HOWARD KIM S.

VILLALOBOS, LPT, MHIST

 Intergovernmental Organizations
 A World of Regions
 Media and Globalization
 Globalization of Religion
 Cultural Imperialism
The term intergovernmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty,
involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. In the
absence of a treaty an IGO does not exist in the legal sense.
Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have become increasingly prominent both in
facilitating conflict resolution between states, but also in dealing with intractable conflicts
within states. They serve a number of basic functions that enhance the possibility of
cooperation. Created after World War I, the League of Nations was an early attempt to
systematize third party mediation in international conflict.
However, it proved too weak because important states did not join, which limited its ability
to function. After World War II, the United Nations was created and, although it worked
better than the League of Nations, the Cold War impeded its effectiveness for many years.
Following the end of the Cold War, the UN has taken on new roles, and regional
organizations around the world have also become more active.
Intergovernmental organizations are constructed by states to facilitate cooperation.
The primary utility of IGOs lies in providing states with a forum which they can use
to negotiate conflicts. IGOs are also useful to states in a number of additional ways.

• First, by providing a forum for discussion, they make it less costly for states to
discuss issues with one another.
• Second, IGOs often serve as information providers. The enhanced transparency
helps to minimize misperceptions.
• Third, IGOs help to facilitate issue linkages, which may facilitate cooperation.
• Fourth, IGOs help allow states to take a long-term perspective, which makes
them less concerned about immediate payoffs.
• Fifth, the multilateral nature of IGOs lends an air of impartiality that enhances
their effectiveness.
•
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed after World War I
as a way to solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open warfare. A
precursor to the United Nations, the League achieved some victories but had a mixed record
of success, sometimes putting self-interest before becoming involved with conflict resolution,
while also contending with governments that did not recognize its authority. The League
effectively ceased operations during World War II.
World War I Experience
World War I was one the most destructive conflict in human history, fought in brutal trench
warfare conditions and claiming millions of casualties on all sides. The industrial and
technological sophistication of weapons created a deadly efficiency of mass slaughter. The
nature of the war was thus one of attrition, with each side attempting to wear the other
down through a prolonged series of small-scale attacks that frequently resulted in stalemate.
In the immediate aftermath of the war, American and European leaders gathered in Paris to
debate and implement far-reaching changes to the pattern of international relations.
The League of Nations was seen as the epitome of a new world order based on mutual
cooperation and the peaceful resolution of international conflicts.
Establishment of the League of Nations
The Treaty of Versailles was negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and included a covenant establishing
the League of Nations, which convened its first council meeting on January 16, 1920.
The League was composed of a General Assembly, which included delegations from all member states, a
permanent secretariat that oversaw administrative functions, and an Executive Council, the membership of which
was restricted to the great powers. The Council consisted of four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Japan,
and Italy) and four non-permanent members. At its largest, the League of Nations was comprised of 58 member-
states. The Soviet Union joined in 1934 but was expelled in 1939 for invading Finland.
Members of the League of Nations were required to respect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of all other
nation-states and to disavow the use or threat of military force as a means of resolving international conflicts. The
League sought to peacefully resolve territorial disputes between members and was in some cases highly effective.
For instance, in 1926 the League negotiated a peaceful outcome to the conflict between Iraq and Turkey over the
province of Mosul, and in the early 1930s successfully mediated a resolution to the border dispute between Colombia
and Peru.
However, the League ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War, and has therefore been
viewed by historians as a largely weak, ineffective, and essentially powerless organization Not only did the League lack
effective enforcement mechanisms, but many countries refused to join and were therefore not bound to respect the
rules and obligations of membership.
Though the League had failed to prevent the outbreak of another world war, it continued to operate until 1946, when
it was formally liquidated. By this time, the Allied powers had already begun to discuss the creation of a new
successor organization, the United Nations. The United Nations, which is still in existence today, was based on many
of the same principles as the League of Nations, but was designed specifically to avoid the League’s major weaknesses.
The UN boasts much stronger enforcement mechanisms, including its own peacekeeping forces, and the membership
of the UN is substantially larger than that of the League even at its peak.
United Nations Organizations
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945. It is currently made up of 193 Member
States. The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and principles contained in
its founding Charter.
Due to the powers vested in its Charter and its unique international character, the United Nations can take
action on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st century, such as peace and security, climate change,
sustainable development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies,
gender equality, governance, food production, and more.
History of the UN
The name "United Nations", coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt was first used in
the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of
26 nations pledged their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.
In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of
proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United
States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States in August-October 1944.
The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not
represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by
China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other
signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October each year.
Roles and Functions of the United Nations

1. Maintain International Peace and Security

2. Protect Human Rights
3. Deliver Humanitarian Aid
4. Promote Sustainable Development
5. Uphold International Law
The main organs of the UN are:
• General Assembly
• Security Council
• Economic and Social Council
• Trusteeship Council
• International Court of Justice
• UN Secretariat
All were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.
General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. All 193
Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only UN body with universal
representation. Each year, in September, the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in
New York for the annual General Assembly session, and general debate, which many heads of state attend
and address. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new
members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Decisions on other
questions are by simple majority. The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA President to serve a one-year
term of office.

Security Council

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of international
peace and security. It has 15 Members (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members). Each Member has
one vote. Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security
Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression. It calls upon
the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of
settlement. In some cases, the Security Council can resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of
force to maintain or restore international peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which
rotates, and changes, every month.
Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and
recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of
internationally agreed development goals. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN system
and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert
bodies. It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the United
Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII, to provide
international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven
Member States, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government
and independence. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994, the
Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as
occasion required -- by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its
members or the General Assembly or the Security Council.
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Its seat is
at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the six principal organs of the
United Nations not located in New York (United States of America). The Court’s role is to settle, in
accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory
opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized
agencies.
Secretariat
The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff
members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly
and the Organization's other principal organs. The Secretary-General is chief administrative
officer of the Organization, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council for a five-year, renewable term. UN staff members are recruited internationally
and locally, and work in duty stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world. But
serving the cause of peace in a violent world is a dangerous occupation. Since the founding of the
United Nations, hundreds of brave men and women have given their lives in its service.
Challenges of UN

Over the years, the role of the U.N. has expanded from an organization that focused on peace and security to
one that includes a wide range of global concerns. Today, the U.N. provides solutions for problems related to:
• threats from poverty, disease, and environmental breakdown (the threats to human security identified
in the Millennium Development Goals)
• threats from conflict between states
• threats from violence and massive human rights violations within states
• threats from terrorism
• threats from organized crime
• threats from the proliferation of weapons - particularly WMD, but also conventional
 A WORLD OF REGIONS
Regionalism is a key concept in human geography denoting mobilization of cultural,
economic, and political sub-national divisions. Regionalism typically presupposes a regional
identity and is concerned with giving meaning to bounded material and symbolic worlds in
an effort to create intersubjective meanings. The persistence of regionalism as a cultural and
political form reaffirms the importance of the making (and unmaking) of territorial boundaries.
Regionalism may represent the search for rootedness and belonging and the valorization of
local distinctiveness in the face of the universalizing claims of globalization.
Regional Organization
An organization, the members (participants) of which are national bodies (organizations) for
standardization of the states included in the same geographical region of the world and (or) a
group of countries undergoing the process of economic integration according to international
treaties.
Importance of Regional Organization

• The creation of regional organization intersects with the understanding of the states that since they are geographically closer to
each other, thereby they have shared problems and due to this similarity of context the problems can be better dealt together
by forming an organization and a proper framework rather than working alone by themselves. In addition several factors such
as internal or external threats and domestic politics also forced the adjoining countries to form regional organizations.
• The purpose of regional organizations from the onset of Cold War until present times stems from the need of the states to
create setups that would favor them according to the given context. The formation of regional organizations. In the Cold War
security was the ultimate objective and organizations were formed taking in view of this aspect. In the present time organizations
are formed taking into considerations many different issues ranging from environmental to economic issues. Economic
interdependence has been one of the major driving force to form regional organizations due to the tremendous advantages it
brings along with it.
• After the World War 2, the world gradually realized the importance of regionalism and efforts were made for the integration of
the states in the respective regions first in the 1960s and then late in 1980s. Europe developed a number of regional
organizations, one after the other such as NATO, Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe and European Union.
• After the Cold War the whole dimension of regional organizations have changed for instance NATO (a highly organized security
organization), which was formed with the purpose to counter the Soviet Union didn’t collapse after the disintegration of the
U.S.S.R but rather it expanded with new objectives. Moreover collective security was also given huge emphasis considering an
attack on one as an attack on all. Hence it greatly increased the cost of attacking any member state and to a great extent it has
been successful.
• In addition the willingness of the states to work together and collaborate on the issues has its own impact. Moreover it is
necessary for all the states to keep the organization integrated to such a level that whenever there is a need to punish or take
action against any state then the aggressor should not get an easy hand and rather should be dealt in an appropriate manner.
• It can be concluded that strong level of integration in areas of security, economy, politics and legal proceedings is essential for
the success of any regional organization. In addition the successful regional organizations are very effective in order to achieve
peace and stability.
Countries, Regions, and Globalization

NATO

The United States and 11 other nations establish the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact aimed at
containing possible Soviet aggression against Western Europe. NATO stood as the main U.S.-led military alliance against the Soviet
Union throughout the duration of the Cold War.

Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate rapidly in 1948. There were heated disagreements
over the postwar status of Germany, with the Americans insisting on German recovery and eventual rearmament and the Soviets
steadfastly opposing such actions. In June 1948, the Soviets blocked all ground travel to the American occupation zone in West Berlin,
and only a massive U.S. airlift of food and other necessities sustained the population of the zone until the Soviets relented and lifted
the blockade in May 1949. In January 1949, President Harry S. Truman warned in his State of the Union Address that the forces of
democracy and communism were locked in a dangerous struggle, and he called for a defensive alliance of nations in the North
Atlantic—U.S military in Korea. NATO was the result. In April 1949, representatives from Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great
Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal joined the United States in signing the NATO agreement.
The signatories agreed, “An armed attack against one or more of them… shall be considered an attack against them all.” President
Truman welcomed the organization as “a shield against aggression.”

Not all Americans embraced NATO. Isolationists such as Senator Robert A. Taft declared that NATO was “not a peace program; it is a
war program.” Most, however, saw the organization as a necessary response to the communist threat. The U. S. Senate ratified the
treaty by a wide margin in June 1949. During the next few years, Greece, Turkey, and West Germany also joined. The Soviet Union
condemned NATO as a warmongering alliance and responded by setting up the Warsaw Pact (a military alliance between the Soviet
Union and its Eastern Europe satellites) in 1955.

NATO lasted throughout the course of the Cold War, and continues to play an important role in post-Cold War Europe. In recent years,
for example, NATO forces were active in trying to bring an end to the civil war in Bosnia.
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group consisting
of 14 of the world’s major oil-exporting nations. OPEC was founded in 1960 to
coordinate the petroleum policies of its members and to provide member states
with technical and economic aid. OPEC is a cartel that aims to manage the supply of
oil in an effort to set the price of oil on the world market, in order to avoid
fluctuations that might affect the economies of both producing and purchasing
countries. Countries that belong to OPEC include Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
and Venezuela (the five founders), plus the United Arab Emirates, Libya, Algeria,
Nigeria, and five other countries.
NAM

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 120 developing world states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power
bloc. After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states worldwide.

The purpose and principles of the Movement:

1. Respect of the fundamental human rights, objectives and principles of the Charter of the United Nations;

2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of States;

3. Recognition of the equality among all races and of the equality among all nations, both large and small;

4. Non-intervention or non-interference into the internal affairs of another country;

5. Respect of the right of every nation to defend itself, either individually or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations;

6. Non-use of collective defense pacts to benefit the specific interests of any of the great powers;

7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression and use of force in against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country.
Non-use of pressures by any country against other countries;

8. Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration, or judicial settlement as well as
other peaceful means of the parties’ own choice, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations;

9. Promotion of mutual interest and cooperation;

10. Respect for justice and international obligations.

Non-State Regionalism

ASEAN

ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original member countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April
1999.

The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are: (1) to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and
cultural development in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for
a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations, and (2) to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for
justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. In
1995, the ASEAN Heads of State and Government re-affirmed that “Cooperative peace and shared prosperity shall be the fundamental goals of
ASEAN.”

Fundamental Principles

The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia, signed at the First ASEAN Summit on 24 February 1976, declared that in their
relations with one another, the High Contracting Parties should be guided by the following fundamental principles:

 Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
 The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion, or coercion;
 Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
 Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
 Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
 Effective cooperation among themselves.
Membership
• 10 States ― Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. 1 Observer – Papua New Guinea.
NAFTA
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a treaty entered into by the United
States, Canada, and Mexico; it went into effect on January 1, 1994. (Free trade had existed
between the U.S. and Canada since 1989; NAFTA broadened that arrangement.) On that day,
the three countries became the largest free market in the world-;the combined economies of
the three nations at that time measured $6 trillion and directly affected more than 365 million
people. NAFTA was created to eliminate tariff barriers to agricultural, manufacturing, and
services; to remove investment restrictions; and to protect intellectual property rights. This
was to be done while also addressing environmental and labor concerns (although many
observers charge that the three governments have been lax in ensuring environmental and
labor safeguards since the agreement went into effect). Small businesses were among those
that were expected to benefit the most from the lowering of trade barriers since it would
make doing business in Mexico and Canada less expensive and would reduce the red tape
needed to import or export goods.
Highlights of NAFTA included:

 Tariff elimination for qualifying products. Before NAFTA, tariffs of 30 percent or higher on export goods to Mexico were common,
as were long delays caused by paperwork. Additionally, Mexican tariffs on U.S.-made products were, on average, 250 percent
higher than U.S. duties on Mexican products. NAFTA addressed this imbalance by phasing out tariffs over 15 years. Approximately
50 percent of the tariffs were abolished immediately when the agreement took effect, and the remaining tariffs were targeted for
gradual elimination. Among the areas specifically covered by NAFTA are construction, engineering, accounting, advertising,
consulting/management, architecture, health-care management, commercial education, and tourism.
 Elimination of nontariff barriers by 2008. This includes opening the border and interior of Mexico to U.S. truckers and streamlining
border processing and licensing requirements. Nontariff barriers were the biggest obstacle to conducting business in Mexico that
small exporters faced.
 Establishment of standards. The three NAFTA countries agreed to toughen health, safety, and industrial standards to the highest
existing standards among the three countries (which were always U.S. or Canadian). Also, national standards could no longer be
used as a barrier to free trade. The speed of export-product inspections and certifications was also improved.
 Supplemental agreements. To ease concerns that Mexico's low wage scale would cause U.S. companies to shift production to that
country, and to ensure that Mexico's increasing industrialization would not lead to rampant pollution, special side agreements
were included in NAFTA. Under those agreements, the three countries agreed to establish commissions to handle labor and
environmental issues. The commissions have the power to impose steep fines against any of the three governments that failed to
impose its laws consistently. Environmental and labor groups from both the United States and Canada, however, have repeatedly
charged that the regulations and guidelines detailed in these supplemental agreements have not been enforced.
 Tariff reduction for motor vehicles and auto parts and automobile rules of origin.
 Expanded telecommunications trade.
 Reduced textile and apparel barriers.
 More free trade in agriculture. Mexican import licenses were immediately abolished, with most additional tariffs phased out over
a 10-year period.
 Expanded trade in financial services.
 Opening of insurance markets.
 Increased investment opportunities.
 Liberalized regulation of land transportation.
 Increased protection of intellectual property rights. NAFTA stipulated that, for the first time, Mexico had to provide a very high
level of protection for intellectual property rights. This is especially helpful in fields such as computer software and chemical
production. Mexican firms will no longer be able to steal intellectual property from companies and create a "Mexican" version of a
product.
 Expanded the rights of American firms to make bids on Mexican and Canadian government procurement contracts.

One of the key provisions of NAFTA provided "national goods" status to products imported from other NAFTA countries. No state,
provincial, or local governments could impose taxes or tariffs on those goods. In addition, customs duties were either eliminated at
the time of the agreement or scheduled to be phased out in 5 or 10 equal stages. The one exception to the phase out was specified
sensitive items, for which the phase-out period would be 15 years.

Supporters championed NAFTA because it opened up Mexican markets to U.S. companies like never before. The Mexican market is
growing rapidly, which promises more export opportunities, which in turn means more jobs. Supporters, though, had a difficult time
convincing the American public that NAFTA would do more good than harm. Their main effort centered on convincing people that all
consumers benefit from the widest possible choice of products at the lowest possible price which means that consumers would be the
biggest beneficiaries of lowered trade barriers. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce, which represents the interests of small businesses,
was one of the most active supporters of NAFTA, organizing the owners and employees of small and mid-size businesses to support the
agreement. This support was key in countering the efforts of organized labor to stop the agreement.
Challenges to Regionalism
Following the Uruguay Round in 1986, that replaced GATT with WTO the world global trade
has entered the concept of regionalism through various trade zone agreements. Multinational
system has entered into the regionalization process and international law. Third Word and
developing countries are seeking more access to the global market and regionalism is the best
option for weaker States in the trade system. African Union is a weaker player among the
mega trade blocs such as the EU, the NAFTA and now the ASEAN and SAARC. This is a process
that requires dialogue and exchange of views in the multilateral trade system. There is
increasing number of regional agreements and the WTO is at the center of the whole worrying
trade system and relationship among states. AU region is also part of the WTO but a smaller
partner of the World Economic Forum. The new mechanism aims at integrating the weaker
partners in the global trade system which is concerned with global value change. Principles of
reciprocity, equity, and solidarity are taken into close consideration by the new mechanism
put in place by the WTO after the failure of GATT.
Subsidies directed to developing countries are regulated by agreements within the WTO
taking into consideration of each regional situation. Through bilateral regional free trade
negotiations are also taken into consideration by the new mechanism on the global trade,
GDP and Population.
Global Media Cultures explores the relationship between the media, culture and globalization.

Functions of Mass Media

We know that mass communication is a process of disseminating messages to a large number of audiences through some
forms of technology at a time. And some forms of technology used to disseminate messages is the mass media.

Mass media are the means of public communication reaching to the large, scattered, heterogeneous and anonymous
audience at the same time. Mass media have been proved a boon to human society. Nothing has influenced the lives of
modern men as the mass media have.

Mass media are the powerful means that do not only influence today’s world but also shape the globe of tomorrow. In this
case, mass medium perform essential task in order to cast its effect to the audience and maintain the society. Many scholars
have argued different functions of mass media. Even so, we can classify the functions of mass media into two categories:
general functions and specific functions.
Under the general functions of mass media, following points are incorporated.

Information

Dissemination of information is the major function of mass media. Since information is knowledge and knowledge is power, media offer
authentic and timely facts and opinions about various event and situations to mass audience as informative items. Information provided by mass
media can be opinionated, objective, subjective, primary and secondary. Informative functions of mass media also lets the audience knows
about the happening around them and come to the truth. Media disseminates information mostly through news broadcast on radio, TV, as well
as columns of the newspaper or magazines. Moreover, advertisements are also mainly for information purpose.

Education

Media provide education and information side by side. It provides education in different subjects to people of all levels. They try to educate
people directly or indirectly using different forms of content. Distance education program, for example, is a direct approach. Dramas,
documentaries, interviews, feature stories and many other programs are prepared to educate people indirectly. Especially in the developing
country, mass media is used as effective tools for mass awareness. In context of Nepal, media have been successful in eradicating various
traditional and evil superstitious practices from society through continuous advocacy.

Entertainment

The other important function of mass media is the entertainment. It is also views as the most obvious function of media. Actually, entertainment
is a kind of performance that provides pleasure to people. Mass media fulfill this function by providing amusement and assist in reducing tension
to large degree. Newspaper and magazines, radio, television and online medium offer stories, films, serials, and comics to entertain their
audience. Sports, news, film review, columns on art and fashion are other instances. It makes audience recreational and leisure time more
enjoyable.
Persuasion

It is another function of mass media. Persuasion involves making influence on others mind. Mass media influence audience in varieties
of ways. Media content builds opinions and sets agendas in the public mind. It influences votes, changes attitudes and moderates
behavior. Using editorials, articles, commentaries and among others, mass media persuades audience. However, all audiences are not
well known about it. Many of them become influenced or motivated unknowingly towards it. Advertisement is the example which is
designed to persuade.

Along with the above mentioned general functions, mass media performs some specific functions too. Hence, the specific functions of
mass media are explained below:

Surveillance

Surveillance denotes observation. Here observation means to watch the society closely. The function of mass media is to observe the
society closely and continuously and warn about threatening actions to the mass audience that are likely to happen in future in order
to decrease the possible loss. Likewise, mass media also informs about the misconducts happening in the society to the concerned
authority and discourage malpractices among mass audience in the society.

Warning or beware surveillance occurs when the media inform us about threats from hurricanes, erupting volcanoes, depressed
economic conditions, increasing inflation or military attack. These warning can be about immediate threats or chronic threats. Similarly,
news of increasing deforestation, drug abuse, girls trafficking, crimes etc. are also disseminated which may harm the peace and
security of the society. News about films are plying at the local theaters, stock market prices, new products, fashion ideas, recipes, and
so on are examples of instrumental surveillance.

.
Interpretation

The mass media do not supply just facts and data but also explanations and interpretation of events and situations. Media
offer various explanations correlating and interpreting information to make the reality clear. Unlike normal reporting,
interpretation functions provide knowledge. News analysis, commentaries, editorials, and columns are some examples of
interpretative contents. Basically, such types of interpretative contents are prepared by those journalists who have a vast
knowledge of background information and strong analytical ability.

Linkage

The function of mass media is to join together different elements of society that are not directly connected. For instance:
mass advertising attempts to link the needs of buyers with the products of sellers. Similarly, by broadcasting news of those
suffered from the disease or natural disasters, media can help in collecting aids and provide the collected amount to the
victims. In this way, media become bridge between different groups who may or may not have direct connection.

Socialization

Socialization is the transmission of culture. Media are the reflectors of society. They socialize people, especially children and
new-comers. Socialization is a process by which, people are made to behave in ways that are acceptable in their culture or
society. Though this process, we learn how to become a member of our society or human society in greater sense. Whenever
a person reads newspaper or watches television, individual knows how people react on matters and what types of norms and
values they perceive on particular event, issue or situation.

Though the process of socialization media help to shape our behaviors, conducts, attitudes and beliefs. The process of
socialization brings people close and ties them into single unity.
Social Media and the Creation of Cyber ghettos

What is Social Media?

It refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share, and/or exchange information and
ideas in virtual communities and networks.

 Few media scholars argue that the world is becoming culturally homogenous.

 Globalization is a situation in which available goods and services or social and cultural influences gradually
become similar all over the world.

 The worldwide spread of technology creates vast connections that create new opportunities on a larger scale.

 The current focus of the globalization of technology is the connections created by networks of social media

 The internet and social media are proving that the globalization of culture and ideas can move in different
directions.

 While western culture remains powerful and media production is still controlled by a handful of powerful western
corporations, the internet, particularly the social media, is challenging previous ideas about media and
globalization.
 Social media have both beneficial and negative effects. These forms of communication have democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection
or a smart phone can use Facebook and twitter for free. These media have enabled users to be consumers and producers of information simultaneously.

 However, social media also have their dark side. In the early 2000’s, commentators began referring to the emergence of a “splinternet” and the
phenomena of “cyberbalkanization” to refer to the various bubbles people place themselves in when they are online.

 This echo chamber preludes users from listening or reading opinions and information that challenge their viewpoints.

 This segmentation has been used by people in power who are aware that the social media bubbles can produce a herd mentality. It can be exploited by
politicians with less than democratic intentions and demagogues wanting to whip us popular anger.

 The same expensiveness that allows social media to be a democratic force likewise makes it a cheap tool of government propaganda.

 Russian dictator, Vladimir Putin has hired armies of social media “trolls” (paid user who harass political opponents) to manipulate public opinions
through intimidation and the spreading of fake news.

 As these preceding cases show, fake information can spread easily on social media since they have few content filters.

 These dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open democratic media may be co-opted towards undemocratic means.

 As consumers of media, users must remain vigilant and learn how to distinguish fact from falsehood in a global media landscape that allows “alternative
facts”.

 Through people must remain critical of mainstream media and traditional journalism that may also operate based on vested interest, we must also
insist that some sources are more credible than others.

 A lack of coordination and cooperation regarding cyber security among nation states could create “cyber security ghettos” or cyber ghettos and
undermine the security of the global cyber environment.
 GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
Religion and Globalization

The dialogical approaches to globalization, in conjunction with those that stress globalization from below, are
of special significance when it comes to the topic of religion. By far the greatest portion of the by now vast
literature on globalization completely or almost completely ignores religion, the partial exception being the
attention that Islamicist political extremism receives. This absence can perhaps be attributed to the dominance
of economic and political understandings of globalization, including among those observers who look at the
phenomenon from within religious traditions. Yet even though a great many of the works that focus on
globalization from below—for instance, much of the literature on global migration and ethnicity—also gives
religion scant attention, it is among these approaches that one finds almost all the exceptions to this general
pattern, probably because these are the only ones that, in principle, allow non-economic or nonpolitical
structures like religion a significant role in globalization.
Consideration of the relation between religion and globalization involves two basic possibilities. There are, on the one hand,
religious responses to globalization and religious interpretations of globalization. These are, as it were, part of doing religion in a
globalizing context. On the other hand, there are those analyses of globalization that seek to understand the role of religion in
globalization and the effects of globalization on religion. They focus on observing religion in a global society. By far the largest
portion of the literature that relates religion and globalization is of the former sort, and therefore it is well to begin there.

Religious Perspectives on Globalization

A great many religious commentators understand globalization as at once a largely economic, imperialistic, and homogenizing
process. They share the economic/mass cultural/political perspective, evaluating globalization as anywhere from a threatening
challenge to the manifestation of evil in our world. In many respects globalization in this segment of the literature is a successor
term for what used to be censured as the capitalist system or cognate terms. Accordingly, globalization results in violence and the
unjust oppression of the majority of people around the world. It threatens local and indigenous cultures, imposing a particularly heavy
burden on women. It is the chief cause of global and local environmental degradation, again to the principal detriment of the mass of
marginalized humanity. Such theologically inspired positions are not restricted to the representatives of a particular religious tradition.
Thus, for example, Christians, Buddhists, Muslims, Jews, and those speaking from indigenous traditions all arrive at similar critical
assessments of globalization. And far from being a characteristically religious perspective, such arguments are quite common in the
overall literature, whether recognizably religious or not. What they imply, among other consequences, is that religion and religious
sensibilities are at root outside of and contrary to globalization, that globalization and religion are fundamentally incommensurate.
Another segment of both the religiously inspired and the secular literature, while often sharing many of the negative judgments,
nonetheless sees a much closer relation between the two. As noted, these observers almost invariably share the broader meanings of
globalization, especially the dialogical and from below perspectives.
Religious insider perspectives do not necessarily limit themselves to opposition, however. Some
theologically oriented observers argue that religion has an essential role in shaping globalization;
that the negative outcomes of globalization point to the need for a positive global ethic, which
religions can provide. The efforts led by Hans Küng in this direction are perhaps the most well
known. For Küng, not only does the globalized world require a guiding global ethic, but key to the
development of that ethic is harmonious relations and dialogue among the world's religions. The
combination signals a dialogical understanding of globalization that Küng shares with many other
observers. Here it applies to religion: the globalized whole depends for its viability on the
contribution of religion, yet this contribution presupposes a plurality of particular religions that
come to understand themselves in positive relation to one another. Unity and diversity are both
constitutive of the global. This core assumption of Küng's Global Ethic Project points to general
features of how those contributions to the globalization debate that do not ignore religion have
sought to understand its role in the process: as an important dimension of globalization that
exhibits the characteristic dynamic tension between global and local, between homogeneity and
heterogeneity, between the universal and the particular.
Religion and Religions in Globalization

Globalization perspectives seeking to include religion have taken several directions of which the following are
likely the most significant. Certain approaches analyze religion as a global or transnational institution, whose
diverse manifestations operate to a large extent independently of economic and political structures and that
bind diverse regions of the world together in ways comparable to global trade, international relations, mass
media, sport, communications media, or tourism. A second but related focus of observation is the role that
religious systems play as powerful cultural resources for asserting identity and seeking inclusion in global
society, especially among less powerful and marginalized populations. It is in this context that religio-
political movements, including so-called fundamentalisms, receive the most focused attention. A third
strategy goes even further, attempting to show how the formation, reformation, and spread of religions
have been an integral dimension of globalization as such. From this angle, what we today conceive as the
most typical forms of religion and even the typical understandings that we have of religion are themselves
outcomes and reflections of the historical process of globalization. Although these three directions are by no
means mutually exclusive, for the sake of presentation they can be treated separately. Each implies a
somewhat different theoretical emphasis, and each also tends to focus on different empirical manifestations of
religion in our world.
Peter Beyer (1994) identified three key impacts of globalization on religion:

Particularism – religion has increasingly been used as an avenue for anti-globalization activity.
While one feature of globalization is a sort of cultural homogenization (the creation of a single,
global popular culture) religion is often seen as the opposite of that: a symbol of how people
are culturally different from one another, rather than the same. This has contributed to a rise
in fundamentalism and is a feature of political conflict in many areas of the world.

Universalism – however there is also some evidence of the opposite trend. While small
fundamentalist groups might emphasize their difference from other people, the major
religions have increasingly focused on what unites them. Far from the feared clash of
civilizations (which will be returned to later) religious leaders emphasize shared values and
common concerns. Indeed, inter-faith dialogue through global communication has helped to
diffuse conflict between religions.

Marginalization – Beyer also notes that religion is increasingly marginalized in contemporary

society, playing less part in public life, although this may well be a rather Eurocentric view and
may be caused by other social changes rather than globalization.
Another way in which globalization has impacted on religion is the way religions have made
use of global communications. Religious groups are able to take advantage of modern
technology to recruit new members, spread the word and keep in contact with other
members of the religion. While with some of the more fundamentalist, anti-modern, anti-
global religious organizations this can hold a certain irony, it is one of the ways in which
religion is much less linked to nationality than it once was.

Religious identity is much less attached to national identity than it once was. Most of the main
world religions are international in character and while some countries still have clear state
religions, it is certainly less a feature of national identity in the West than it used to be.
However, people do still sometimes refer to countries like the UK as “Christian countries”.

A significant exception is India. Meera Nanda (2008) argues that Hinduism is closely related to
Indian nationalism. In a survey 93% of Indians considered their culture “superior to others”
and increasingly Indian national identity and Hinduism are seen as effectively the same thing.
In other words, Hinduism has become what Bellah called a civil religion. Through the worship
of Hindu gods, Indians are worshipping India itself.
Cultural imperialism was around long before the United States became a world power. In its broadest strokes, imperialism
describes the ways that one nation asserts its power over another. Just as imperial Britain economically ruled the American
colonists, so did Britain strongly influence the culture of the colonies. The culture was still a mix of nationalities—many Dutch
and Germans settled as well—but the ruling majority of ex-Britons led British culture to generally take over.

Today, cultural imperialism tends to describe the United States’ role as a cultural superpower throughout the world. American
movie studios are generally much more successful than their foreign counterparts not only because of their business models
but also because the concept of Hollywood has become one of the modern worldwide movie business’s defining traits.
Multinational, nongovernmental corporations can now drive global culture. This is neither entirely good nor entirely bad. On
one hand, foreign cultural institutions can adopt successful American business models, and corporations are largely willing to
do whatever makes them the most money in a particular market—whether that means giving local people a shot at making
movies, or making multicultural films such as 2008’s Slumdog Millionaire. However, cultural imperialism has potential
negative effects as well. From a spread of Western ideals of beauty to the possible decline of local cultures around the world,
cultural imperialism can have a quick and devastating effect.
Globalization vs. Local Cultures

The globalization of the production and distribution of goods and services is a welcome development for many
people in that it offers them access to products that they would not otherwise have. However, some are concerned
that the changes brought about by globalization threaten the viability of locally made products and the people who
produce them. For example, the new availability of foreign foods in a market—often at cheaper prices—can displace
local farmers who have traditionally earned a living by working their small plots of family-owned land and selling their
goods locally.
Globalization, of course, does more than simply increase the availability of foreign-made consumer products and
disrupt traditional producers. It is also increasing international trade in cultural products and services, such as movies,
music, and publications. The expansion of trade in cultural products is increasing the exposure of all societies to
foreign cultures. And the exposure to foreign cultural goods frequently brings about changes in local cultures, values,
and traditions. Although there is no consensus on the consequences of globalization on national cultures, many
people believe that a people's exposure to foreign culture can undermine their own cultural identity.