be analysed from at least two points of view the consumatory
and the instrumental purposes.

The source of communication can have both consumatory and instrumental purposes. The
receiver of a message also can have both primarily consumatory and instrumental purpose in
receiving a message or is whether the purpose satisfied by consumption of the message itself
used label as an instrument to elicit further behaviours.

What is consumatory and instrumental purposes? .

For example an artist may compose a piece of music and be satisfied in the compassing process.
This is consumatory. As against this, the purpose of communication could be instrumental, e.g.
the favourable response produced in his audience is instrumental in producing further behaviour
on their pact.
Vfg4fcv g4

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS.

Communication as stated earlier is a process. This process involves certain stages without which
these would be no effective communication. For any person with a message to feel satisfied
about his communication, he must go through the appropriate procedure.
The process of communication therefore requires the Transmitter e.g. a manager.

He must have a message that he want to pass across to a recipient e.g. information on changes to
take place in a given department (promotion, demotion etc). This message must go to the R
through the right channel depending on the relationship between the T and R, the nature of
message, urgency, the channels available etc.

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The transmitter must therefore choose the correct channel e.g merit, meeting, telephone etc.

The recipient is also a major part of the communication process. Who is the receiver? The
H.R.M, supervisor, Technical Assistant etc. He received the message.

For the transmitter to know that his communication was understood, he must get the expected
response eg the supervisor moves to the office of the PRO (Public Relations Office). This is what
is referred to as feedback.

When this procedure is over, then the transmitter gets the satisfaction that the communication
process is complete. This process may be demonstrated by using either of the diagrams below.

1. Transmitter Message channel receiver

Feedback channel

2. Transmitter . Message Receiver

Feedback

Communication process involves:-

The 'sender' who transmits a message over a selected channel to the 'receiver'. How to gain better
image into communication it is necessary to example closely the specific steps to process as
shown in the diagram below

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A communication process model

The sender of the Message

Communication begins with the sender who has a 'thought' or an idea which is then encoded in a
way that can be understood by the receiver.

Messages are usually encoded into the English language, but there many other ways of encoding
such as translating the thought into a computer language. The sender also communicates non-
communicates non- verbally through facial expressions.

The transmission of the message

The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The media
may be in oral or written form and may be transmitted through a-memorandum, computer,
telephone telegraph or television. The later of course also facilitates the transmission of gestures
and visual ones.

At times two or more channels are used. e.g. an agreement can be reached on telephone but later
confirmed by a letter to provide documentation since there are many channels available each
with advantages and disadvantages, proper selection of the media is of vital importance for the
effective communication.

The receiver of the message

The receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded into thought i.e.
conversion of the message into thoughts. Accurate communication can only occur when both the
sender and receiver attach similar meanings to the symbols. E.g. a message encoded into French
requires a receiver who understands French. So communication is not completed unless the
sender's message is understood by the receiver.

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Change as a result of communication

The variable 'change' in the model above is actually beyond the basic communication, yet in a
broad sense this change does not depend only on understanding the message but also on
motivation.

Conclusion

Communication process is the transmission of meaning between individuals. This process has
been going on ever since the dawn of history. It is vital for the process of society. Early plan
communicated through symbols and gestures and later on the spoken word in the form of
language. As technology developed written words and other media were used in addition to
symbols, gestures and spoken word.
Every symbol and gesture had a meaning in the primitive times and even today they carry
meaning and have an important place in the communication process.

Process of communication Involves:

i) Knowing what to say

ii) Knowing when to say'

iii) Knowing whom to say it

iv) Knowing how to say it

It presupposes knowledge of the subject, timing, and taught and mode of delivery

Sender Transmission Receiver

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(Source)
Signals (message) Feedback
Person channel
Newspaper interpreter
Journal
Status
Encoded Media
Message decoded

Steps involved in the process of communication- elements of communication.

1. The source of communication - the sender
2. The contents of communication - the message
3. The method by which communication is transmitted e.g. letters, telephone etc ..-channel
4. Procedures involved in receiving a communication e.g. mail handling- encode
5. Destination of the communication i.e. recipient – receiver
6. decode
7. Understanding of the communication by the recipient i.e. feedback

From the above facts we come to the conclusion that communication exists when:

a) There is a person (sender) or transmitter to pass on some information.

b) There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on.

c) The receiver partly or wholly understands the messages passed on to him. V

d) The receiver responds to the message i.e. there is some kind of feedback.

Therefore communication situation cannot exist in the absence of any of these four components.

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Feedback

It is a response whether negative or positive that the transmitted message provokes in the
receiver. Every communication has a purpose. This purpose is realized only by the nature of the
feedback. Thus feedback is important in many ways but mostly due to the fact that it is the one
that tells the transmitter whether the communication was effective or not.

It can be informative or summative. When informative it leaves room for further action when
summative it closes the chapter. On the whole feedback tells the transmitter:

a) Whether transmission is successful or not

b) If there is any need for further action

c) Who he is in relation to transmitter i.e. attitude of receiver towards the transmitter.

d) Allows for contribution or separation

e) Clears doubts

f) Gives confidence

g) Opens a channel of communication.

Basic concepts of transmission and reception of message

The main concepts of transmission and reception of message employs mainly two terms namely;
encoding and decoding of message.

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Encoding of message/feedback simply means the formulation of message or feedback. Decoding
of feedback is the understanding of the received message.

The transmitter encodes the message thoughtfully and chooses the appropriate medium eg
graphics, pictures, words numbers etc. This he does after deciding or coming up with the
message (conception of message)

The transmitter then chooses the most appropriate channel. There is little difficulty in choosing
the channel since the information Technology revolution in electronic office equipment has made
it a lot easier eg computerized telephones, mobile phones and pagers, fax, electronic mail etc.
Others are the traditional paper based counterpart eg official letters, memos etc. The transmitter
has to make an intelligent decision depending on costs, speed, confidentiality etc.

Decoding of message by receiver - the receiver has to act speedily to avoid delay in responding.
He must give priority to important incoming message, comprehend and respond. In doing this, he
should not act as a block to message if relationship with T is not sound. He should try to interpret
it in the correct context.

Encoding of Feedback by the receiver unless the message sender is provided with prompt and
unambiguous feedback, the communication process is likely to be frustrated. The receiver
therefore however busy must take immediate steps to provide feedback. In person oral
communication this is not generally a problem; with written messages, self-discipline and
courtesy are needed to ensure that eg a customer's letter of complaint is immediately
acknowledged pending investigation, or that a sales order is directly achieved and a confirming
advice note raised.

Decoding of feedback by transmitter - the transmitter ill order to know whether his comm. was
effective or not, ought to interpret the feedback and, assess. He has to ask himself; is this the
kind of response I expected? If not, then he has to go back to the drawing board. •

This concept of transmission reception of message can therefore be summarized thus;

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a) The sender encodes the message.

b) He puts the message through a channel.

c) The receiver decodes the mess.

d) The receiver then encodes the feedback.

e) The transmitter finally decodes the feedback.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Understanding of the subject.

A person communicating must understand what he is trying to put across.

2. Good relationship with the audience

Establish a good friendship with the receiver ('R') a close relationship in which you understand
each other well. Be polite friendly and avoid being hostile.

3. Good presentation of the message

Present the message in a logical manner

4. Establishment of two way communication (dialogue)

There should be a feedback and a response.

5. Good management of informal communication

If not well managed it may not be effective. Take care of intonation and stress also audibility,
visual expression.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The following are the seven C's that a person engaged in oral communication must remember.

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1. Clarity
2. Completeness
3. Conciseness (brief)
4. Courtesy
5. Correctness
6. Candid (frank and honest)
7. Consideration

These principles make various forms of communication more effective.

Clarity
Here both clarity of thought and expression are important for effective communication. Be clear
in your communication (mind) about what you want to express and then do so in a very clear
manner. Avoid ambiguity and use simple words.

Completeness
Ensure that your communication is complete as when it is incomplete it become irritating. If
wrong actions follow incomplete messages, it may be destructive. Make sure all the relevant
facts are included.
Conciseness

Avoid wasting the reader’s time by writing lengthy sentences. Be as brief as possible and use
words that are effective. Avoid irrelevant facts, repetitions and organize the message well

Courtesy

Create friendliness in all communication especially in written form courtesy demands a

considerate and friendly behaviour towards others. You can do this by:-

a) Responding promptly to any written communication.

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b) Limit irritating expressions

c) Apologize sincerely for an omission and thank generously for a favour.

Correctness

Correct facts are important in order to avoid wasting of time and unnecessary expressions.
Therefore:
a) Give correct facts
b) Send your correct message in the appropriate style - you must adapt your message to the needs
of the receiver and consider his educational background.

Candid (frank and honest)

In communication people open up and give them thoughts and opinions which can correct an
error in the organization. This can only happen when people are allowed the atmosphere of being
frank and honest.

Consideration
We must show consideration for the audience or the reader. This can be achieved by:-
a) Emphasizing positive and pleasant facts.

b) Adapting the 'you' attitude and not the 'we', '1' attitude. Lay more emphasis on the reader.

c) Be sincere and fair to the reader.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

In this case some of the issues to be considered are age difference status Language, senders or
receivers competition for attention, environment, mechanical, psychological and organizational.
Barriers to communication are the breakdown which sometimes occur when an individual or an
organization are interfered with.

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Communication is most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an uninterrupted
manner/flow. But frequently the free flow breaks down due to various physical and
psychological barriers. It can be very costly to an organization not only in terms of disruption but
also' in terms of friction and misunderstandings among the staff.

1. There are barriers caused by the people organizations concerned with communication.

2. Barriers due to external factors: these are the ones caused by people or organizations also
referred to as barriers due to sender or communication.

The communicators cause a lot of breakdown in communication. These often results from:

- Sender's lack of awareness of receiver's needs The receiver misunderstanding of the

message
- Failure to listen properly. The first step towards avoiding the potential causes of
breakdown is to be familiar with them. Some common barriers include:

i, Poorly defined aim of information

The sender must have a clear idea of what the communication aims to achieve before he encodes
the messages. The information which is to form the basis of the message must be clear and
accurate.

ii, Distortion

This will result if the sender uses a language or other signs which do not convey the intended
message to the receiver e.g. one word may mean different things to people from different
countries.

iii. Use of the media wrongly

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Choosing the wrong media of communication can be disastrous as conveying an inaccurate
information e.g. information to be employees about their salaries, each of which was different, it
would riot be wise to type a notice and display it on a notice board, personal letters would do.

iv. Improper timing

Time to discuss an issue with someone who is about to leave for an important meeting will
almost certainly end in failure. It is also not wise for one to telephone a person at the end of the
working day, for this might cause pending work interruption

v. Loss of transmission and poor retention.

Insuccissive transmission from one person to another cause a message to become less and less
accurate. Another serious problem is poor retention of information by employees retain about
50% of the information given. The supervisors retain 60%

vi. Poor listening

There are some people who do not listen to the speaker. They usually ponder their own
problems. They are usually pre-occupied in their minds with other things and they would like to
do. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline.

vii. Distrust, threat and fear

In such a climate, any message will be received with skeptism (afraid). Distrust can be due to
past experiences or inconsistence behaviour by the superior. In such circumstances people intend
to lighten up become defensive and distrust each other. What is needed is a climate of trust
which facilitates open and honest communication.

viii. Insufficient adjustment period to change

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The purpose of communication often is to effect change which may seriously concern employees
e.g.:-
- Shift in line
- Shift in place
- Type and order of work etc.

The change effects people in different ways, consequently it’s important not so force change
before people can adjust to its implications.

EXTERNAL FACTORS
1. Noise
2. Organisational barriers
3. Human barriers.

Noise

Interruption of this kind can be very disruptive. This can be due to poor telephone connection,
physical noise or sounds of traffic, machines, typewriters or telephone bells which interrupts a
meeting.
Organizational barriers

This occurs when communication structure within an organization fails to allow communication
to take place fully and accurately. When workers are allowed to communicate with only one
individual supervisor the personnel direct or may be unable to talk directly to workers.

Human barriers relations

Two individuals may be unable to work together unless the two work hard and solve the barrier.
If this does not work then one can be transferred to another section.

HOW TO DEAL WITH COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

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1. Plan to communicate
2. Check meaning and understanding
3. Express messages simply and accurately
4. Be a good listener
5. Keep repeating messages to improve retention (illustration)
6 .Be patient
7. Encourage some warmth in the communication/conversation. Allow people be free and release
their thinking-work of dialogue.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHENIIN CHOOSING THE COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Media
Is the means of communication or simply the channel of communicating with a large number of
people especially newspapers, T.V, Journals etc and this can be divided into two:-

Electronic Media Print media

Def: The communication media is a means by which something is expressed e.g. T.V language,
signs etc.
All media should be selected with great care.

The following should be considered in choosing the media of communication

1. Urgency
Messages that be conveyed urgently may be sent through telephone, e-mail, fax or a personal
meeting.

2. Cost/charge

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Cost must be borne in mind when selecting the right kind of communication. Choose between a
local call which is usually cheaper than a letter for short distances. For long distance a call might
be much more expensive perhaps a letter would do unless the communication is urgent.

3. Secrecy/confidentiality
Confidential messages should be read or heard only by the intended recipient, confidential
messages should be communicated in form of letters or other written documents which is seen
only by those who are authorized to do so.
A telephone call may be made about something that is not displayed or an open memo or a notice
be sent.

4. Suitability to purpose

Think about what your communication to achieve before deciding which method to use. Think
also about what kind of conduct will encourage people to do and what you want them to do.

5. Reliability

We always set messages with a hope that they will be received. Always choose a communication
medium which will allow the message to arrive at its destination. You should also consider how
reliable the message is getting across the ideas, thoughts it contains.

If you are communicating to someone whose command of English is poor, it may be better to
talk in person, so that anything not dear can be explained straight away rather than write a letter
which may contain expression that the reader does not understand.

6. Audience

The receivers must be considered when you are choosing the medium of communication e.g. will
they be upset when receiving a letter containing news which they would be told in person?
Would they prefer a written statement of whatever you have to tell them?

27
Would they prefer to discuss matters in a group or would a series of personal meetings be better?

7. Availability

Use the communication medium that is available to you and the recipient.

8. Accuracy

If the receiver is to get the exact details of the message. Written communication is preferable.
Telegram and telex messages cannot be as explanatory as a formal letter or report which can be
sent through e-mail, registered or expressed mail.

9. Records of reference

If reference is required, written communication is most suitable

10. Distance

People in the same town can be contacted quite easily and cheaply by telephone. People at a
distance should be sent letters depending on the urgency of the message.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be classified into:

1. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Which is the exchange of information within an organization.

2. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Which is the exchange of information with external individuals or outside the organization.

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 3. FORMAL COMMUNICATION
This is communication e.g by use of

i) E-mails
ii) Letters

iii) Faxes
4. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
This consists e.g.

i) Verbal communication

ii) Non-verbal communication

iii) Gossip/rumour/grapevine communication

5. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

This is a direct face to face communication between two people. It is a dialogue or conversation
without the intervention of a machine e.g telephone or a two way radio or television set up.

It is a personal, direct and intimate communication allowing for maximum interaction and
exchange in word and gesture. . .

It is the highest, the most perfect form of communication

It is more persuasive and influential than any other type of communication whether group or
mass communication.

It involves the interpersonal interplay of words and gestures, the warmth of human closeness and
in fact all the five senses.

All interpersonal exchange is, therefore a communion and a sharing at the most intimate and
open level.

It is total communication for it takes within its compass (or it encompasses):

i) Words

ii) Body movement

iii) Physical characteristics

iv) Body odours

v) Cloths

6. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

29
Intrapersonal communication goes on within an individual. It consists of:
i) Reactions
ii) Contemplations
iii) Meditations

Transcendental mediation for instance is an example of such communication conversing with the
divine, with spirits and ancestors, any be termed "TRANSPERSONAL" communication. This is
a vital experience in the religious and monastic life and places of prayer and even among tribal
communities.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION.
They are as follows:

i) Written communication

ii) Oral communication

iii) Audio-visual communication

iv) Non-verbal communication

v) Traditional forms of communication.

The major methods of communication used in an organization are written and oral.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION.

This refers to the act of passing information through the written word. It is the main form of
communication that takes place at work places. This in most cases is formal communication that
follows a particular guideline. It is the kind of communication hat is referred to as official. It is
written following a particular format.

30
Examples of written communication include;
Letters
Memoranda
Notices
Agenda
Circulars
Reports
Questionnaire
Minutes of meetings
Advertisements
Telegraphs, telex, essays
Summaries
E-mail

Advantages of written communication.

1. It provides a permanent record for future reference.

2. In depth explanation of the desired information is possible
3. It is likely to be more organized than an oral communication.
4. In case of a dispute it can be used as evidence.
5. It gives a legal foundation for contracts or agreements.
6. Identical copies can be sent to various destinations/ it has a wide access.

7. The recipient can refer back to earlier passages to assist comprehension.

8. Distortion of information is minimized.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

1. It takes a lot of time and money to prepare.

2. Immediate feedback is not possible.

31
3. Once it is sent it is difficult to modify
4. It can cause problems of interpretation especially if badly written.
5. It does not allow for exchange of opinion or views except over a period of time.
6. Illiterate people are disadvantaged since they can't use it.
7. It creates mountains of paper.

Guidelines to improve written communication

1. Use simple words and phrases

2. Use short and familiar words
3. Use personal pronouns e.g. 'you' whenever appropriate.
4. Give illustrations and examples e.g. use of charts
5. Use short sentences and paragraphs.
6. Use active verbs such as "the major plans ... "
7. Economize on adjectives
8. Express thoughts logically and in a direct way.
9 . Avoid unnecessary words,

ORAL COMMUNICATION.

It is the exchange of ideas on information by the spoken word. Examples included:

a) Conversation - Face to face
-Telephone
-Walkie-talkie
-Interviews
-Meetings
-Training, conferences
- Joint consultations.

b) Discussion -Small groups, face to face.

32
c) Public speaking - Large group, barazas

Advantages of Oral Communication

1. It has immediate feedback

2. It allows personal contact
3. It allows for interchange of opinion, views or attitudes
4. It provides opportunity for clarifications to be made.
5. It is enhanced by the use of body language i.e gestures, eye-contact, and appearance.
6. It allows for contribution and participation from all present.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication.

1. It has no written record of what has been said.

2. Distortions may occur
3. It is easy to forget what was discussed.
4. Sometimes disputes result over what was agreed.
5. It can be time consuming
6. It is more difficult to control when a number of people take part.
7. For a large group eye/personal contact is lacking.

AUDIO-VISUAL COMMUNICATION.

This is a form of communication that employs both sight and sound. It is quite effective because
what you see is imprinted on the mind and remains memorable for quite some time.

Examples are:

a) Television
b) Films
c) Radio

33
d) Video
e) Overhead projectors
f) Pictures, diagrams
g) Posters, graphs, charts, maps, tables

The aim of the audio-visual aids is to supplement the spoken word when presenting information
at a meeting or any other presentation.

Advantages.

1. It creates a lasting impression i.e. it is more likely to be retained in the receiver's memory.
2. Messages cannot be filtered.
3. They can be used to reinforce attention.
4. Flip charges can be prepared in advance.
5. An idea or situation can be conveyed instantly with minimum of words.

Disadvantages.

1. It can be costly and expensive in time to produce.

2. May be costly to disseminate or distribute.
3. The machines can fail to operate.
4. Cannot operate without power.
5. The audience might not concentrate they might regard the programme as a television comedy
show.
6. It is not designed to be used on its own, therefore may be difficult to interpret without
reinforcing written or spoken word.

NON -VERBAL COMMUNICATION

It refers to all communication that occur without words. It is the silent communication between
people. Non-verbal communication is often referred to as body language. The non-verbal signals

34
of listeners will provide instant feedback. Non-verbal communication is a reflex action it is often
used unconsciously. Non-verbal messages are conveyed in different ways, for example.

a) Facial expressions - human faces are capable of communicating a wide range of expression
and emotion.
- A smile conveys good humour, pleasure
- A frown denotes upset or worry, dissatisfaction

b) Gestures - many gestures are used as we speak e.g. using hands for emphsis. - In listening
gestures like nodding in agreement.

- Shaking ones head in disapproval

- Foot-thumbing in approval

c) Eye contact
- Looking someone directly in the eye suggests openness, honesty, confidence and comfort.

- Looking away gives an impression of being unsure, uncomfortable, and dishonest.

d) Touch - It is an important tool to convey warmth, reassurance, support, encouragement. E.g.

shaking hands, patting on the back, placing an arm around shoulders.

e) Appearance - An individual appearance helps to establish his or her identity e.g choice of
clothes, colours, shoes, hairstyle, grooming.

f) Voice - Variations in pitch, pace and tone.

g) Writing - Layout, display, neatness, handwriting.

35
Advantages.
1. It is silent
2. A lot of information can be passed through signals people us to communicate.
3. Understanding fellow workers non-verbal messages interpret their underlying attitudes about a
particular situation.
4. It provides information either consciously or unconsciously.
5. It expresses emotions.

Disadvantages.
1. It is prone to misinterpretation.
2. One cannot master the vocabulary of all gestures and expressions that are common to our
different culture.
3. It is a reflex action and cannot be learnt or taught.

ETIQUETTE PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

COURTESY IN COMPANIES
Etiquette
1. Conventional requirements as to proper social behaviour
2. A prescribed or accepted code of usage in matters of ceremony
3. The code of ethical behaviour among the members of a profession e.g.
Court etiquette, medical etiquette
Protocol
1. customs and regulations dealing with diplomatic formality, precedence and etiquette
2. An original draft, minute or record from which a document especially a treaty is prepared
3. An agreement between the states
4. A supplementary international agreement
5. An annex/ attachment to a treaty giving data relating to it
6. A plan for carrying out a scientific study or patient’s treatment requirement
7. A set of rules governing a format of messages that are exchanged between computers
8. To draft/ issue a protocol
Diplomacy

36
 1. The conduct by which government officials use in negotiations and other relations
between nations
2. The art or science of conducting such negotiations
3. Skill in managing negotiations, handling people,etc, so that there is little or no ill will
4. Tact- skill of managing a conflict between people by speaking wisely/ advising wisely

Referencing
1. An act or instance of referring
2. An allusion or mention
3. Something for which a name or designation stands, denotation
4. A direction of the attention as in a book to some other book, passage etc. to which one is
directed
Conferencing
1. A meeting for consultation or discussion e.g.
A discussion between a student and his/her supervisor- if it is through video conferencing

37
MEETINGS
Definition — a meeting may be defined as an assembly or gathering of two or more persons for
deliberation of key issues. OR. A group of people who may be two or more and who come
together in order to discuss matters of common interest.
PURPOSE OF MEETINGS.
 to present or exchange information
 to carry out actions already agreed upon
 to plan joint activities
 to make decisions
 to make members feel part and parcel of the organization as they are motivated.
 to put forward ideas or grievances for discussion .
 to obtain assistance.
 to report on some activity or experience.

TYPES OF MEETINGS
1) Regular meetings. '
These are additional meetings set in from time to time e.g. workers may plan to be meeting every
first Friday of the month, termly etc.
2) Special Meetings
This refers to meetings that are called to discuss specific issues which require a decision to be
passed by members of the organization.
3) Executive Meetings.
Refers to the meetings held by the executive officials such as directors to discuss important
issues that affect the organization.

38
MEETINGS
A meeting is a gathering where people meet to discuss business items called an agenda.
DOCUMENTS/TERMS USED IN MEETINGS.
Agenda
It is a list of items to be discussed at a meeting and they are recorded in the order in which they
are to be used. It’s prepared by the secretary in consultation with the chairman.
Purpose
- guide the chairman throughout the meeting.
Chairman’s agenda.
This is similar to ordinary agenda in purpose but it has difference in that it has a wide margin on
the left hand side to enable him make notes. This enables him to have details which may be
needed during the meeting. .
Notice of Meeting.
Is a document that notifies member of a meeting that is expected to be held on a certain date. It
contains:
- Date of the meetings

- Place/venue of the meeting

-Time of the meeting

-The people expected to meet (optional)

A Motion

Is a proposal to be discussed at a meeting and has several qualities i.e. must be written and
handed to the chairman. The proposer/manner will be allowed to speak on it. It must be seconded
and put to discussion if it’s not seconded it is dropped.

Question.

This is a motion that has been proposed for discussion.

Adjourn

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End of a meeting which has been held if the members to postpone a discussion because of
shortage of time and when the members have completed the discussion. It’s only done by the
chairman with the consent of the committee members. .

Closure

It is a proposal to end the meeting/discussion or matter before the meeting.

Reference back

It means referring a person back to a matter that was discussed earlier. If the motion “reference
back” is defeated; the discussion continues.

Rider

A clause that adds words to a resolution While an amendments adds words to a motion. A rider
has to be proposed and seconded before it’s accepted.

Scrutinizer

Is a person who examines and counts votes at an election.

Status quo.

Refer to a matter in which there is no change.

Standing orders.

Rules that govern the way the business is conducted.

Minutes

These are resolutions arrived at, at the meeting. They are written by the secretary to give a brief
summary of fie proceedings. They must be immediately written and have to be kept brief,
accurate and clear. They provide a record of the proceedings for future reference.

Casting a vote.

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Is the second change (vote) allowed to the chairman when there is an equal number of votes both
for and against motion members. The purpose is to determine the winning propose.

Ultra Vias

Means acting beyond the powers/limits of those in authority.

Intra Vias

Acting within given powers of a person or body concerned

Co-option

When the committee is empowered to allow elect others to rescue on that committee

In camera

When the meeting is not open to the public (private)

Quorum

Minimum number of members required to start a meeting. If there is no quorum the meeting is
postponed/called off.

Call to order

Start the meeting

Being in attendance.

Refers to people who attend the meeting on special invitation

AGM (Annual General Meeting.)

Is a meeting for all members that is held yearly to assist the trading of the organization.

Committee Meeting.

Is for specially elected members who represent the business. These members meet as often as
necessary.

Is a small body of people appointed by the parent body to meet and discuss certain matters with a
view to making group decisions on behalf of a group, recommendations to the parent body. Such

41
committees may be homogenous i.e all members are similar or perhaps similar status — mixed
or joint.

Statutory meeting.

This is a compulsory meeting in order to comply with the statutes/laws of the country.

Extra ordinary meeting.

This is a meeting which is additional to those held at normal routine intervals, it might be for the
committee or for the whole organization. It may be arranged when there is an urgent business to
discuss or when on unexpected situation has arisen.

Sub-Committee

Is a small group of members detected usually from the main committee to consider special
matters which the full committee feels that if they were dealt with in the full committee time
would not be enough and hence they would not be discussed at broad levels. It does not resolve,
it only recommends or makes its recommendations to the main committee which can make the
resolution

Assignment

Briefly discuss the following Formal meetings.

MINUTES

These are resolutions arrived at at a meetings. They are written by the secretary to give a brief
summary of the proceedings. They must be written immediately after the meeting. They must be
accurate, clear and unambiguous, brief and self -explanatory. They must be written in the past
tense reported speech (third person). Each minute must be numbered and preferably supplied
with a title. They save to provide a legally binding record of decision for future action.

Once signed by the Chairman at that or a subsequent meeting minutes of formal meetings
becomes legally binding - may not be altered and may be submitted in court as evidence.

CONTENTS OF MINUTES.

42
Minutes must contain the following items of information:

a. The name of the group which held the meeting e.g. the communication committee.
b. Date and place of the meeting sometimes time is also included.
c. The names of chairman and members present indicating office if any (e.g Secretary of the
committee).
d. Names, designations and organizations of people in attendance i.e those who were not
official members of the group but were invited to attend for some special reason such as
to given advice on a particular item to be discussed.
e. Names of members who sent apologies for absence.,
f. Names of absent members.
g. The minutes.

Structure of a minute.

There are two types of minutes

1) Minutes of narration (verbation) which includes the silent points of a discussion.

2) Minutes of resolution which contains only the decision.

Minutes of a resolution are a common form of record kept by many organizations. In meetings
minutes of this nature, formal language is strictly used. The language is plain and non-emotional
it's often passive and in past tense; as already mentioned, personal attitudes are never expressed.
For example it will not be written "Mr. Mwaniki strongly assessed that Or "we could not agree
with him and we had to shut him down".

To distance our feelings from the deliberations we rarely mention the names of those who agreed
or disagreed with a suggestion. Instead we refer to them generally as members. Common
expressions used include:

 It was agreed……..
 Members resolved……….
 It was unanimously opposed………….
 The matter was discussed……………………
 It was reported that…………………
 Members objected to………..

43
The proceedings of the meetings are not reported verbation. Only resolved and decisions arrived
at are recorded. Mastery skills and as listening, note-taking and summary help you write accurate
and meaningful minutes.

PREPARATION OF A MEETING

A meeting must be planned and prepared for it its objectives are to be nut. The following
preparation ought to be put in place.

 have a clear purpose for holding the meeting generate <a list of meeting participants
 Set the date and time.
 Spare sufficient time for preparation e.g a week or two.

 If the upcoming meeting is preceded by a previous meeting, revisit the minutes of the
previous meeting to ensure agenda were thoroughly discussed, if some were not well
handled, make such agendas come first.

Physical preparation (meeting venue and logistics)

 Check on the physical arrangement ie. Venue/location, venue size or space, proper
ventilation, facilities and equipment.
 There must be enough chairs and table to accommodate the members (it is unethical to let
attendees bring their own chairs)
 Ensure lighting is adequate for reading
 If microphones and speakers are needed make sure they are tested prior to the meeting.
 If power point will be used for presentation this must be checked too.
Final meeting preparation
 Send the agenda in good time
 Since you are in charge, be the first to arrive in good time to double check all is well -
see to the logistical arrangements, if handouts are required, produce enough copies.

44
  Ensure the minute taker is ready with the necessary materials for recording e.g pens etc.
 The meeting committee must show up first before attendees do in order to help out the
facilitators with last minute details.

Procedures of conducting a meeting

Key participants of a meeting are the chairman, the secretary and the members. It is important to
know the roles played by these people in order to know th procedures of conducting a meeting.

A meeting is a formal channel of communication and there are strict procedures to be followed
under the chairmanship of the leader/chair.

Role of Chairman

1. He forms the agenda in consultation with the secretary and any interested member.

2. He chairs the meeting

3. He opens the meeting

4. He introduces items on the agenda for discussion

5. He appoints speakers

6. He maintains order

7. He conducts votes

8. He controls time limit of every speaker and the meeting

9. He ensures resolutions are made

10. He sets the date for the next meeting

11. He adjourns the meeting

12. He signs the minutes of the previous meeting

Role of Secretary

1. He forms the agenda in consultation with the chairman

45
2. He convenes the meeting

3. He ensures the venue is clean and well arranged.

4. . He clarifies points during the meeting

5. He is a progress chaser (finds out progress made by members assigned, responsibility)

6. He deals with correspondence

7. He takes notes during the meeting

8. He signs minutes of the previous meeting

9. . He writes minutes after consulting with the chairman after the meeting

10. He ensures minutes are kept safely under lock and key, if stored in computer (flash disk) the
password shouldn't be known to all.

Role of Members

1. They may help form the agenda if necessary in consultation with chairman and secretary

2. They propose and second minutes of the previous meeting (only two individuals)

3. They participate in the debate and decision making.

4. They attend meetings and if unavailable, should ask for apology.

Advantages of Meetings.

 Meetings tend to improve communication between people and departments by keeping

people informed.
 They make people feel part and parcel of the organization as they realize their
contribution matter.
 Efficiency is increased due to a variety of ideas.
 Help to create plans that have overall benefits for workers.
 Offer a platform for people to air their views.
46
  Promotes transparency and accountability
 Quality decision are made.
 They promote understanding and willing acceptance of the company’s policies and
procedures.
 They provide a two-way exchange of constructive suggestions and ideas.

Disadvantages of Meetings.

 They can be time consuming

 They can be costly; venue, paper ink etc.
 The quality of decisions may be poor as at times they are based on consensus or
compromise.
 At times they have a tendency of deepening rifts (friction) between people and
departments instead of healing them. .

Knowing how to hold efficient and effective meetings can help make projects successful. In a
good meeting, participant’s ideas are heard. Decisions are made through group discussion and
with reasonable speed and activities are focused on desired results.

Good Meetings

 Help generate enthusiasm for project

 Help build skills for future projects and
 Provide participants with techniques that may benefit them in their careers.

MEETING

The following points are useful in ensuring the success of a meeting:-

1. Clearly define the purpose of the meeting

2. Distribute the agenda among all members

3. Provide all the facts about items on agenda so that members are aware.

4. Restrict the number of invitees - too big a group is uncontrollable, invite only those concerned.

How to Chair a meeting.

47
 1. Observe punctuality - always start a meeting in good time.
2. Clearly define the purpose of the meeting.
3. Begin with a positive approach - set the correct tone in opening remarks and make
members know their contribution is crucial.
4. Be brief, in opening remarks.
5. Sit out the initial silence by waiting patiently for someone to take lead; usually there is a
bit of tension and members are scared to give a go at the items.
6. Remain impartial- conflicts, personality flare ups are quite normal, don't take sides.
7. Control emotional build-ups from members, use humor to control tempers etc.
8. Draw contributions from all members.
9. Be in control and ensure there is order.
10. Creatively/cleverly control opposing points of view
11. Clarify contributions to ensure every member understands.
12. Make frequent summaries.
13. Point out the resolutions made
14. Point out differences and indicate whether they are major/minor
15. Point out the course of action - this is the most crucial point of a meeting e.g say how the
decisions will be implemented etc.
16. Close the meeting in time, not too long, no abrupt ending.

Invitees to a meeting.

1. Go to the meeting well prepared, study the agenda carefully, read any information given in
advance etc.

2. Study the other members who are attending the meeting i.e their likes and dislikes, their strong
and weak points.

3. Speak at the most appropriate time to avoid your point being watered down.

4. Control your negative impulses - don't lose your temper because you think others are
unreasonable, you could be unreasonable too. .

5. Be conciliatory and accommodating - flexibility is extremely important in a meeting, don't

oppose too forcefully etc.

48
6. Avoid lecturing, patronizing, condemning - this makes others feel inferior and they give the
impression you are Mr know - all while they are ignorant fools.

Willing acceptance of the company's policies and procedures.

They provide a two-way exchange of constructive suggestions and ideas.

Causes of unsuccessful meetings.

1. Meetings held for the wrong reasons

2. Leaders unaware of the purpose of the meeting.

3. Lack of provisional plan

4. Improper timing and handling of physical conditions (Environment)

5. Insecurity on the part of managers.

6. Lack of courage in decision making

7. Viz calling the meeting or not coming to a meeting with already made up decisions.

8. Presence of too much emotion and lack of control on the part of the chairman.

9. Bias on the part of the chairman.

10. Non-participation from some of the members.

11. Discouragement of different member.

How to run a meeting properly.

1. Ensure that the temperature of the room is conducive to work not too cold nor too hot.

2. Have a bright atmosphere and comfortable furnishings - these have a • psychological effect.

3. Use refreshments to revive people especially in a long meeting viz soda tea etc.

4. Arrange the seating so that all members can see each other easily - oval table preferably

5. You may have conference halls specially designed for these purposes.

MUNITES

49
A Summary of Points to consider when writing minutes.

1. Use the 'correct format.

2. Ensure that the names of all who attended are listed as well as absentees with or without
permission.

3. Write in clear and precise language.

4. Be brief and stick to the points written during the actual meeting.

5. Separate the various points discussed by using' sub-topics and numbering.

The number should be controlled by the month and year thus min 1/1/98, 2/1/98 etc. (format)

Example of minutes.

Minutes of all the Academic heads held on 20/7/2013 at 10.00 a.m. in the food and beverage
room at 11.00 p.m.

Present

1. Deputy Principal - Chairman

2. Registrar - Secretary

3. Mr. Siana - HOD Automotive

Absent with apology

1. Mrs. Okiwri - HOD Liberal studies

Absent without apology

1. Mr. Aketch - HOD - Mechanical

Agenda.

1. Chairman report.
2. Confirmation of previous minutes
3. Matters Arising
4. Award of certification

50
 5. End of term exams
6. Library hours
7. A.O.B.

MIN. 1/7/2013 Chairman's report

The chairman opened the meeting by briefing the members on the results of the craft: three of
1997. He remarked that the performance was excellent and encouraged the HODs to keep up the
good spirit. .

MIN. 2/7/2013 Confirmation of Previous Minutes

The minutes of the previous meeting were proposed by Mr and seconded by Mr. . . . .. . The
minutes of the meeting held on ,……..were accepted as an accurate record of the proceedings.

MIN. 3/7/2013 Matters Arising.

The HOD of Electrical Engineering sought an explanation as to why there had been a delay in
the publishing of the Academic Policy document. The Chairman informed the meeting that work
on the said document was in near completion.

MIN. 4/7/2013 Award of Certificates.

The Chairman informed the members that certificates for excellent performance in the various
disciplines had been designed and they would soon be shown to members for their comment.
They would then be awarded to students who excel at a ceremony.

MIN. 5/7/2013 End of Term Examinations

a) It was decided that end of term exams start on The HODs were therefore asked to inform the
teachers in their departments to submit question papers on………

b) The Examination Officer Mr. Orwa requested the HODs to be prompt in submitting question
papers so as to avoid the last minute rush as was the case last term.

The chairman concurred with him and reminded members that typists are few and so there is
need to start typing work early enough.

51
MIN. 6/7/2013 A.O.B.

Members requested the chairman to arrange to give the staff ten O'clock tea. This was felt would
motivate the teachers as well as give them the required energy as some classes end at 1.30 p.m.
before breaking for lunch.

The chairman promised to consult the Principal on the issue and was positive that tea would be
served as soon as in practicable.

a) The examination officer sought to know if it was possible for the institution to start
offering HND this year.
b) The chairman informed the members that as yet we were still a young polytechnic and
that there were yet new courses like FIB, BC that had just started and we are yet to see
their fruit. He however promised that there is a lot more in the offing and so HND is a
dream that will soon come true.

There being no other business the meeting ended at 1.30 p.m .

............................................. ………………………….

Chairman Secretary

52
INTERVIEWS
An interview is a formal exchange between two people or between one person and a small group.

A more formal kind of interview is the meeting between two or a small group to discuss routine
matters or affairs of particular concern within their organization.

They can be meeting between section head and their deputies or between employees at any level
of the organization.

They can also be meetings between members of different organizations e.g.

i. A call from a representative with samples of new stock to show the chief buyers.

ii. A visit by contractors for printing work.

iii. A meeting between a wholesaler and a retailer.

TYPES OF A THE COMMON FORMS OF INTERVIEWS

1. Selection interviews/recruitment

The kind which take place to decide whether or not somebody will be given a job or whether the
job or organization is suitable for the candidate

2. Promotion interviews

Takes place when an employee has applied for a job of higher grade within the organization

3. Appraisal interviews

A way of assessing the work done on progress by an individual. They provide employees with an
opportunity to discuss their progress within the company and their performance at their position
during the past years

4. Instructional interviews /briefing

53
Used to issue instructions about new procedures to key individuals within an organization.

5. Disciplinary interviews

Carried out by a senior when a worker has been accused of committing a breach of company
regulations

6. Disciplinary interviews

Carried out when an employee feels he has been wrongly treated by another member of the
organization

7. Investigative interviews

Research carried out by a study for information or research for facts

8. Decision making interviews

Unlike the others so far considered, decision making interviews are essentially small meetings
between company members of equal status.

PURPOSE OF INTERVIEWS

 To find out the most suitable candidate.

 To give the candidates sufficient information about the job and the company so that they
can decide whether the job will suit them
 To create a sense of confidence and understanding in the selected candidate.
 To promote the goodwill of the company by giving the1rrght kind of information to all
the candidates regardless of whether they are selected or not
 To show fairness and transparency.

PLANNING AND CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

54
Any interview of any kind should be organized according to certain principles if it is to be
successful.

An interview will be more effective if the organizer gives careful consideration the following six
areas:

1. Preparation
2. Activation
3. Attention
4. Structure
5. summary
6. Action.

1. preparation

All interviews need preparation which should cover four areas namely;

a. The purpose of the interview

This must be clearly defined, you must ask yourself what you wish to have achieved by the end
of the meeting.

b. gathering of necessary information

Obtain all the relevant information and familiarize yourself with it. Read any relevant
correspondence, look at job application forms or letters report.

Note the main topics which you wish to discuss and particular question which you would like to
ask during the meeting

c. planning a suitable setting for the interviews

You should set a time and place for the meeting which is convenient for all concerned the
interview room must be kept away from interruption, a room of suitable size, well lit and
properly ventilated with engaged sign on the door

d. thinking about the people who will be involved

55
This will be important in the case of selection, appraisal, disciplinary or grievance interviews. It
is always worthwhile thinking briefly about the person or people with whom you are meeting
and about their attitudes

2. Attention

The interviewer should be open the interview by putting the interviewee at ease by;

Start the interview in a friendly manner by making a small talk e.g. how was your journey.

Make a smooth transition from the small talk to the interview itself.

 It is important the questions are put in a way that they will draw the fullest possible
response from the candidate - use open questions, avoid closed questions 'yes' or 'No' -
Did you enjoy your previous job but rather, what did you find most satisfying about your
previous job.
 Ask one question at a time
3. Attention

As an interviewer you should always give the other person your undivided attention. Do not be
tempted to interrupt before he has finished

4. structure

This interviewer must draw up a list of points for discussion rather like the formal agenda of a
committee meeting. Lack of such planning can lead to failure of the interview

Plan that interview can achieve the desired outcome.

5. summary

Prepare at list of what has been discussed during the interview so that you can have a record of
what has been said and agreed.

6. Action

This is the action to be taken after the interview. This ensured that the decisions made are put
into practice.

7. Conclusion

56
Interviews between individuals will be more efficient if they follow these principles regardless of
their purpose.

RESPONDING IN AN INTERVIEW

Responding in an interview is something that needs careful consideration.

The following points should be noted:

Used the right forms of expression

 Use a language that is suitable to the questionnaire not the kind of language you would
use with your own friends or relatives
 Listen carefully as your fitness for a job will be evaluated on the basis of your answer,
you need to listen very carefully to the questions. Think carefully too before answering

Send the right non-verbal signals

 Dressing smartly will show that you take the interview seriously and that you respect
those who are conducting it. An alert posture showing interest without anxiety will
convey a sense of involvement and commitment
 Try to speak clearly and calmly so that you can be heard by everyone in the room.
 Be polite and pleasant when answering questions.

PREPARE FOR THE INTERVIEW

If you are attending a job interview, find out something about the company before the interview.
Anticipate the questions which may be asked and have ready answers -this boosts confidence.
Question

Why do you want to work for this company?

 Prepare questions to ask if given a chance

 Clarify issues of importance before accepting the job
 Have some knowledge of the current events , think about your hobbies
 Be honest-answer questions honestly in case you do not know the answer to a particular
question, do no blush just say you do not know
57
  Carry all your testimonials for verification
 Arrive early .i.e. 15minutes before

QUALITY RATING

This is comparing the applicants' suitability for the job and personal specifications. It is done by
grading structure by which a maximum number of points is allocated to each item allocated on
the assessment which will consist requirements for the job e.g. qualifications, experience.

This is normally based on a 1- 5 or 1 - 7 point plan with the following items being fated.

POINT INTERVIEW

1. Attainments- educational background (qualification)

2. General power of learning , understanding ,reasoning intelligence initiative
3. Special attitudes- special things one can do e.g special training e.g. computer
4. Disposition –test on your temper
5. Social roles- personality

Person’s natural qualities of mind and character cheerful, friendly nervous

 Gregarious/solitary
 Extrovert/introvert
 Leader/follower
 Dependent/independent
 Acceptable to other people

6. interests and aims (motivation} future objectives or goals expectations

7. Health- fitness for the job.

-Physique-Defects of health as physique which might· prevent good performance.

- Appearance, speech, physical disability,

58
 8. Circumstances - circumstances under which one can work e.g, odd hours, travelling willing
to travel abroad, and clean driving license,

The interviewer may decide to give a simple grade to each of the headings as follows,

A=Excellent

B=Good

C=AVERAGE

D=VERY POOR

Assignment

What are the points to consider during interview?

As a business person ,write a letter apologizing to a customer for failing to deliver to him a
product that you had promise you would .

PREPARATION OF INTERVIEW

Interviewee

 Write a short and courteous letter of acceptance"

 Revise thoroughly in the given field of specialization.
 Decide on the most appropriate outfit for the day .
 Check the programme/time to ensure you arrive in good time.
 Find out about the organization in good time.
 Know yourself, why you want the job and build confidence.
 Put all your original documents in place in order to carry them along on the given date.

Interviewer

 Have a clear picture of the company profile and nature of the job for which interview is
being held
 Know the type of personality, character on temperament required for the job
 Send interview letters well in advance to give candidates humble time to prepare

59
  State document that must be carried along
 Make proper seating arrangement for the candidates both in the waiting and interview
room. Provide newspapers and magazines in waiting room for candidate to feel relax
 Ensure the interview room has a conducive atmosphere suitable size, well ll lit properly
ventilated, quiet (no interruption) no intrusion by the personal assistant.
 If the interview is to be carried out by a committee each member should be in possession
of a copy of the bio data of the candidate to avoid time wasting and confusion
 Programme yourselves in advance and which member of the committee is going to
initiate the interview, share out questions according to member’s areas of specialization

ROLE OF INTERVIEWER AND INTERVIEWEE

INTERVIEWEE DURING INTERVIEW

 Avoid shyness, look carefully so as not to tip

 Listen carefully to question posed
 Don’t sit down until you have been asked
 Mind your posture
 Don’t interrupt the interviewer
 Give relevant answers
 In case you do know anything be honest and admit
 Remain calm and friendly during the interviews
 Do not shift in your seat, do not bite or chew your fingernails or adjust the knot of your
tie
 Avoid criticism of your previous job/ employer
 If you have to ask questions make sure they are relevant
 After the interview, thank the interviewer
 If job is offered, you may accept immediately or ask for time to think about it
 Be positive in your attitude; do not give a wrong impression

THE INTERVIEWER DURING INTERVIEW

 Do not form an impression about the interviewee

 Vary the nature of questions and use an appropriate tone

60
 Avoid biasness because you have somebody in mind
 Judge the candidate afresh, do not go by his employers command
 Analyze all the facts given by interviewee to determine their accuracy
 Observe non-verbal clues like gestures, facial expression, voice changes, hesitations etc.
 Prepare the questions very well
 Observe courtesy
 Do not dominate the interview
 Do not interrupt the interviewee on fellow interviews during the talk

61
COMMUNICATION AS A TOOL OF
MANAGEMENT
TYPES OF COMMINICATION
There are basically two types of communication. These are:
a) Internal communication
b) external communication
These two types of communication are further classified into different types on the basis of
direction of flow, relationships, means of communication and methods and equipment used
On me Basis of Direction of Flow

Internal communication flows into different directions according to the organisation structure
and need of the enterprise. Basically, three directions of flow are identified: Downward, Upward
and Horizontal.

a) Downward flow
The flow of communication moves downwards, from superiors to, Subordinates at different
levels of organisation. Through this flow, management plans, decisions and directives are
communicated to lower levels for implementation
b) Upward flow

It denotes flow or movement of information upwards, from the lowest level to the highest level
of the organisation, i.e. from subordinates to superiors. Through this flow, feed-back information
moves from lower to higher levels in the form of reports, suggestions, complaints, etc.
c) Horizontal flow

Tile type of flow may be lateral or diagonal. Communication may take place laterally between
persons on the same level of organisational hierarchy (say, supervisors of two sections) in the
same department. It may also take place diagonally between managers or supervisors of separate

62
departments or between persons on different levels of hierarchy, cutting across departmental
barriers.

On the basis of relationship

On this basis, communication may be formal or informal
Formal communication
It follows the channels of formal relationships of authority and responsibility in the organisation
structure. Communication takes place between different levels of hierarchy strictly according to
the formal organisational relationships established by management.

Informal communication
This is quite often described as 'grape-vine'. It takes place between persons or groups at the same
or different levels of hierarchy on the basis of informal relationships. Information passes
informally between persons or groups as they come in contact with each other in the course of
performing their jobs. Although not officially recognised by management, it is useful in
increasing the effectiveness of formal communication.

On the Basis of Means Adopted

On this basis, communication may be of two types: Oral and Written

Oral communication
It is the easiest and most commonly used' means of communication. Communication, both
internal .and external, takes place between persons,' orally through face-to-face conversations,
telephonic conversations, etc.

Written Communication
In this type, information or messages are communicated internally or externally through written
media like letters, reports, memorandum etc.

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On the Basis of Methods Used
Both oral and written communication may be conducted through direct or manual method or
mechanical method. Accordingly, oral mid written communication may be classified into the
following types:

Direct oral communication

It is the form of face-to-face communication, interviews, meetings, conferences, etc

Oral communication by mechanical method
Conducted with the help of various mechanical devices like telephone, speaking tubes, dictating
machines, etc.

Manual delivery of written massages

By physical delivery of the written message by post or through Messengers.

Mechanical transmission of written messages

Without actual delivery of the papers through various mechanical and electronic devices like
telegraph, teleprinter, fax, television, etc.

TYPES OF INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Internal communication may be further classified into two types: formal and Informal
communication

Formal communication

It follows the course laid down in 'the organisation structure of the enterprise. Members of the
enterprise are supposed to communicate with each other strictly as per the channels laid down in
the structure. For example, the sales manager may have a salesman, a secretary, a book-keeper

64
 and mail-room boys under him. All his subordinates are supposed to communicate their
problems to him, but not one another:
SALES MANAGER

SALESMAN
SECRETARY BOOK MAIL ROOM
KEEPER
OFFICE BOYS
Informal Communication
Human beings do not always follow the pattern of relationships provided in the organization
structure. For example, according to the structure, foremen may be required to report directly to
the production manager. Yet, because of their informal relationship with an assistant production
manager, they may prefer taking orders and instructions from him rather than from the
production manager. Informal communication is also called as the grapevine. This
communication does not arise out of the organisational needs, but that is nevertheless, an integral
part (If its communication system. Rumours that are all the time spreading in any organisation
follow the grapevine

VERTICAL HORIZOTAL GRAPEVINE

CONSENSUS

Downward Upward

DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
As explained earlier, downward communication flows from a superior to a subordinate, The
Managing Director communicating with the departmental heads, a manager giving a directive to
an assistant manager or a supervisor, a foreman instructing 'a worker, are all engaged in the
process of downward' communication. Orders, individual instructions, policy statements, job-
sheets, circular, etc. fall under downward-communication.
Downward communication is eminently suited to an organisation in which the line of authority
runs distinctly downwards, with each rank clearly below another, to which it is directly re1ated.

65
But in the complex structure of large sized modern organisations, where a number of executives
like the production manager, the sales manager, the purchase officer, etc. enjoy an equal rank, it
is difficult to depend purely on the downward flow of communication. It continues to hold a
prominent place even there, but it has to be supplemented by other channels of communication.

Main objectives of downward communication

The following are the main objectives of downward communication:

a) To give specific directives about the job being entrusted to a subordinate;

b) To explain policies and organisational procedures;

c) To appraise the subordinates of their performance; 'and

d) To give the-subordinates information about the rational of their job so that they
understand the significance of their job in relation with the organisational goals.

Media for downward communication

Downward communication may be both oral and written. Important directives to initiate actions
may be communicated through letters; policies and procedures may be announced through
circulars, house organs, manuals, bulletins, etc.; annual reports may be found suitable for
acquainting tile lower staff with the activities and achievements of the organisation during the
year; and posters may be used to pass on miscellaneous information. But the downward flow of
communication is dominated by oral means. It is more natural for the-foreman to issue oral
instructions to his workers. The Managing Director would, find more convenient to convene a
meeting of the departmental heads and pass on relevant information to them rather than writing
them lengthy letters (in certain cases, letters may, of1buse, be preferred). Sometimes, the
Managing Director may directly address all the employees over a public address system. Audio
Visual media like films and slides may also be used for downward communication.

66
Limitations of downward communication

I. Under-communication and over-communication

Downward communication is often marred by either under communication or over-

communication, i.e., a superior may either talk too little or too much about a job. Sometimes the
superiors act in a presumptuous manner; they communicate the decisions but withhold relevant
background information about how those decisions were arrived at. If the Managing Director
orders a number of transfers without taking into confidence his departmental heads, he is guilty
of under-communication, and his action is likely to cause apprehensions among the staff. Under
communication may also involve incomplete instructions, which will inevitably lead to
unsatisfactory performance. Over-communication or talking too much, on the other hand, may
lead to the leakage of confidential information.

2. Delay

The lines of communication in downward communication being very long, transmitting

information to the lowest worker is a time consuming process. By the time information reaches
him, it may have lost much of its significance, or it may have caused damaging delay.

3. Loss of information

Unless the communication is fully written, it· is not likely to be transmitted downwards in its
entirety. A part of it is almost certain to be lost. In fact, it has been experimentally verified that'
only 20 present of the communication sent downward through five levels of management finally
gets to the workers' level'.

3. Distortion

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In long lines of communication, information is not only lost but even distorted. Exaggerating,
making under-statements, giving unconscious twists to facts are a part of human nature.
Whenever a piece of information passes on from one individual to another, it loses a little of its
authenticity. By the time it reaches its destination, it may not contain even an iota of truth.

5. Built-in resistance
Downward communication smacks of too much authoritarianism. The subordinates do not get
any opportunity of participating in the decision and making Process. They are expected to
receive the policy decisions and' directives without questioning their appropriateness, utility or
validity, which they resent.

Essentials of effective downward communication

1. Managers should keep themselves well informed of the Objectives, activities and
achievements of their organisation. If they are themselves in possession of adequate information,
they will be able to transmit information to their subordinates in an effective manner.

2. Managers must work according to a communication plan. They must decide beforehand how
much information is to be communicated and m what time. This will ensure that there is neither a
communication gap nor over-communication or under-communication.

3. There should not 00 over-concentration of authority at the highest level. If an organisation is

so structured that orders and instructions can originate at various levels, the lines of
communication will be shortened. Downward flow will gain momentum. Delays will be
e1irninated Loss of information and the possibility of distortion will be minimised, if not fully
cheeked

4. The information must be passed on to the correct person in the hierarchy. If the Managing
Director by-passes the departmental heads to communicate directly with the lower staff, he is
subverting the organisational structure and creating future problems' for the smooth flow of
downward communication.

68
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
If the managers have to transmit information down the line of authority,' they have also to
receive information continuously emanating from levels below them.' The communication
channel which pushes the flow of information upwards is known as the upward channel of
communication. Managers have only recently come to recognise the importance of upward
communication.
Importance of upwards communication

1. Providing feedback

Upward communication provides the .management with necessary feedback. The management is
able to ascertain whether the directives issued to the lower staff have been properly understood
and followed. It also gets valuable information on what the employees think of the organisation
and its policies.

2. Outlet for pent-up emotions

Upward communication gives the employees an opportunity to vent their problems and
grievances. Although the management often thinks it knows and realises the grievances of the
employees, the latter 4fu-dly feel convinced and satisfied. In any case, it is of vital importance to
look at the employees' problems as they look at them. The genuine and pressing grievances are
redressed; a ground is prepared for the solution of some other problems; and with regard to those
problems which cannot be immediately solved, at least the employees feel light after having
talked about them.

3. Constructive suggestions

Often employees offer constructive suggestions to promote the welfare of the organisation. Some
of these suggestions, when implemented, definitely prove beneficial.

69
4. Easier introduction of new schemes

Since the employees feel themselves to be party to the decision-making process, it helps the
organisation to introduce new schemes without unduly antagonizing the employees. They not
only willingly lend their concurrence and support to any new scheme floated by the management
but take extra pains to make a success of it.

5. Greater harmony and cohesion

Upward communication acts as a kind of lubricant. It makes the atmosphere in the company
congenial and creates greater harmony and cohesion between the management and the
employees. '

Method as of upward communication

Some of the more commonly used methods of upward communication are discussed below.

1. open-door policy

The employees are given a feeling that the managers doors 31:e always open to them. Whenever
they like they can walk into his room, without any hesitation whatsoever, and talk to him about
their problems.

2. Complaints-and suggestions boxes

At some convenient places in the office or the factory, complaints and suggestions boxes are
installed. The employees are encouraged to drop their complaints or suggestions, if any, into
these boxes.

3. Social gatherings.
Social gatherings are frequently arranged in different departments. These gatherings offer a very
informal atmosphere in which the employees shed their inhibitions and feel free to talk about
their problems.

70
4. Direct correspondence
Sometimes the manager may directly write to any employee and ask him to communicate with
him. Or the employees may write to -their high-ups on their own initiative.

5. Reports
Employees may be required to submit reports about the progress of their work at regular
intervals.

6. Counselling
In some organisations, workers are encouraged to seek the counsel of their superiors on their
personal problems. What they think to be their personal problems are often a conglomeration of
domestic and official problems. In the office, they often feel stifled due to lack of promotional
avenues or offended by the officious or unduly meddlesome nature of their superiors or even
their colleagues. As they feel encouraged to talk about themselves freely, they provide the
managers with valuable information. While counselling helps the-employees to solve their
problems, the information provided by them is utilised by the managers to give a better shape to
their future policies.

Limitations of upward communication

.Though no one can dispute the utility and importance of upward communication, it is not very ~
to have a smooth' upward flow. Moving against the force of gravity, which seems to be rather
difficult, upward communication suffers from a number of limitations, more prominent of which
are discussed below.

1. Employees are usually reluctant to initiate upward communication.

The managers might keep their doors open, but they cannot force the employees to walk into
their room.

71
2. Employees often feel if they communicate their problems to their superiors, it may adversely
reflect on their own efficiency. If a supervisor experiences some difficulty in getting co-
operation from his workers and points it out to the departmental manager, the latter might feel
that the supervisor himself is incompetent. If a clerk who has just joined the office complains
that the filing system of the office in the total disarray, his supervisor might conclude that the
clerk himself is not efficient enough to handle filing properly.

3. Upward flow of communication is more prone to distortion than downward communication. In

downward communication, distortion is often unconscious. But upwards communication is
deliberately distorted. Some managers lose their cool if they are confronted with unpleasant or
unpalatable facts. So information, particu1arlyof the unpalatable sort, is suitably' edited' before it
is passed on to them.

4. Sometimes in the process of upward communication, workers become too bold, ignore their
immediate superiors and directly approach the topmost authorities with their suggestions or
complaints. This proves harmful in two ways. The officers who have been by-passed feel
slighted, while the high-ups get suspicious of the workers' intentions. The relations between the
workers and their immediate superiors get strained and work suffers.

Essentials of effective upward communication

1. In order to enable the workers to overcome the awe of authority, the managers should keep on
encouraging them to come out of their shell and communicate freely. It is futile to expect their
workers to take initiative, for if any initiative is to be taken, it must be taken by the managers.
Keith Davis rightly says, "The way the open door can be most effective is for managers to walk
through it and get among their people. The open door is for managers to walk through, not
employees. " .

2. Distortion by editing can be avoided if the lines of communication are kept as short as
possible. .

72
3. All upward communication should be properly analysed .Genuine grievances deserve to be
immediately resolved. Suggestions for improvement, if found feasible, should be taken up for
implementation and workers responsible for them should be suitably rewarded.

HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
Communication between departments or people on the same level in the managerial hierarchy of
an organisation may be termed as horizontal or lateral communication. It is the most frequently
used channel of communication. Workers communicating with other workers, clerks exchanging
information with one other, supervisors holding a coffee-break session to discuss some
organizationa1 problems are all engaged in horizontal communication.

Horizontal Communication may be diagrammatically represented as below

PRODUCTION

PURCHASE SALES

ACCOUNTS PUBLIC RELATIONS

ADMINISRATION

(Horizontal flow of communication)

Importance of horizontal communication

73
Horizontal communication is extremely important for promoting understanding and co-
ordination among various departments. Not much imagination is needed to visualise the
embarrassing situations that the lack of coordination might create for the organisation. The
purchase department might keep on purchasing material which is neither immediately needed nor
can be adequately stored. The stores may report shortage of material when production is fully
geared up. Scarcity of raw material may cause the production to slow down but the sales
department may continue booking orders. Free flow of horizontal communication among various
departments can easily avert the incidence of such situations.

In a: small organisation, these functions are often' concentrated in the same person, or in a few
persons who are stationed in close proximity to one another. They do not face any
communication problem, for the moment a problem crops up it is thrashed out through mutual
consultation. But in large organisations with complex structures, a deliberate effort has to be
made to maintain a free flow of horizontal communication,

Some managers discourage horizontal communication feeling that workers may get friendly with
one another and may pose problems for the management They believe in issuing orders from the
top and insist on their unqualified acceptance, But such a procedure suffers from two very grave
disadvantages, If all authority rests with one person at the top, and no scope is left for mutual
discussion and solutions at the lower levels, work may be held up every now and then for want
of fresh directives, This causes unnecessary delay. Secondly, this kind of authoritarianism is
likely to provoke bitterness and indignation among the workers,

Importance of horizontal communication

1. It promotes understanding of co-ordination among various departments
2. It saves time and resources
3. It enhances sharing of information
4. It creates relationship among workers and between different departments
5. It enhances problem solving and conflict resolution
Disadvantages
1. It creates rivalry between workers and departments

74
 2. Information often is not shared because of fear that may be competition
3. It leads to information overload due to duplication
4. Distortion may occur because most communication is oral
5. Managers on the same level of command often have little understanding of the aims and
objectives as the problems of other functional areas
6. There are no rewards on rivalry incentives or rewards to employees because there is
sharing of ideas in all departments

Methods of horizontal communication

Horizontal communication is most effectively carried on through oral means. Face-to-face
exchange of views or a brief conversation over the telephone is very convenient for horizontal
communication. These situations carry with them an air of informality. Formal channels tend to
make managers status-conscious so that they express their views in extremely measured terms.
This impedes the free flow of communication. But the congenial atmosphere in which oral
communication takes place allows freedom of expression: there is immediate feedback and all
doubts and misunderstandings are sorted out Periodical, meetings among the departmental heads
are also used for oral- communication. Among written means, letters, memorandums, and reports
are mostly frequently used. Short memos are found very convenient for transmitting small bits of
information.

GRAPEVINE
So far we have been discussing the formal channels of communication which follow certain
definite, predetermined directions, Apart' from them, there operates in every organisation all
informal channel of communication called the grapevine. It follows no set lines, nor any definite
rules, but spreads, like the grapevine, in any direction, anywhere, and spreads fast.

It is quite natural for a group of people working together to be interested in one another and talk
about appointments, promotions, retrenchments, or even domestic affairs like the estranged
relations of an employee with his wife or the romantic involvements of another. Information on
most of these matters is' supposed to be secret. But some people derive great pleasure from
gathering such "secret' information and transmitting it to others. They are the leaders who control

75
the grapevine. When one of them comes across any piece of information: interesting enough to
be transmitted through the grapevine, in a very mysterious

GRAPEVINE

This is the informal channel of communication that follows no set lines, nor any direction
anywhere and spreads fast.

Note: someone derive great pleasure from gathering secret information and transmitting it to
others even at work places. They act as leaders who control the grapevine.

How it operates

Information is passed on to the next person in a very mysterious manner with a "whisper' "don't
tell anyone". The other person tells the next until it becomes a chain. It can be classified into four
types

1. Single strand

2. Gossip

3. Probability

4. Cluster

Single strand

It involves the passing of information through a long line of person to the ultimate recipient. A
tell B, who tells D and so on till it reaches most of the concerned persons.

76
Gossip.
In the gossip chain, A actively seeks and tells everyone. The chain is like wheel where A is at the
centre and the information passes along the spikes of the wheel to others stationed on the wheel.

The probability chain

This is a random process in which A transmits the information to others in accordance with the
laws of probability. These others tell still others in a similar manner. It is also called the random
chain.

Cluster chain
In this chain, A tells selected persons who may in turn relay the information to other selected
individuals.

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Damaging swiftness

The swiftness with which the grapevine transmits information may even be damaging. A rumour
may spread and cause serious damage before the management becomes aware and takes action.

How to use the grapevine effectively

Instead of trying to stamp it out as some managers might be tempted to do grapevine can be
made use of for the benefit of the organization. It can therefore be used in the following ways:

1. They should try (managers) to spot the leaders and keep them well informed so that harmful
rumours, do not reach the employees.

2. It should be used to feel the pulse the employers so as to know the rightful action to take.

78
3. If there are any false rumours the management should immediately use the official channels to
dispel the fears.

4. If the opposite happens e.g. no retreatment, no disciplinary action, the allegations are quashed
and the company is saved

Importance of Grapevine

1. Safety value - it helps when you talk about things that are burning within others. In work
situations it offers relief for the pent-up emotions of the subordinates.

2. The Organizational solidarity and cohesion. It proves that workers operate closely together if
well used it may even raise morale.

3. Supplement to other channels. It supplements the other official channels e.g. information
unsuitable through off methods.

4. Quick transmissions. It has remarkable speed

5. Feedback - provides feedback to the management, it enables them know what subordinates
think about the organization and its activities.

Demerits of the grapevine

1. Distortion - it respects nobody and it may hurt the noblest of people.

2. Incomplete information
It is usually incomplete, it is likely to be misunderstood or misinterpreted.

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FILING
A file is a folder which provide records for future reference. Files are found in several forms e.g.
spring file, clip file, box file and arch and level file.

Filing is a systematic way of classifying planning and keeping of records for easy finding when
needed. These are different ways of filing and several rules governing the filing system.

METHODS OF FILING.
There are 5 main ways of filing or classifying documents.

1. Alphabetical filing A-Z

2. Geographical filing
3. Numerical filing
4. Subject filing
5. Chronological filing
6. Alpha-numerical filing.

ALPHABETICAL FILING.

For most of the filing rules alphabetical filing is applied in this context. All the materials that is
to be filed and arranged in alphabetical order. Arranging files in the cabinet is also filing in itself
in that files can easily be found when needed. To make the location of the files early drawers in
the cabinet are divided by a guide in alphabetical order. They act as sign post to guide the eye to
the desired place.

On the guide, there is some kind of projections called coath which is normally on top of the
guide on which a title are written. These titles are called captions/short titles or heading of an
article. On every drawer, there are two types of folders called individual and miscellaneous
folder which are files that contain this folder. However all the correspondence is arranged in
alphabetical order.

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Individual Folders.
Are folders containing documents of correspondence from only one individual. It can only be
opened if only fire or more records have accumulated in the miscellaneous riles. If the number of
documents in the folder large to around 7 documents. In folder, a new one is opened for the
correspondent.

This file which has been closed is taken to the semi archive drawer where if not all its said to the
'deed' and then taken to the archives.

Advantages of Alphabetical
1. It’s simple to operate and understand
2. It expands and accommodates extra files
3. It is convenient for grouping paper under the name of the organization
4. All correspondence relating to one person or organisation is kept
5. Miscellaneous files can be provided by each letter of alphabet for small amounts of
correspondence.

Disadvantages.

1. It's difficult to locate files of pension with same common names

2. It may be easy to misplace or misfile correspondence for people bending the same homes.
3. It may take long to locate a named file than a numbered file.

GEOGRAPHICAL FILING.
Is a method of filing where geographical regions/divisions are used as filing units. Inspire of this
however the m' n' g' t of files in an alphabetical order. This is most common in offices dealing
with geographical sections of a country i.e the office of the president, exports, imports, sales
representative, clerk’s electricity, water p. office etc.
This method allows all the correspondence relating to a particular geographical location of a low
or country to be grouped together.

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Arrangement of files in drawers main (primary guides) show names of the largest geographical
division. E.g. country, province, district etc. There are also secondary guides which may show
cities, towns and division etc.

Advantages.

1. It's capable of easy expansion

2. Correspondence relating to a particular location can be grouped together ie. Sales.
3. Particularly suitable for sales department where countries, cities and towns need to be
separated into files.
4. Convenient for reference because once the location is known in a small system an index would
not be necessary.

Disadvantages

1. Requires an index in large firms/system

2. It must be combined with alphabetical method
3. Filing clerk must have a good memory of geography in order to operate a large system.

NUMERICAL FILING

Is a system of filing where numbers are used for guides and folders rather than names. Every
name is given a number and to keep the system going one has to have heard of the last item
number written somewhere and each new folder or subject is allocated the next number.

This is the best way of filing for expanding businesses because the numbers are indefinite and
thus easy to find. The process of gross reference is done on an index card. If the file remain is
supposed to be found in the miscellaneous file the card index is written 'M'

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Characteristics of Numerical Filing
1. The guides are numbered by and thus only their folder will be found within most primary
guides.
2. The captions show only the numbers assigned to the individual correspondence.
3. It combines numbers and alphabetical filing, numbers for the solder and letters of the alphabet
for the indexing card (index card needed to combine number with the name)

4. Each index card strip contains the name of the correspondent and his allocated file number and
are (index card) arranged in alphabetical order.

5. When a file is required, the name of a correspondent is located in the index card a raw under
the letter of the alphabet + the file number.

Advantages

1. Files can be quickly located

2. File number may be used as letters and documents for reference purposes.
3. System capable of indefinite expansion
4. Eliminates confusing common names
5. Suitable for documents containing secret or confidential information
6. The index card or strip may be used for other purposes.

Disadvantages.

1. Separate alphabetical index must be maintained.

2. It consumes a lot of time because of consulting card index to find file numbers.
3. Emers in using figure on files can lead to misplacement of content
4. If clerk is not careful he can easily allocate one number to two files (people)

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SUBJECT FILING

If the arrangement of records by topic or subject e.g. equipment’s, adverts, applications etc.
Subjects are filed in alphabetical order, primary guides here will represent the main subject. This
system is useful in school, universities, colleges etc.

Advantages.
1. Related documents are grouped together even though from different sources.
2. Expansion is easy because more subdivision files can be inserted.
Disadvantages.

1. It's sometimes difficult to decide under which subject a particular document should be filed.
2. Card index is needed to show the range of items filed under subject title.
3. Cross-referencing is often necessary.
4. Not suitable for organizations with large amount of correspondence as it will be difficult to
rem all subjects hence would not be suitable in a centralized filing system.

CHRONOLOGICAL FILING.

Is a method of filing documents within a file by dates, received. The earliest dated documents are
placed on top. This system is normally combined with alphabetical or numerical systems and is
suitable for documents such as invoice payment vouchers, receipts, orders etc.

ALPHA-NUMERIC FILING

Is a method of filing where alphabetical and numerical systems are combined in order to
overcome the disadvantages of each of the filing method when used independently.

SUSPENSION FILING

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Is a way of placing files or folders in the drawer which are filled. To metal runners and chassis
railways to raise pond a file in such a manner that they are held clear off the bottom of the
drawer.
The files are thus supported and protected from considerable amount of wear and tear and so
they retain their neat and tidy appearance.

Advantages.

1. Documents can he located easily.

2. It's elastic and offers scope for future expansion.
3. Economical in terms of money and space
4. Cabinets have greater protection from dust and fire.
5. Files are more compact and there is less chance of losing documents particularly if files are
suspended.
6. Adaptable to various methods of classification, numeric, geographical, subject etc

Disadvantages.

1. Expensive to install and maintain

2. It needs a longer area and hence prove very expensive in terms of net corts.
3. One drawer can contain only a hundred number of files suspended and this require additions
which are quite costly.
4. It's tiring because the filing clerk having to open and close drawers.

FILING SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

These are certain things to be considered before choosing filing systems. They are:

1. Quick and simple to operate

2. Easy to get to the material filed

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3. Suitable for expansion if need be.

FORMS OF MASS MEDIA COMMUNICATION

Mass media communication entails the giving and receiving of information to a large number of
people in a given geographical area or with the transmitting of information without any
boundaries. These forms of mass media include the following;

i) Pictures
ii) Television
iii) Newspapers
iv) Radio
v) Direct mail
1. PICTURES
Advantages;
a) It is easy to interpret
b) It is entertaining
c) Can be used for record keeping
d) It is brief and specific
e) It reaches the expected group of people in time,

Disadvantages
a) Expensive to process in small units
b) Time consuming in preparation
c) Inconvenient for the blind people

II. TELEVISION

Advantages
a) Reaches both literate and illiterate mass
b) Entertains the audience

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c) Facilitates the use of speech and visual modes at the same time
d) Is stored and ported.
Disadvantages
a) Costly to acquire and maintain
b) Imported pictures or foreign pictures cause some social maladjustments especial for the youth.
c) It is difficult to censor information
d) Comprises a cluster of advertisement which become progressively monotonous

III. NEWSPAPERS
Advantages
a) It is attractive and portable
b) Has a variety of information and is accurate
c) Can be used for future references
d) Reaches a large audience
e) It is short and brief.
Disadvantages
a) Might include lots of distortion and malicious editions
b) It is expensive or rather costly to acquire
c) It can get out of date for some specific pieces of information
d) People (the readers) may become progressively bias because of political influence

IV. RADIO
Advantages
a) Flexible in coverage and quick in sending information
b) Entertainment especially in speed and music
c) Reaches a wide range of audience or various frequencies and dialets
d) Rather cheap and portable

Disadvantages
a) Contributes to cultural erosion due to some of the music
b) The information delivered is brief thus a little bit hard to comprehend

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c) Source of noise pollution when on high decibels
d) Rather costly for an individual to acquire.
V. DIRECT MAIL
Advantages
a) Confidentiality is possible
b) It is appropriate for record keeping
c) It is possible to reach the target group everywhere
d) It utilizes a variety of formats hence applicable in different situations
e) Written information becomes selective in target hence it can be controlled.

Disadvantages
a) Lacks in term of entertainment
b) Only used by literate people
c) It is time consuming in preparation.

EXTERNAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

This is communication that takes place between a forum and the outside world so
As to tell the public about the forum its products and its activities i.e. the customers ,suppliers ,
government departments or branches, banks, trade unions, newspapers etc.
Main methods of external communication
Much of the external communication is carried on by letters, reports, commercial travellers,
representatives, reports, telephone, electronic mail, advertising, video conferencing, telex,
facsimile. Good external communication is aimed at:
1. Promoting the company’s name

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 2. Enhancing public awareness
Communication as a tool of public relation
Public relation is defined as the deliberate planned and sustained effort to establish and
maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its public. Its
purpose is to ensure that the organization is understood by others.
Most organizations use the press to report various achievements and this generates goodwill
for an enterprise. Large firms, nationalizes industry or government departments publicise
their:
 Progress
 Breaking into overseas markets
 New types of plant
 An extension of a factory
Much of this news and is worthy communicating to people outside the enterprise. House
publication are also distributed to customers and other parties to enhance public relation
Some large companies employ public relation consultants- one of their duties being to give
information about the company to the press. This job can also be given to a suitable and
interested member of the staff. In the very small organization, the owner is his own public
relation specialist
Public relations also include exhibition, trade fairs, films, radio and television, public speaking,
conferences and hospitality
Role of public relations in an organization
1. To inform the public about the organization activities and policies where they will likely
affect the physical and social environment
2. To strengthen the marketing and promotion of the business
3. To show the public that the company concerned is socially aware and socially responsible
4. To show the customers that it has their interest at heart
Customer- a person who buys goods or services from an organization regularly so as to
satisfy his/her needs.

THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATION

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Public relations are fundamentally the art and science of establishing relationships between an
organization and its key audiences. Public relations play a key role in helping business industries
create strong relationships with customers.

Public relations involve supervising and assessing public attitudes and maintaining mutual
relations and understanding between an organization and its public. The function of public
relations is to improve channels of communication and to institute new ways of setting up a two-
way flow of information and understanding.

Public relations are effective in helping:

* Corporations convey information about their products or services to potential customers
* Corporations reach local government and legislators
* Politicians attract votes and raise money, and craft their public image and legacy
* Non-profit organizations, including schools, Hospitals, social service agencies etc. boost
support of their programs such as awareness programs. Fund-raising program and to increase
patronage of their services
Public relations in present times employs diverse techniques such as opinion polling and focus
groups to evaluate public opinion, combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for
distributing information on behalf of their clients, including the internet, Satellite feeds,
broadcast faxes and database-driven phone banks.

Functions of the Public Relations Officer

Crisis Manager

Organizations rely on their public relations officers to handle media inquiries during a crisis. For
example, if someone dies on the job or if a company's new stock offering fails to generate
interest, the public relations officer must have a plan in place for handling media questions and
portraying his organization in the best way possible.

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Media Contact
A public relations officer is the media's main contact for news about an organization or company.
The PR officer writes press releases for the media about upcoming events, and cultivates
relationships with members of the local and national media. The PR officer might also host
media conferences when special events happen. For example, an officer might host a press
conference after a university researcher makes a big discovery, or he might hold a press event
honouring me opening of his company s newest office.

Marketing
A public relations officer is also in charge of communicating information about her organization
to the community. Her job involves creating publications that the community or members of her
organization will read, and generating interest in attending company-sponsored events.

Budget and Management

Some public relations officers oversee an entire communications department. These individuals
must also be in charge of their department's budget, making sure hosted events and media
outreach efforts are not too costly. They oversee people who work in their department, which
may include writers, secretaries or graphic artists. They participate in workshops to stay update
on their field and help their staff succeed.

How Public Relations Boosts Sale

Public relations programs may be designed to influence consumers at any stage of the purchase
process:
 Easing awareness of, or familiarity with, products and services;
 Influencing perceptions of key benefits or differentiators;
 Increasing willingness to consider products and services;
 Increasing intent to try a product and make a first time purchase;
 Assuring a positive experience with a purchase; and
 Building on going preference for a product or service

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Objectives of Public Relations

 Building product Awareness - When introducing a new product or re-launching an

existing product, marketers can use a PR element that generates consumer attention and
awareness through media placements and special events.

 Creating interest - Whether a PR placement is a short product article or is included with

other products in "round up" article, stories in the media can help entice a targeted
audience to try the product.

 Providing Information - PR can be used to provide customers with more in depth

information about products and services. Through articles, collateral materials,
newsletters and web sites, PR delivers information to customers that can help them gain
understanding of the product.

 Stimulating Demand - A positive article in a newspaper, on a TV news show or

mentioned on the Internet, often results in a discernable increase in product sales.

 Reinforcing the Brand - In many companies the public relations function is also
involved with brand reinforcement by maintaining positive relationships with key
audiences, and thereby aiding in building a strong image. Today it is ever more important
for companies and brands to build a good image. A strong image helps the company build
its business and it can help the company in times of crises as well.

Impact of Public Relations on public corporations

First, PR is often considered a highly credible form of promotion. One of PR's key points of
power rests with helping to establish credibility for a product, company or person (e.g., CEO) in
the minds of targeted customer groups by capitalizing on the influence of a third-party - the
media Second, a well-structured PR campaign can result in the target market being exposed to

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more detailed information than they receive with other forms of promotion. That is, media
sources often provide more space and time for explanation of a product.

Third, depending on the media outlet, a story mentioning a company may be picked up by a large
number of additional media, thus, spreading a single story to many locations.

Finally, in many cases public relations objectives can be achieved at very low cost when
compared to other promotional effort

Market Landscape and Public Relations

Marketers have at their disposal several tools for carrying out public relations. The key tools
available for PR include:

• Media Relations
• Media Tours
• Newsletters
• Special Events
• Speaking Engagements
• Sponsorships
• Employee Relations
• Community Relations and Philanthropy

IMPACT OF PR ON FINANCIAL PROFITABILITY

Public relations can help create a unified message that helps marketing and business
development. This can help define product or service from the customer's point-of-view, get you
on the speaker's panel at trade shows and conventions, get articles about your firm in the relevant
trade publications, and help with collateral material development. Events as publicity tool have
been used as an integral part of the PR business for years and can be far more effective than

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bombarding editors with press releases. Many companies focus on staging events mainly because
their products get lost trying to get undeserved publicity. Events, on the other hand, create great
photo opportunities if timely and of interest to the community. Enthusiasm and persistence are
critical assets when it comes to communicating your message to the public. When it comes to
working with firms, Webster suggests, "It is essential that clients don't bluff about their
knowledge, and therefore their expectations of the PR process. The PR firm can't help unless you
adequately communicate the scope of your knowledge about the business." Good PR work,
including press coverage, goodwill generated and increased impact on public perception of your
firm can be powerfully effective. According to media experts, articles are believed and
remembered four to six times more than advertising

Branch of public relations specializing in corporate disclosure responsibilities, stockholder

relations, and relations with the professional investor community. Financial public relations is
concerned not only with matters of corporate image and the cultivation of a favourable financial
and investment environment but also with legal interpretation and adherence to Securities and
Exchange Commission and other government regulations, as well as with the disclosure
requirements of the securities exchanges. Its practitioners, therefore, include lawyers with
expertise in such areas as tender offers and takeovers, public offerings, proxy solicitation, and
insider trading.

Market Monitoring: Competition and impact of PR

Monitoring public comment about a company and its products is becoming increasingly
important especially with the explosion of information channels on the Internet. Today
monitoring includes watching what is written and reported in traditional print and broadcast
media and also keeping an eye on discussions occurring through various Internet outlets such as
forums, chat rooms, blogs and other public messaging areas. Marketers must be prepared to
respond quickly to erroneous information and negative opinions about products as it can spin out
of control very quickly through the new technology channels. Failure to correct misinformation
can be devastating to a product or company's reputation. It should be noted that specialized

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monitoring services can be contracted to help companies keep track of BUZZ” about the
company and its products.
Crisis Management

Marketers need to be prepared to respond quickly to negative information about the company.

When a problem with a product arises in fact or substantiated only by rumor a marketer’s
investment in a product and brand can be in serious jeopardy. Today, with the prevalence of the
Internet and wireless communications, negative information can spread rapidly. Through
monitoring marketers can track the issues and respond in a timely fashion. To manage response
effectively, many companies have crises management plans in place that outline steps to take and
company spokespeople to speak on behalf of the company should an event occur.

Government and Political Relations & Impact of PR

Public relations in the political arena covers a wide range of activities, including staging debates,
holding seminars for government leaders, influencing proposed legislation, and testifying before
a congressional committee. Political candidates engage in public relations as do government
agencies at the federal, state, and local levels

Trade associations and other types of organizations attempt to block unfavorable legislation and
support favorable legislation in a number of ways.

SOCIAL MEDIA AND PUBLIC RELATION

Until recently most public relations activity involved person-to-person contact between PR
professionals and members of the media, such as journalists and television news reporters. In
most cases these changes are the result of new internet technologists that are quickly gaining
widespread acceptance among internet users and are becoming new media outlets in their own
righ

PUBLICS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

PUBLICS DEFINED

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 1. Public or publics

Publics are those groups of people, internally and externally with whom an organization
communicates

In the IPR definition (see 1:2) reference was made to 'publics' (plural). This is because - unlike
some dictionary definitions - public relations activities are not directed at 'the general public'.
They are aimed at carefully selected groups of people who are subdivisions of the great general
public.

Moreover, this means that much PR activity is aimed at these different publics in different ways,
not broadcast with messages aimed at the mass market through mass media as is often the case
with advertising. Public relations is more discriminating and that often means that it is less
wasteful and more successful for communicating certain kind of message.

Each organization has its own special publics with whom it has to communicate internally and
externally. There are not just two big publics such as employees and customers

2. Ten basic publics

Although the publics of one organization may differ from those of another, it is possible to
identify ten publics from which other publics may be derived:

(a) The community

(b) Potential employees (c) Employees

(d) Suppliers of services and materials

(e) Consumers and users

(f) Opinion leaders

(g) Trade unions

(h) The media

While this is clearly a larger number of target audiences than one would aim to reach with an
advertising campaign, it is still capable of subdivision .it is not entirely relevant to non-
commercial organizations such as a local authority, a charity or the police, And it reveals how

96
foolish it is to place PR under the control of either marketing or personnel management (which
frequently happens), since PR concerns the total organization. The PRO or PR consultant should,
therefore, be answerable to the chief executive. A commercial organization has to communicate
with many groups of people I," .other than distributors and consumers.

The media can be regarded as the means of communicating with publics, and the media
personalities and celebrities such as columnists and presenters may often be included among
‘opinion leaders’. It is, however, completely justifiable to regard the media as a public in its own
right

3. Analysis of the ten basic publics

The public outlined in (a) to (h) above are analyzed below

(a) The community:

The community will depend on the type of organization. It will be different for a department
store, local authority, nuclear power station, 'factory, research laboratory, hotel, airport, seaport,
educational establishment hospital, prison, army barracks or police headquarters .Even when
different organizations share the same location each will have its own communication needs and
problems e.g. safety, noise, dirt, pollution, strikes, smells, car-parking, inconvenience and so on.
A good neighbor policy is wise: PR begins on the doorstep

(b) Potential employees may exist in other organizations, or can be recruited from schools,
colleges and universities, or from overseas. They are not likely to seek employment with an
organization, or answer its vacancy ads, unless they understand what the organization does, and
regard it as a potentially good employer. For example, school-leavers may think working in a
bank is dull, 80 banks have made videos for schools, showing how attractive it is to work in a
bank.

(c) Employees can be of many kinds, some of which are: management and executives:
laboratory, factory and warehouse workers: office staff; sales and' servicing staff; and transport
staff. They may be concentrated in one
ULTIMATE PUBLICS
PRIMARY PUBLICS
Academics
The media
Children
Editors
Competitors
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Journalists
Customers &consumers
Reporters
Distributers
Feature writers
 INTERNAL

PRIMARY PUBLICS

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(d) Suppliers can be of two kinds, those who supply services such as water ci ii and energy, and
those who supply raw materials, components, packaging and professional services.

(e) The financial publics begin with the local bank and, if it is a public company - its shares
being sold on the Stock Exchange - investors will consist not only of personal buyers of
securities but also of investment; analysts (who advise on share buying) and big share buyers.
These big buyers-the institutions-are the pension fund managers, banks, insurance

(f) Distributors - those who handle the goods in bulk between producer and consumer – vary in
kind and number according g to e organisation. Thus distributors may include wholesalers,
factors, job rockers, commission agents, cash and carry warehouses, brokers, retailers, own
shops, direct or doorstep salespeople, incentive scheme promoters, premium offer suppliers,
vending machines, gift catalogue operators, importers and exporters

(g) Only now do we arrive at consumers and users, and the latter can include trade and industrial
buyers such as 'secondary suppliers', as when the product is used in the assembly or production
of another, e.g. tyres for motorcars, milk for manufactured foods. Public relations applied to
marketing are often directed at this public only, indicating that marketing deals only with a
limited range of PR's potentialities.
(h)Opinion leaders or formers comprise all those people whose expressed opinions can harm or
help an organisation. According to the organisation, opinion leaders can be numerous and ever-
changing, ranging from parents to politicians, priests to protestors. They are part articulate
democracy, but can exist in countries where traditional, military, dictatorial or religious leaders
dominate. For example, in some developing countries family planning has won acceptance only
after local leaders have become innovators and, in pioneering the new idea, they have, in the PR
sense, columnists, television presenters, social reformers and others also figure among the galaxy
of opinion leaders with whom an organization may have to contend. This can be a formidable
public, often prejudiced and ill-informed, and probably requiring face-to-face communication

(i) Trades' unions exert a powerful influence on commercial, industrial and political life in
Britain. They no longer have the cloth cap image they may once have had. Today, trades unions

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employ specialists in every field, just as businesses do: lawyers, accountants, analysts,
representatives and lobbyists. No company management can afford to ignore this.

(j) The media need completely different treatment from that given to the other publics outlined
here. One reason is the fact that the media are your organisation's direct route to your publics.
Another is simply that publishers, producers, editors and journalists have total control over what
your publics see and hear in their media. A third reason is that every editor, correspondent,
journalist and producer is constantly seeking one thing in their professional lives: a good story,
relevant to their readers, listeners or viewers. Give them that, and you will always be flavour of
the month with

4. Reasons for defining publics

The major reasons for defining publics are as follows:

(a) To identify all groups of people relative to a PR programme

(b) To establish priorities within the scope of the budget and resources (see Chapter 11)

(c) To select media and techniques

(d) To prepare the message in acceptable and effective forms.

5. Results of not defining publics.

Some results of not defining publics are summarised as follows:
(a) Effort and funds will be scattered indiscriminately m the attempt to reach too many publics. ,.
, . (i) Own government officials, MPs

(b) The same message would be Issue Irrespective of its stability for different groups of people

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(c) Work would not be timed to make the most cost-effective use of working hours, materials
and equipment.

(d) Objectives- if defined at all- would not be achieved

(e) Management (or the client) would be dissatisfied with the lack of results, and would be
justified in regarding PR as being intangible and worse still, a waste of money or the PR
practitioner as being incompetents the PRO or PR consultant could thus lose his or her job, or the
contract.
As we have demonstrated above, and have already considered in Chapter 5, defining the many
publics applicable to an organisation is essential part plannmg a. PR campaign. Until these
publics are determined, and sometimes not until priorities have been decided because it is
physically and financially impossible to entertain them all, it is not possible to choose the the
media and techniques. One public may be reached by the news media, one by videos house
magazine, another by mobile exhibition and demonstration and yet word of mouth or eyeball,
personal confrontation.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF PUBLICS

Taking our ten basic publics as a model, let us now consider the main

6. Three examples

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GRAMMAR

There are four branches of linguistics language namely:

Phonology - Scientific study of speech sounds of a language.

Morphology - Scientific study of word pattern formations of a particular language

Syntax - Scientific study of sentence/phrases formation

Semantics - Scientific study of meanings and how meaning is structured in a language.

SEMANTICS
At this level we are concerned with semantics. Semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with
the study of meaning including the ways meaning is structured in a language and changes in
meaning and form over time.

Semantics deal with:

1. Relationships in words

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2. Relationships in sentences

3. What certain words/sentences imply denote:

a) According to the speaker

b) According to the listener

4. Meanings of words/sentences according to:

a) The speaker’s implication (intended meaning)

b) The listener’s interpretation

5. Interpretation of meanings in sentences: According to culture e.g in Sudan when people click
it is an expression of appreciation. While in Kenya clicking expresses utter despise of a person.

SEMANTIC FIELDS

There are many semantic fields e.g

1. SYNONYM:

Synonym means same meaning, e.g

Glad-happy
Almost-nearly
Ladies-women
Looking-seeing
Rich-wealthy

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2. HYPONYM

Hyponym is the relationship which is obtained between specific and general items e.g dog,
horse, cat, and goat- hyponym of animals.
Chair, table, bookshelf, cupboard-hyponym of furniture Kales, cabbage, spinach - hyponym of
vegetables

3. PARAPHRASE.

A restatement in one’s own words that stays true to the ideas, tone and general length of the
original meaning of a passage.
4. CONNOTATION

Connotation is an idea or feeling associated with a word, as opposed to the words in the
dictionary definition (denotation) e.g
a) He is married to a bottle - meaning he is a drunkard.
b) He has kicked the bucket - meaning he had died.

5. DENOTATION
Denotation is the dictionary meaning of a word as opposed to the ideas and feelings that the
word conveys (connotations e.g rose - dict. meaning - a flower Connotation - something
beautiful.

6. ANTONYM
Antonym is the oppositeness of meaning e.g. boy-girl.
Borrow-pay
Same - different
Selfish - generous
Above - below

7. AMBIGUITY

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Sentences whose meanings are not clear because they have more than one meaning e.g.
The horse is ready to ride
John saw Joan walking to the store.
The English History teacher is having her tea
I know a man with a dog who has flies.

8. BIAS
Bias is the leaning on ones side in an argument. To be unbiased is to be neutral.

9. JARGON
Jargon is the special language and terminology used by people in the same profession or with
special interests e.g
Medical language - Medicine, diagnosis etc.
Lawyers' language -learned friend, my Lord(s) etc
Religious language - God, Christ, Hallelujah! Amen etc

10. PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is the act of dishonesty presenting someone else's words or ideas as one’s own e.g
quoting words from a book and using them as your own words and yet they did not originate
from you.

11. IDIOMS
These are phrases whose meaning cannot be inferred from the individual word but the word
carries deeper meaning - (phrases with deeper meanings) e.g
a) Shade crocodile tears - pretence
b) Kick of a dying horse -
c) A thorn in the flesh - trouble/pain without end·
d) Paddle ones canoe
e) Kick a basket

12. PROVERBS.

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These are age old wise statements/sayings in a language whose aim is to educate, warn, advice,
ridicule, counsel etc.: proverbs are mainly for spicing up language and entertainment. E.g.

a) To a loved one’s home, there are no mountains.

b) East or West home is best
c) All that glitters is not gold
d) Don't judge the book by its colour
e) Birds of the same feathers flock together.

OBJECTIVES FOR COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN

AN ORGANIZATION
The following are some of the objectives (reasons) for communication in an organization

1. To pass information
2. To give advice
3. To give orders
4. To counsel
5. To give suggestion
6. To persuade
7. To educate
8. To warn
9. To motivate
10. To raise morale

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

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This is communication that involves small group on a one –to-one basis. It can1 further be said
to be the process of sending and receiving information between two or more people

The advantage of interacting with fewer people makes it possible for people to open up and
discuss matters to one another’s convenience. the possibility of exchange of views and opinions
on the spot makes types of communication very valuable to an organization

Staff meetings, briefings, feedback and customer relations are examples of interpersonal
communication

Types of interpersonal communication

These are mainly three (3) types of interpersonal communication namely:

i. Non verbal
ii. Verbal
iii. Written

Non-verbal refers to communication through body language e.g facial expression,

gestures .eye contact etc. this kind of communication takes place frequently among people
who interact

Verbal communication- this is the communication by word of mouth, at times referred to oral
communication. Many a time’s non-verbal communication accompanies verbal
communication

Written communication- this is the written word.it may take place through memos, minutes,
and reports and even through internet. Most people these days prefer to communicate or chat
on-line. They are a lot more comfortable as the body language is blocked and one does not
have to worry a lot about the dressing style

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP

Interpersonal relationship can be defined as social associations, connections or affiliations

between two or more people. It is how people interact with each other and these are number
of factors that influence this kind of association e.g

1. Role and position in life

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 2. Age differences
3. Culture
4. Religion
5. Educational background etc.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

These are skills you require in order to communicate effectively with others

When communicating using body language be careful to use the language very carefully so as
not to be misunderstood. Remember action speak louder than words when happy always smile or
wear a hopeful face. When things are not good wear an appropriate facial expression etc.

If using verbal communication ensure you are audible, precise and pronounce the words clearly.
Avoid making grammatical errors.

If written communication, write grammatically by avoiding spelling construction, tense

preparation etc. ensure you are concise, precise, relevant and extremely clear

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

These are about eight (8) types of communication

1. Personal or intra-personal communication

2. Interpersonal communication
3. Organizational communication
4. Mass communication
5. Social communication
6. Transformational communication
7. Co-operate communication
8. Group communication
1. Personal or intra-personal communication

This is where the individual communicates in his/her mind through the process of thinking and
feeling. By doing do one is able to process the information and seek to establish an
understanding with others

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It helps one to shape self-concept and develop one’s convictions (improve the perception of self)

2. Interpersonal communication

It is the process of sharing ideas and feeling between individuals

It involves interactions between two persons as a small group on a one –to- one basis.
Understanding interpersonal communication is assent in maintain healthy relationships.

3. Organizational communication

This is the life-blood of any organization. It is the result of successfully governed, well-
understood and networked organization without a positive communication climate, no
organization can function or survive the complexities that besiege it daily. This involves passing
information, discussion, briefing etc.

4. Mass communication

This is meant for disseminating news about the organization to the stakeholders and to the
public. The organization passes on information through staff newsletters , press releases,
annuals ,reports, interviews to the media about changes in policies, new projects, mergers and
acquisitions and any information that should interest the mass about the organization.

5. Social communication

This occurs when people interact with one another in groups outside the organization, converse
and share ideas in social gatherings and generally exchange pleasantries without talking shot

6. Transformational communication

This one goes beyond interpersonal communication. It originates from the main source, the
sender. The sender builds a larger frame of reference for a healthy understanding to develop. It is
also known as supportive communication. Examples are like when a resource manager listens to
the grievances of the employers and seek solutions to the problems. The four elements of
transformation communication are thinking, sensing, inflicting and feeling

7. Co-operate communication

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 This is the way a company builds and keeps contact with employees, dealers, business,
houses and out not only by the board and the C.E.O or the MD of the company but also by all
responsible employees

8. Group communication

This occurs when meetings are held face-to face for discussion on issues that affect the working
lives of employees. The group works towards common goals and follows the norms that govern
its functioning

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

These are formal and informal methods of communication

Formal communication- this communication is official and follows a definite pattern, has
procedures and is well planned e.g. formal letter, memos, interviews, meetings et c.

Informal communication- a communication that does not follow a set pattern has no procedure
and takes any direction e.g. social communication, grapevine etc.

Formal communication

Formal communication can be defined as a presentation or written piece that strictly adheres to
rules, conventions and ceremony and is free of colloquial expressions. Formal patterns of
communication follow set patterns with rules and regulations. Formal communication is mostly
in black and white

Formal communication is routed through what is termed official channel of communication. It

moves through the formal channels authoritatively accepted positions in the organization chart,
eg. A memorandum from a director or department heads, written reports, letters, department
meetings, special interviews.

The main advantages of formal communication are that the official channels facilitate the
habitual and identical information to communicate without claiming much of managerial
attention. Managers and executives can devote their time to matters of utmost significance.

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The weakness of formal communication is that communications through channel of command
greatly obstruct free and uninterrupted flow of communication. It is time consuming and leads to
distortion.

Informal communication

It can identify as passing information outside the official channels. A supporting amount of
communication in organizational (even official communication) is done using informal methods.
It has no particular formulae and may take any direction.

Much of the information is passed on by word of mouth among interested colleagues who have
received in for examples of information from different sources e.g. Briefings memoranda, visits,
reports.

Spontaneous gatherings around a desk may spark off the exchange of such informal information.
Examples of informal methods of transmission include the grapevine and social gatherings.

Interpersonal communication-is defined as communication process within an individual. It takes

place within a single person often for the purpose of clarifying ideas or analyzing a situation. The
individual communication in his mind through the process of thinking a feeling. It occurs when
we evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between ourselves and others. It helps one
improve the perception of self. It is not restricted to talking to self. It also includes such activities
as internal problem solving, evaluation of internal conflict, planning for future, evaluation of
internal conflict, planning for future, evaluation of self and others and the relationship between
ourselves.

Interpersonal communication-

It is a process of sharing ideas and feelings between individuals

It is the personal process of understanding and sharing meaning between ourselves and at least
one other person. It usually involves the use of oral and non- verbal communication. It may also
use written forms, through emails, notes

It occurs for a variety of reasons

 To solve problems

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  To resolve conflicts
 To shave information
 To improve perception of ourselves
 To fill such social needs as the needs to be known or to be loved

Understand interpersonal communication is essential in maintaining healthy relationships.

Internal communication-

It is communication between employer and employee and between a company and its
shareholders it is communication within an organization.

External communication

This is communication between a company (or other business organization) and its customers,
suppliers and the general public.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION

The description refers to those communications which are routed through what is called official
channels eg. A written memo from a managing director to departmental heads or a written report
from a regional manager to his sales managers.

Formal channels of communication follow set patterns with rules and regulations. Formal
communication is mostly in black and white.

It is considered a more reliable method for the execution of directives and instructions

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
A Definition of technology:
Technology may be defined in a number of ways;

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• How people modify the natural world to suit their own purposes.

• . The scientific method and material used to achieve a commercial or industrial objective.

• The application of practical or mechanical sciences to industry or commerce.

• The use of scientific knowledge to solve practical problems especially in industry and
commerce.

• The specific methods, materials and devices used to solve practical problems.

• The methods and tools that a society has developed in order to facilitate the solution of its
practical problem.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN COMMUNICATION:

This has led to the following devices in communication.

•Voice over internet protocol (VOIP)
• Teleconferencing
• Videoconferencing
• Electronic mail
• Internet
• Fax )
a) Voice Over Internet Protocol (V 0IP)

This is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using a broadband internet connection
instead of a regular phone line, (broadband = high speed internet) some may allow you to call
other people using the same service while others may allow you to call anyone who has a
telephone number, including local, long distance, mobile and international numbers.

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VOLP services convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the internet. If you are
calling a regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular phone signal before it reaches
the destination. VOLP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer, a special VOLP
phone or a traditional phone connected to an adapter.

b) Teleconferencing

Teleconferencing takes place when one telephone number is linked with several other numbers
simultaneously (at the same time) This means that people can hold ,a conference over the
telephone without meeting each other in person. The advantage of teleconferencing is that it
saves money and executive time.

c) Video-conferencing
A communication technology that integrates video 'and voice to connect, remote users with each
other (people in communication) would go on as of all parties were in the same room. Each user
needs a computer, webcam, microphone and broadband internet connection for participation in
video conferencing. Users see and hear each other in real time.

d) Electronic mail

Also known popularly as E-mail, involves sending messages via telecommunication links. If two
computer terminals, however distant from each other are connected on network it is possible to
send messages from one to the other. The message is typed on a computer screen at one end and
is conveyed through electronic impulses to the other end. A signal alerts the recipient about the
transmission of message. Messages are accessed through the mailbox on the screen.

Advantages of E-mail
1. It is the quickest means of transmitting messages
2. Clarifications can be sort if both T and R are at computer terminals.

3. Information can be sorted or amended and sent elsewhere.

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4. Due to password known only to the communicators, messages are highly confidential
5. Future reference can be made or message can be stored.

e) Internet

This is a computer network consisting of use TCP/IP network protocols to facilitate data
transmission.

Fax (Facsimile)
This is a telecommunication technology used to transmitting visual materials such as diagrams,
illustrations, photographs or any document.
All that is required is a fax machine with a connected telephone. As the document to be
transmitted is fed through the machine, it is electronically scanned and signals are transmitted to
the receiving end where an identical copy of the document is reproduced on a blank sheet of
paper by the receiving machine.
The fax machine has made it possible to send copies of important documents including
certificates, degrees, testimonials agreements and contracts from one place to another at the
speed of a telephone call.

ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

Computer technology and telecommunication links via satellite have brought about revolutionary
changes in the field of communication thereby making the world a global village.
The barriers caused by space and time are a thing of the past. The world appears to have
contracted as the cumbersome traditional ways of communication have "electronic office". This
is a combination of various technologies meant to improve the efficiency of the office work and
also to reduce the number of office staff. The work style in the office has changed considerably.
Office automation systems at present are computer-based information systems that collect,
process store and transmit electronic messages, documents and other forms of communication
among individuals, work groups and organisations.

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Technology has therefore led to:
 Effective monitoring system

 Records of all activities can be made available at any time.

 High efficiency due to availability and use of wireless networking collaboration tools;
digital video, handheld devices and videoconferencing.
 Reduction of amount of time for completion of tasks
 Less friction/tension among staff
 Achievement of both short and long term objectives. minimal barriers to effective
communication
 Reduced costs especially where traveling could have been involved.

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

Technology may have gone a long way in making co-ordination in the office a lot easier but it
has had some negative impact due to its use.
We can therefore say that technology has impacted both positively and negatively in
communication.

1) It has led to very little or no personal touch between communications. The absence of body
language due to the barrier videoconferencing, teleconferencing, e-mail interpersonal relations.

2) Due to office automation, the number of employed staff has reduced.

3) These tools of collaboration are open to abuse by staff e.g misuse of telephone and internet,
this is both costly and time consuming.

4) Work is not quite challenging in information if information is readily available with the touch
of a button. It promotes laziness.

5) Most of the time feedback is spontaneous especially if both communicators are seated at the
two terminals and also when the telephone is being used.

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6) Technology has reduced the world into a global village.

7) There is less privacy

8) Technology can provide the means to collect, organize, track and report on formation in
record time.

EMERGING ISSUES,

1. Reliance on technology - people don't bother learning to spellchecker etc.

2. Loss of face-to-face may mean loss of some communication skills and loss of the personal
touch.

3. These are risks attached to the unknown/hidden elements on the internet (you don't necessarily
know who you are talking to).

4. Reliability of information - everyone's posting just because some things on the web doesn't
mean it's reliable.

5. Viruses, fraud and identity theft are all risks for people using the internet.

6. There are costs associated with maintaining equipment and keeping equipment up with
contemporary software.

7. Addiction - some people get addicted to web/games etc which increases that social isolation
and can cause health problems.

8. Health issues related to less sun, exercise etc and a tendency to eat more.

9. Interrupting - because people don't tend to tum off technology, they don't focus or concentrate
for uninterrupted periods as much. There's a trend towards multitasking that can have benefits
but also impacts productivity.

10. There are potential risks relating to cancer and fertility associated with regular exposure to
mobile phones.

ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE (IDI)

It is the structural transmission between organizations by electronic means.

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It is used to transfer electronic documents or business data from one computer system to another
computer system.
Electronic data interchange in most areas does not require human intervention and supported by
such technologies as;

 XML - Extensive mark-up language

 Web services
 Internet
 WWW - World Wide Web

ELECTORNIC MAIL (E-MAIL)

E-mail is communication electronically on electronic devices such as computers, phones, lap

tops, personal digital mobile phones.

E-mail is a method of exchanging digital message across the internet or other computer
networks.
Examples of free mail providers are:
 Yahoo
 G-mail
 Hot mail
 http - hyper transfer
 com – commercial
 ac - academic
 gov - government
 org - organizational website e.g church mil - military
 edc - education
 net - network

ELECTRONIC POINT OF SALE (EPOS)

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Systems that handle both cash and card transaction, they connect network, making sales
information to be instantly available. Self-contained computerized equipment that performs all
task of a store checkout counter, it allows pag on banks credit cards verifying transactions,
provide sale co-ordinating inventory data and performs other functions.

ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Electronic commerce is defined as buying and selling of products or services over electronic
systems such as the internet, networks e.g Safaricom, Zain other computer networks.

Electronic computer several activities such as:

 Electronic funds transfer
 Supply chain management
 Internet marketing
 Online transaction processing
 Inventory management systems
 Automated data collection systems

ELECTRONIC FUNDS TRANSFER

Refers to the computer based systems used to perform financial transactions electronically. An
EFT is the electronic exchange or transfer of money from one account to another either within
the same financial institution or across multiple institutions.

FUNCTIONAL WRITING

Functional writing covers a wide range of forms of writing that have a fixed format and register.
• Business letters
• Memorandum
• Notices

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• Agenda
• Minutes
• Advertisements
• E-mail
• Facsimile messages
• Questionnaires

A lot of communication takes place in any business setup whether verbal or written. Formal
communication between an organization and another, or among employee’s e.g employer -
employee, supervisors - subordinates is referred to as Business correspondence (Functional
writing). This is usually in written form given that written communication has several advantages
over oral communication.

These are letters used in business correspondence. Every business has to maintain contact with
its suppliers, customers, government departments. In the process, enquiries are made, orders are
placed and acknowledgement. This is a clear indication that much of the written information in
an office is done by means of business letters.
Examples of business letters include:

Letters of enquiry - to request information or prices.

Letters of quotation - reply to letters of inquiry
Order letters - requesting of goods or services
Letters of confirmation -
Letters of acknowledgement -
Letters of complaint - to criticize poor service or goods
Adjustment letters - respond to the complaint
Collection letters - to obtain settlement of a debt
Sales letters - to sell goods or services
Circular letters - letters written to reach a certain group of people (customers/ staff).
Letters of employment - Applying for a job.

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BUSINESS LETTERS

Is the chief instrument of external communication in business - the principal means through
which a firm maintains contact with the outside world (its customers). Customers will form an
impression of a firm on the basis and quality of its correspondence.

A business letter serves the following three purposes:

a). It conveys a message.

May be to seek or give information, to place or acknowledge an order, to make an appointment,
to forward documents etc.
b). It provides a permanent record for future reference and also valuable evidence in the event of
a legal dispute.
c). It provides an opportunity to increase good will by heating in the mind of the recipient a
favourable impression of the writer's firm, and of the writer himself.

Functions of a business letter:

The main reasons for writing business letters are;

(i) To provide a convenient means of communication without personal contact.

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(ii) To seek or to give information.

(iii) To furnish evidence of transactions entered into.

(iv) To provide a record for future reference

Essential of an effective business letter:

As a company will be judged by the letter sent, it is essential that it is carefully written. The
following should be observed:

1. Promptness - respond to the letter on the day it is received.

2. Accuracy, completeness and clarity - All facts and figures, statements, and quotations must
be accurately mentioned. The information should be absolutely clear and unambiguous with
correct grammar.

3. Courtesy - use courteous polite wording. Seek favours politely and express your gratitude for
the favours done.

4. Conciseness - Do not load your letters with irrelevant details. The more concise (brief) your
letter, the more effective it will be.

5. The positive and pleasant approach - Avoid No's and sorry's. They are unwelcome words
Instead, emphasize pleasant and positive things, even 'no' can be written as 'another time' and
sorry can be worded as 'I'll try'.

Format/style

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• Fully blocked

• Semi-blocked

The Personal Approach.

In order for a business to accomplish the third purpose, it must be written on a personal level in
warm and friendly terms. The uses of impersonal constructions tend to produce a tone that is
cold and distant (aloof).

Example I:

Your letter of 15th March has been received and is receiving attention, but it's regretted that the
goods cannot be supplied until the end of this month.

Example II:
We have received your letter of 15th March and are giving it our attention; but we are sorry we
cannot supply the goods until the end of this month……. (Warm & writer identifies himself with
his firm. He also genuinely regrets their inability to supply the goods at the time)

The aim of a business letter is surely utilitarian, and will only be satisfactory if it achieves its
purpose. Hence, you must note, the following before beginning to write:

Be clear about what you want your letter to and in what way you want it to influence your reader.

• You must know something about the reader

• Be exact in your expression
• Be natural and brief in your expression

The form (layout) of the Business Letter.

A business letter can be written in two forms i.e - Semi-indented and fully blocked (time saver)

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In a semi-indented letter paragraph first line are indented while the inside name and address is
blocked
……………………………
……………………………….
……………………………….
………………………………….
SUBJECT HEADING
…………………………………….
BLOCKED
…………………………….
…………………………………
………………………………….

Salutation.

SUBJECT HEADING.
…………………………….
………………………………….
…………………………………

Parts of a Business
.

1. Sender's Address.
Should contain three lines i.e. company name, postal box number and the town of destination
which should be in capital letters. One line is left before the ref. No.

2. Ref No: Leave a line before next line.

3. Day's date: One line before next item.

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 4. Receiver's Address:

Should have four lines i.e.

 Name of person receiving the letter
 Name of company
 Address
 Town of destination in caps.
5. Salutation.
Should be Dear Sir (Dear Sirs for partnerships)

6. Subject Heading.
This summarizes the theme of the letter.

7. Body of the letter (message)

It contains the introduction, message and conclusion. The body must be simple, clear and to the
point. Use short sentences and paragraphs - each with a clear - cut message. Avoid jaigen e.g
herewith, aforesaid, inasmuch, whereas, under mentioned etc.

8. Complimentary close.
Yours faithfully

9. Name of organization comes immediately below No.8 (complimentary close)

10. Writers signature - about 2-3 lines below the name of the organization.

11. . Name of the writer

Designation of the writer

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APPLICATION LETTERS.

Like any other business letter, the application letter must be business-like and to the point. It
must include the following:

Personal details
Qualifications and
Experience
Reason for application
Particulars of testimonials and references.

Hints.

 Acknowledgement of services of advert if it had been advertised. Establish close link

between your own career aspirations and vocational education and the essential nature of
the advertised post.

 Draw special attention to your more recent education which you consider have equipped
you with sound preparation for the post.

 Outline relevant course components of the course that would likely interest your potential
employer

 Mention experience acquired - where you have none, mention other short courses
attended or practical work experience such as attachment in the relevant field.

 Express willingness to begin the job as soon as possible.

IDEA - Decide upon the principal form (s) of letter.

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METHOD -Structure the letter's main points in plan

PARAGRAPHS -Follow the, opening, middle and closing scheme

RECEIPINET -Remember the person who will receive the letter.

EMPHASIS -Guide the letter's progress to its action statement.

STYLE: - Employ a style appropriate to the letter's aim(s)

SAFELY -Check the letters for errors or omissions before dispatch.

INVITATION TO AN INTERVIW.

 The formal follows that of an ordinary business letter i.e. Sender's address

 Date and reference

 Name of the addressee

 Salutation

 Subject: Refer to application and post being applied for Acknowledge application;
mention post

 Date of application

 Make formal invitation of the candidate for the interview mentioning the date, time and
venue.

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  Live direction of the interview location

 Say the requirements that the applicant needs to fulfill i.e. carrying the original invitation
letter with him original academic and professional certificates and testimonial( s), writing
materials if required etc.

 Say whether you cater for interviewers transport and lunch etc.

Example:

Dear Madam,

RE: APPLICAION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS A PESONAL SECRETARY II

The refer to your letter of application for appointment as a personal secretary II dated 11 th
October 2004, and wish to invite you for an interview on 21 st December 2005 at 2.00 p.m. in
our conference Room.

We are located at the industrial area, Dunga Road, opposite Holman Brothers (K) Ltd. You will
take vehicles for Route No. 111, from Railways bus station.

Please bring with you this letter, originals of both your academic and professional certificates
and testimonials and shorthand pad and pencils. Ensure that your certificates are returned to you
before you leave the interview room.

Yours faithfully

APPOINTMENT LETTER

Also takes the term of an ordinary business letter i.e.

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  Senders address
 date & reference
 inside address
 salutation: Dear Sir or Dear Madam Subject: OFFER OF APPOINTMENT
 Introduction:
Make references to the letter of application and intervenes held (grip the dates) and a statement
that the applicant has been offered employment with the firm - giving effective date.
• Give the terms of appointment i.e.
• Position/designation
• Salary payable p.a. or pm
• Duties
• Allowances e.g. house, medical, leave, hardship etc.
• Sick leave
• Housing (if it is provided) by the firm)
• Probation
• Termination of services.
• Other terms and conditions
• Say what requirements the candidates should fulfil before taking up the job.

RESIGNATION LETTERS.

 Runs just like any other business letter in format; about very brief. sender's address

 date and reference

 inside address

 salutation

 Subject: RESIGNATION FROM EMPLOYMENT.

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  Introduction

 Make formal statement to your wish to resigning reasonable notice.

 say why you wish to resign

 Say where you are going to.

 mention what you wish the firm to do for you before you leave e.g payments, benefits etc

LETTERS OF APOLOGY
The type of letters are used/sent out while there is a delay in dispatch of goods as agreed or in
reply to an order, and when there's some inconveniences caused. It should be written as quickly
as possible in order to avoid a bad impression of the company.

 Apologise for declining the invitation or whatever reason that has caused the
inconvenience.

 Explain why the inconvenience was caused or why you cannot do what is being asked
for.

 In the case where goods ordered have not been delivered, offer whatever remedy that is
possible.

 In case of orders that have not been attended to, assure the customer that greater care will
be taken in future. This helps improve the good will of the firm.

1. ENQUIRY LETTERS.

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These are letters written when seeking information from a business or an individual. The
language and tone used in such a letter should be friendly. Explain simply and clearly what you
want so that the reader may know at once what (you want from him.
Say exactly what you want to avoid misunderstanding.
If you are seeking a favour you must enclose your letter with a stamped envelope.

Formal of enquiry letter.

We have recently received a number of enquiries from customers for cotton bed sheets and
should be glad you would send us full particulars of your ranges including sizes, colours and
prices.
If illustrated pamphlets are available it would be helpful if you could send us copies.
We hope to place a substantial order soon.
Yours faithfully

For. L.A. BIRD & SONS LTD

R.G.BONNET
SECRETARY

2. Reply to enquiry (Quotation letters)

The language used should be friendly as the person you are writing to is a prospective customer.

 Give detailed information of what have been asked for.

 Include any other information not asked for but which you feel will be of interest to your
prospective customer, parking and delivery charges, Trade and cash discount, terms of
payment etc.

 The language used should be simple and clear to avoid misunderstanding.

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Sample complaint letter.

Dear Sir,

SUBJECT: ………………………

On 15th August last is sent you an order for fifty copies of modern commercial correspondence
for schools, by d. Collins, stressing the importance of delivery at the latest by 10 September, the
date on which the new session was due to design.

No acknowledgement of the letter has been received nor have the books been delivered. Failure
to receive them on time is causing grave inconveniences and I shall be glad if you will look into
the matter as the one of urgency and let me know when the books can be expected.

Yours faithfully

J Durate
Principal

Sample reply to complaint letter.

Dear Mr. Drrate,

DELAY IN SUPPLY OF BOOKS.

We were surprised to learn from your letter yesterday that the fifty copies of modern

Sample of Quotation.

Dear Sir,

Quotation No. 965

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We are pleased to receive your enquiry of 12th October and enclose a copy of an illustrated
brochure showing our various ranges of cotton fitted bed-sheets. The sheets are made in four
standard sizes, from 75cm to 150cm and supplied in pink, blue and primrose. They are made in
both in cotton and in polyester - cotton material of exception wearing quality. Wandercon is very
reasonably priced and we can strongly recommend it.

The prices quoted in the brochure cover packing and delivery and are subject to 35% trade
discount. Terms of payment are 2 ½ % one month from date of invoice. We can promise delivery
within ten days of receiving an order.

We look forward to receiving an order from you, but if either you or your customers would like
more information we should be very happy to arrange for our representatives to call on you.
Yours faithfully

Harrison, Maysan & Co.

ORDER LETTERS.

Order letters, just like enquiry letters should be very concise giving details i.e. the range, colour,
prices etc (say all that is necessary to avoid confusion and misunderstanding.

The language used should be business-like and polite. In this letters, it is very difficult to have a
letter head, instead the subject heading should be given the number of the particular order made.

Format of an order letter.

1. Thank the person for the reply to the enquiry.

2. Give the order required e.g. I would appreciate if you supplied us the following ...

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3. Give statement of positive expectation.

Dear Sir,

ORDER NO………………………

Thank you for the price list and other information received with your letter of (give date). We
find the terms of your quotation acceptable and shall be glad if you would supply the following:

12 Nylon fitted bed sheets (blue) 3' 6"

12 Nylon fitted bed sheets (primrose) 36"
12 Wandalon fitted bed sheets (blue) 40"
Please acknowledge the order and be good enough to inform us when you dispatch the goods.
Yours faithfully

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF AN ORDER LETTER

This type of letter has got these essential parts:

1. You appreciate the order placed.

2. Make reference to the name of goods ordered.

3. Make assurance that the order is being attended to.

4. Offer to be of further service to the customer to stipulate future business and establish good
will.

Sample.

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Dear Sir,

ORDER NO…..

Thank you for your order of (date) for three dozen fitted bed sheets. These will be sent to you
tomorrow by Securicor curiour and should reach you within a day or two. Our invoice is
enclosed.

We hope you will like the sheets and look forward to the pleasure of serving you again on future
occasions.

Yours faithfully
ASSIGNMENT

a) Imagine you have received a quotation from office machines Co. Ltd. Place an order for four
different machines which you require for your office. Request for quick delivery.

b ) You have receive the above order but some of the machines are out of stock.
Write back stating which ones you will deliver readily (those available) and promise delivery of
the rest at a later date.

c) You are the secretary to the managing Director of a certain local firm that manufactures and
distributes household products. Your boss recently received a letter form kitchen warehouse Ltd,
P.O. Box 113; Meru enquiring about three of your products. On behalf of your boss, write a
suitable reply to the letter giving all the necessary information.

LETTERS OF APOLOGY

These type of letters are sent when declining an invitation, when there is a delay in the dispatch
of goods as accepted or in reply to an order, and when there is some inconvenience caused. It
should be written as quickly as possible in order to avoid a bad impression of the company.

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Format.

1. Apologise for declining the invitation or whatever has caused the inconvenience.

2. Explain why the inconvenience was caused or why you cannot do what is asked.

3. In case of orders that have not been attended to, assure the customer that greater care will be
taken in future. This helps improve the goodwill of the firm.

4. In case where goods ordered have not been delivered, offer whatever remedy that is possible.

COMPLIANT LETTERS.

 Call for greatest restraint on both sides.

 They are applicable during delay in delivery, or delivery of wrong type of goods.

 It may give rise to anger and resentment, but this must not be revealed in the subsequent
letter of complaint.

Making Complaints.
When making a complaint stick to the following rules:

a) Assume that the other party will receive your complaint with understanding and deal with
it sympathetically. As a matter of business it pays him to do so.
b) Avoid assuming that the other party is to blame; he may have a perfectly good defence,
as in the correspondence given below.
c) Confine your complaint to a statement of facts and a polite enquiry as to what the other
party proposes to do about it.

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 d) Do not suggest how the mistake may have occurred or how it should be remedied; these
are matters for the other party.
e) Above all, avoid rudeness; at best it will only create resentment and may give rise to an
unwillingness to co-operate and be helpful.

Dealing with complaints.

The customer is always right. Its good idea to assume that any complain received has been made
by a reasonable in good faith, and "that the customer may be right".

No firm can afford to put its goodwill at risk by ignoring complaints or treating them lightly.
Any complaint should be taken seriously and must be dealt with immediately/prompt otherwise
delay will increase discentement.

 If a complaint requires investigation that may take some time, it should be acknowledged
with an explanation that it's being looked into and a promise of full reply later should be
given.

 If the complaint turns out to be confounded (false) this should be pointed out politely
without reproach.

 If on the other hand, the firm is at fault, the only proper course is trank admission, an
expression of genuine regret and on undertaking to put matters right.

 After a complaint has been dealt with promptly and with fairness the person making it
should acknowledge this as a sign of courtesy.

This helps create good relationship and may mean that future complaints will be received and
treated with understanding.

QUOTATION LETTERS

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A quotation is a reply to an enquiry made about the services offered or items for sale. The
language used should be friendly as the person you are writing to is a prospective customer. The
language should also be simple and clear to avoid misunderstanding.

A quotation is not an "offer' in the legal sense but a promise to supply goods on the terms stated.
If therefore a seller quotes and later decides not to sell the buyer has no legal remedy. But in
practice, a supplier will not risk his reputation by quoting for goods he cannot or does not intend
to supply.
A satisfactory quotation will include the following:
a. An expression and thanks for the enquiry.
b. Details of prices, discounts and terms of payment.

c. A statement or clear indication of what the prices cover (e.g packing, carriage and
insurance)
d. An undertaking to date of delivery.
e. Period which the quotation is valid.
f. An expression of hope that the quotation will be accepted.

NB. A quotation should always comply with the requirements of a satisfactory letter of enquiry.

 It should be made promptly.

 The seller's guarantee should be strong.

ORDER LETTERS.
This is a response to the quotation and just like enquiry letters, should be very concise giving
detail of the time required i.e range, colour, prices etc. The buyer should say all that is necessary
to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. The language used should be business like and polite.

In wiring this type of letters, therefore the buyer should:

i. Thank the person (seller) for the reply to the enquiry/quotation.

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 ii. Include full details of description, quantities and prices and quote
catalogue numbers, if any.

iii. State your requirements as to delivery - place, date made of transport and
whether to sent carriage paid or carriage forward.

iv. Confirm the terms of payment agreed in preliminary negotiations.

v. Live a statement of positive expectations.

ASSIGNMENT

You are the personnel manager ofXYZ company Ltd, Box 30412 NAIROBI. Your firm wishes
to come theorize its clerical activities.

PREPOSITIONS.

The preposition is a word that shows the relative in which things stand to another. It always
comes immediately before a noun (or the equivalent of a noun). It's for this reason that the word
is called a pre-position. The noun or noun-equivalent is called the object. The function of the
preposition is to show in what relation this object -stands to some preceding word in a sentence
ie. It can also be define as a word place before a pronoun or noun and shows the relationship
between them. For example:

 The letter is in the tray

 The letter is under the tray
 The letter is behind the tray.

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The use of the right preposition is one of the principal tests of ability to speak and write good
English.

The following is a list of the more common prepositional phrases:

 absolute from (blame) accede to (a request)

 accompanies by (not with e.g a friend) absorb in
 according to
 accuse of
 afraid of
 agree to (a proposal) aim at
 angry with (somebody) angry at (a thing) appropriate (to/for) ashamed of
 attack on
 authority on
 authority to blame for call on
 change for (something) change with (somebody) come by
 come on
 come with
 comment on
 complain of
 confer on (little)
 confer with (somebody)
 congratulate on etc

1. In the next two months the company you work fill need new computers. Write a letter to a
computer dealer ordering 20 computers for delivery in the next two weeks (14 days) at the price
and on the terms quoted by the dealer.

2. A customer has ordered for 120 pairs of household slippers from your manufacture.
You cannot fulfil the order by the date mentioned. Write an appropriate letter giving reasons for
this and state when you could deliver the required items.

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Practice exercises.

Practice Exercise
1. Informal letters.

a. Write a letter to your mother explaining that you have recently been sick at school but
you are now well.

b. Write a letter to your younger brother advising him to work hard for his standard 8
examination so hat he can join you in secondary school.

c. Write a letter to your father requesting him to send you money for a proposed educational
trip by a club that you belong to.

d. Write a letter to your aunt who stays in Mombasa requesting her to allow you to visit her
during the next vacation.

e. Write a letter to your uncle thanking him for some piece of advice that you found useful.

f. Write a letter to your friend inviting him/her to spend the next vacation with you so that
you can revise for the examination together.

g. Write a letter to your close friend requesting for some advice for a problem you are
currently having.

h. Write a letter to a friend apologizing for having wronged him/her during your last
meeting.
i. Write a letter to your friend telling him/her about a recent outing that you enjoyed.

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CURRICULUM VITAE - RESUME

This is a record of personal information, educational background, working experience and any
other useful information that may help one secure employment, scholarship or admission to an
institution of learning.

Layout:

CURRICULUM IV1TAE

PERSONAL DETAILS:

Name:
Address:
Telephone No:
E-mail address:
Date of birth:
Gender
Marital status:

Nationality:

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:

Academic qualifications

Professional qualifications

WORK EXPERIENCE:

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INTERESTS:

REFEREES:

1…………………………………………. 2……………………………………………….
…………………………………...........…… ………………………………………………...
……………………………………………… ………………………………………………

3·…………………………………………….
………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………

MEMORANDUM:

It is a document that is used to convey information among people within the same organization.
It is used for internal communication between executive and subordinates or between officers of
the same level.

It is distributed through internal mail system. It is never sent outside the organization.

Memorandum is a Latin word meaning 'something to be remembered'.

It does not have the salutation and complimentary close found in letters. It has no senders
address nor the receiver's address.

Functions of a memorandum (memo):

(i) To issue instruction to the staff.

(ii) To communicate policy changes in a company e.g a merger with another company,
(iii)To seek or give suggestions.

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(iv)To remind people of action required about existing arrangements or regulations.
(v)To convene meetings

PRESENTATION

Memorandum
TO:

FROM:

REF:

DATE:

SUBJECT:

1st paragraph - Provides a background context or reason for the information or instruction in
the 2nd paragraph. '
2nd paragraph - This is the actual message information or instruction or reminder.

Response - An action statement

- Action you want the reader to take

- Action you will take

- Deadline
Close - A relevant one liner

Signature

Name

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MEMORANDUM

To: Paul Samoei, Financial Manager

From: Dennis Opiyo, Managing Director

Ref: DO/MTL

Date:

Subject: Visit of Zambian Trade Delegation

A delegation of senior manager's from Zambia will be visiting the company on Friday 12th June,
2011 and they have expressed particular interest in our new computerized accounting system.

We expect them to arrive at 10.00 a.m.

Please arrange for a brief tour to be conducted ln the morning followed by a meeting with the
Accounts staff.
Please confirm the above arrangements as soon as possible.

Sign:
Name

NOTICES

They are a form of written communication. They are a clear and direct form of communicating
items of importance to larger numbers of people within an organization.

Most organizations have notice boards at prominent places throughout the offices to bring
special items to the attention of all staff. The information must be displayed attractively so that it
gains attention and co-operation.

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Notices may be posted about;

- New procedures
- Social events
- Advertisements for internal appointments
- Reports on matters of interest
- Reminder of company procedures

They are also used to notify members of a meeting that is expected to be held on a certain date.
These contain;

- Date of meeting
- Place/venue of the meeting
- Time of the meeting
- The people expected to meet (optional)

Advantages:

They have a good visual impact if properly designed.

They save time and money in making a large number of separate communication to individuals.

Disadvantages:

Many people get out of the habit of looking at notice boards if they become cluttered and
overcrowded.

Some notices can create ill feeling and create a bad atmosphere if not carefully written.

ADVERTISEMENT

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Advertise - to describe a service or product publicly in order to persuade people to buy, apply
for or use it.
Advertisement - A public notice offering or asking for something.

Advertising is a public communication

Through adverts one is able to sell herself. An organization may also be able to sell itself through
an advert. The primary aim of adverts may be to sell an article, a holiday, a social function, a
college, course, a job, opportunity etc.

The authors of adverts seek to achieve readability and visual impact by considering some the
following-

 An eye catching heading/title.

 Good use of layout and spacing

 The best possible order for the information.

 The highlighting of details
 The correct register for the intended reader.
 The right balance between the over compressed and continuous prose
 The position and content of illustration

Agenda
An agenda is a list of items to be .discussed at a meeting. It is circulated to the members in good
time usually 3 or 4 weeks before the meeting. It can be send together with the meeting.
Some items of the agenda are fixed and some appear only for particular meetings.

Fixed items

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  Opening prayer and note of welcome

 Apologies from absent members

 Minutes of last meeting (confirmation of 'previous minutes)

 Matters arising from the previous meeting/minutes

 Correspondence

 The day's business (agenda of the day)

 Any Other Business (AOB)

 Date of meeting.

CIRCULARS

These are letters which are sent to a large number of people at the same time bearing the same
content. The opening lines are often statements such as: 'To all subscribers' 'to all customers' this
is done in substitute of giving full names and addresses of each recipient. The salutation will
usually be: Dear Sir or Madam or a more specific greeting such as "Dear customer, colleague, or
shareholder etc."

They are often sent out by organization to publicize their goods or services, they may be sent to
potential customers where a new business has been set up.

Established companies may use them to announce new items for the sake of new services or
special offers. They can also be sent within a company by employer or departmental heads
(HODs). When they wish to convey a particular piece of information to all workers, they pass
information such as:-

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• To give details of a new wage offer.

• To convey information about healthy and safety procedures.

• To announce departmental re-organisations.

• To give information about a new member of staff.

Advantages

a) They are simple and easy to produce

b) They allow information to be sent to a wide range of people

c) They have a greater personal impact than newspaper advertisement.

d) They can be kept for reference.

SUMMARY

Summary is a shortened version in one’s own words and is in continuous prose of the main
points of a given piece of written information.

REASONS FOR WRITING SUMMARY

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Summary develops the critical facilities in fostering the power to distinguish the important from
the unimportant, the relevant and the irrelevant.

To write an effective summary the following factors should be considered:

1. Note taking

2. Condensing paragraphs

3. Must be presented in continuous prose.

4. Identification of the relevant from the irrelevant.

5. The topical sentence should be presented at the beginning of the paragraph.

When asked to summarise a text in a certain number of words an allowance of five (5) words is
given.

When asked to summarize a text using not more than a given number of words, do not exceed
the limit.

Start with a rough draft/copy.

Edit it carefully in the line of instructions given. Make a final copy from the rough draft.

STEPS INVOLVED IN SUMMARY WRITING

1. Surveyor skim through the passage.

2. Quickly read the questions.

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3. Slowly study/read the passage given.

4. Study/read and interpret the questions.

5. Scan the passage for answers

6. Draft the summary

7. Cross check/counter check.

8. Re-check for accuracy, clarity, brevity and coherence.

9. Write the final draft/version

10. Remember to re-read your final version.

11. Correct punctuations, grammar and spellings

12. Indicate the number of words used below the summary (i.e if, you had been asked to
summarise in a certain given number of words)

Communication skills: from course outline to report

writing

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REPORT WRITING
Report Writing. Definition.

A report is a document used to produce or to provide an account of something witnessed,

investigated or experimented. It is an orderly presentation of facts about specific even or
activities.

It is a document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information,
reporting findings, putting forward ideas and sometimes making recommendations.

A report is a useful written means of communicating to other the facts of a situation or a process
after investigation or consideration.

Reports perform an important function -in large organization.

- They enable administrators to keep track of normal operations, to learn about unexpected
developments and to judge whether there is satisfactory progress on new projects.

- Reports form the link between research and the practical use of the discoveries.

- They present a series of facts which enable someone to make a decision based on reliable
information.
Importance of report writing

Reports are very important documents of information because they may be used for making
decisions and taking action. As a result an organization may initiate/start new projects, making
adjustments, reshuffling its personnel etc. A report is a basic management tool in decision
making and so it’s extremely important.

TYPES OF REPORTS.

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There are two broad types of reports. These are informal reports and formal reports.

Informal reports.

Informal reports are short (300-700 words) and their circulation is limited to one organization.
Examples of informal reports are accident reports, field-trip reports, progress reports and
laboratory reports.

FORMAL REPORTS
They are classified in two:

a) Routine reports

These are reports that are prepared periodically according to the requirements of the organization
of the firm. Many of these reports are submitted within specific intervals. , They may be written
on a weekly, monthly, quarterly and even yearly basis. They may be reports of sales
representatives to their sales manager, a departmental heads report made at committee meetings
or at annual meetings of shareholders. In most organizations these reports are filled in pre-
designed form. .

b) Special reports

These are reports that deal with special circumstances of the salutation information may be
required in some special matters which may involve an enquiry and detailed investigation. It
requires detailed findings and recommendations on the course of action to be taken.

These reports may be produced by an individual a committee e.g. presidential commission

appointed by the head of state to make a report on matters of national importance e.g.
commission of enquiry on Ouko' s death.

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Formal reports are long (3,000-5,000 words of more). Some reports can run to several volumes
of several pages. Formal reports are for external circulation - they go beyond one organization.
Examples of formal reports are projects, investigations and commissions.

Detailed reports

The basic pattern and structure for a long report is similar to that of a short one. But the longer
report approaches the subject in a much greater depth and details. They call for more
organization so that' the reader can find his way through them easily. The arrangement is as
follows:

a) Title
Detailed and self-explanatory title which should include the:

- Date

- Names of department

- Any other relevant information

Reports on proposed installation and automated filing system. At head office of the National
Assurance Company Limited. By office consultant limited on 10th June 2002.

b) Table of Contents

c) Circulation list
This is a list of members who are entitled to read the report.
d) Synopsis
This is a summary of the contents. Along report include short summary to give readers an initial
idea of its contents.
e) Body of report
The body of a report sectionalized under headings and subheadings consisting of:

154
  An introduction (terms of references)
 It gives a precise indication of an area concerned by the report, details of low and any
other matters specifically excluded from the report.

Investigation method
This explains methods used in writing of the reports.

Findings: - How you obtained what you have

Conclusions drawn: - Its interpretation of the facts and previous personal opinions.
Recommendations: it follows that of short and previous opinion. These are suggestions
concerning the action to be taken

Acknowledgement: - Showing appreciation or giving thanks to your sources.

Appendices: - These are materials of reference and should be arranged alphabetically. They
show the order and material of expenses.

Short reports are presented in tabular while lengthy reports are presented on schematic form.

PRINCIPLES OF REPORT WRITING

1. Know why you are writing the report

2. Know what you are writing about

3. Keep reports accurate, relevant and concise

4. Omit opinions from sections concerned with facts. 5; Organize your points in a logical order

155
6. Use your judgement and experience when suggesting or making recommendations.

7. Use a language suitable to the reader.

8. Use clear heading for each section

What is required/or the examination.

For the purpose of paper of the KNEC you need to know how to write the informal report only.
The rest of our discussion on report writing will deal only with informal reports.

Parts of an informal report.

1. Title.

This is the heading of the report. For example:

"A report on the students' attitudes towards the Physical Education Programme"

2. Terms of reference

This is the specific purpose of the report and its scope (range of observation).

3. Procedure.

This is the method by which the information is collected. The means of collection of information
may be one of the following: Interviewing, scrutinizing documents, observation and
examination.

4. Findings.

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This deals with the information collected, the analysis of the information and the results of the
analysis. Use past tense when presenting your findings.

5. Conclusion.

This deals with what can be deducted from the findings. That is what can be arrived at by
reasoning. Never introduce new material or evidence not presented in your findings.

6. Recommendations.

These appear in a report only when the findings and conclusion indicate that further action needs
to be taken. Recommendations should be written in strong definite terms. -s,

For example "I recommend that we build a garage to generate income for the Automotive Club".

Qualities of a good report.

1. Self-sufficiency

A report should provide all the necessary facts for its full understanding.

2. Interest.

A good report should arouse the interest of the reader and sustain it.

3. Omission of unnecessary material

The report writer should exclude material which is not relevant to the report being written.

4. Impartiality

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A good report should be free from bias. The writer should be open-minded and should achieve a
pre-determined conclusion.

5. Appropriate language.

Like any other effectively written communication, reports should be presented in good language.
Poor sentence structure, punctuation, spelling and wrong use of words should avoided.

Common problems that students face

The common problems that we discussed under composition writing also affect report writing.
We therefore recommend that you once again have a look at these problems (see "Common
Problems in Composition Writing")

Another problem peculiar to report writing is the failure to present the report under the
prescribed subheadings. Avoid this mistake.

How to answer questions successfully

1. Read the question carefully

2. Think about the topic. Note down relevant points based on the purpose of the report and the
required information.
3. Write the report - under appropriate subheadings.

4. Read through your report.

Sample question.

You have been requested to investigate a recent fire outbreak at a bookstore in your school.
Write your report.

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Outline.
Title: A report on a fire outbreak at the bookstore.
Tern of reference -To establish the cause of the fire.
- Recommend ways of preventing future fire outbreaks.
Procedure - Visited the gutted store.
- Interviewed the store men
- Visited Nairobi Fire Brigade
Findings - Several scorch marks on surviving bookshelves
- All store men smoke
- There were no ashtrays
- "No smoking" signs were not there.
- No fire-extinguisher
Conclusion: - Caused by a cigarette stub.

Recommendations: - After repair - fix "No smoking" signs.

-Install a fire-extinguisher.

Sample answer
A report on a fire outbreak at the bookstore of Amiani Primary School

1. Terms of Reference

The headmaster of Amiani Primary School on 10th March 1991 requested me to investigate the
cause of the fire at the bookstore and to recommend ways of preventing outbreaks. I was
authorised to interview the store men and visit any relevant places. I was supposed to submit my
report to the Headmaster by the end of March,

2. Procedure

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I visited the gutted store several times and carefully examined the bookshelves that were saved
from the fire. I also interviewed the store men on various occasions. The only external trip I
made was to the Nairobi City Commission's Fire Brigade offices.

3. Findings.

I noticed that there were several cigarette scorch marks on the tops of the low bookshelves. I also
found out that both the store men were smokers and they had not been using any ashtrays. They
also informed me that there had been an absence of "No smoking" signs in the store. The Fire
Brigade officers stressed that a facility like a bookstore should have a fire-extinguisher. This was
after I had informed them that the bookstore did not have a fire-extinguisher.

4. Conclusion.

I believe that the fire in the bookstore was caused by a cigarette stub which was carelessly
dropped behind the bookshelves and fell into an assortment of paper scraps that had accumulated
there.

5. Recommendations.

After the bookstore has been repaired, "No smoking" signs should be prominently fixed "there. I
recommend that the school installs a fire-extinguisher in the bookstore after its repair.

Practice exercise

1. You have been requested to investigate a recent accident involving your school bus and a
cyclist. Write your report.

2. Write a report on an exhibition of traditional instruments that you recently visited.

160
3. Write a report on a research that you conducted on road accidents in your area.

4. Write a report on a research that you conducted on water shortage in your area.

5. You have been requested to investigate the shopping facilities around your school. Write
your report.

6. You have been asked to investigate a recent school strike. Write your report.

7. Write a report on a project involving the construction of a local bridge that you recently
worked on.

8. You have been asked to investigate the disappearance of football boots from the Games
Store. Write your report.

9. Write a report on a research that you conducted on the eating habits of people in your
area.

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