The context of extension in agricultural and rural development

Agricultural extension, whether public or private, operates in a context or an environment that

influences the organization, form, and content of transfer activities (Moris, 1991). The dominant
characteristic of that context is change. Because the changes affect all aspects of extension, the
context should be examined and understood so that extension can be better managed.

This chapter first places extension within a system of agricultural technology generation and
transfer. Two major sections follow. One describes the macro-context factors: agroecological,
infrastructural, policy, political-economic, and sociocultural. The other looks at the institutional
context, namely, other institutional actors involved in activities related to agricultural extension
such as research and transfer, education and training, input supply, and credit.

A systems perspective

The usefulness of a systems approach for understanding and analysing agricultural technology
generation and dissemination is widely acknowledged (among others, Nagel, 1979; Swanson &
Peterson, 1991; Roling, 1991; Elliott, 1994). Although they are sometimes criticized because
they are so abstract, systems analyses offer holistic vantage points for understanding the factors
that impede or enhance the two-way flow of technology and information between farmers and
the public organizations that constitute the system.

The model used here identifies an agricultural knowledge system consisting of four components
set in a larger context (Figure 1). The components are technology generation, technology transfer
(knowledge and input transfer), technology utilization, and agricultural policy (Swanson, Sands,
& Peterson, 1990). The organizations that constitute the components, as well as others in the
system environment, influence each other in complex ways. Such publicly funded systems are
established by governments to improve the conditions of life and well-being of rural and urban
populations and to increase agricultural productivity.

The functions and linkages related to the flow and feedback of technology and information in the
system define the components. In the public sector, agricultural research organizations
(technology generation) and extension (technology transfer) are major actors, although
commercial companies and NGOs (the private sector) are commercial companies and NGOs (the
private sector) are also involved. The way these are divided among organizations differs from
country to country.

Technology generation consists of planning, administration, and implementation of research

activities that develop, assess, adapt, and test improved agricultural technology for farmers and
other users. In the public sector, these tasks, as well as some dissemination work, are carried out
by agricultural research organizations.

Technology transfer further evaluates and adapts research outputs for users and then widely
disseminates the knowledge and inputs to different target adopters - farmers of different
categories, private companies, and so on. Figure 1 shows two parts of the transfer component,
namely, knowledge and inputs. In many countries, government extension does both types of
transfer, although the emphasis is on knowledge. Private organizations are also involved in both
types of transfer, although farmer coverage is more limited and input transfer may play a bigger
role.

The technology utilization component encompasses the users of the agricultural technology,
mainly farmers. User awareness, adaptation, and adoption of improved technology from various
sources affect farm-level productivity and profitability and, ultimately, economic growth at the
national level. Interaction and feedback between users and research and transfer organizations
improve cooperation and the relevance of technology.

The policy component relates to government development goals and strategies, market and price
policies, and the levels of resource investments in the system. Various government bodies play a
role in setting development policy. Technology development and transfer organizations are
affected by the policy in fundamental ways.

The division of generation and transfer tasks organizations and sectors differs from country to
country, as does the nature of the policy and utilization components. However, the flow of
technology can be mapped as it moves between or is influenced by organizations constituting the
agricultural technology system. Flow analysis shows the impediments to generation and transfer
and the influences of other institutional actors and highlights contextual issues.
Figure

The agricultural technology system context in which government extension organizations operate
can be described under two headings:

 macro-factors
 institutional factors.

The discussion that follows introduces the more important ones in each category that need to be
understood by extension planners and managers. Any of these factors can impede or influence
the flow of technology and information between farmers and extension.
 Macro-factors

Agroecological

Because the natural environment strongly influences extension planning and operations,
extension should respond to the technological needs of farmers in different agroecological zones.
The variation represented by agroecological zones in a given country can be substantial.
Differences in temperatures, rainfall, soil types, evapotranspiration, and so forth are reflected in
the diversity of farming conditions and production systems found.

Extension planners face some difficult choices because of the need to respond to the diverse
technology and information needs of farmers from many different zones and, at the same time, to
satisfy a requirement for extensive countrywide coverage of the rural population. For example,
extension resource investments can be determined by farmer population concentrations, potential
productivity of selected agroecological zones, or a combination of both.

Political-Economic

The political and economic environment affects extension in many ways. One of the most
significant factors is a country's stage of economic development. Another is the level of
government investment in public sector extension. This is influenced by the presence or absence
of a structural adjustment programme, the degree of economic dependence on agriculture, and
the proportion of the population economically active in agriculture as opposed to industry. The
percentage of resource-poor smallholder farmers influences the type of technology to be
transferred, particularly if government is concerned with the equitable coverage of all categories
of farmers.

Politics has another, infrequently identified impact on public extension organizations. Political
shifts at the national level often result in changes in extension personnel, management, and
programmes. High turnover of top managers undermines management experience and continuity
in leadership. In addition, political unrest and war often make extension efforts impossible
(Gustafson, 1994).
Sociocultural

In many countries, sociocultural factors are leading constraints to the effectiveness of extension.
Language differences and illiteracy can impede the communication of improved technology
unless they are taken into account. The division of labour between the sexes can differ along
cultural lines and influences the nature of farming systems in different regions. In many
countries, the men are employed off-farm, leaving the farm operations to women. In extension
organizations, under representation of women on the extension force means that the production
responsibilities and needs of women at the farm level may not be adequately addressed.

Cultural differences among farmers, as well as differences in their resource endowments, also
need to be taken into account. In particular, these are reflected in land-use strategies. Pastoral
herders, for example, will require different types of subject-matter expertise, and extension will
need to use different strategies to transfer technology to them than to permanent field
agriculturalists. The resource endowments of different categories of farmers also affect
technology adoption levels. Subsistence farmers adopt mainly low-cost technologies. For this
reason, extension work that focusses on cultural practices and affordable technologies may be
more appropriate in countries with large numbers of resource-poor farmers.

Policy

The policy component of an agricultural technology system can enable or limit extension in ways
beyond the reach of extension managers. The principal areas of influence are price signals to
farmers and decisions by government that affect public agricultural development organizations.

Agricultural Development. Policy-making bodies of government set development goals and

objectives such as achieving food security or surplus agricultural production to stimulate
economic growth, or providing health care and education for rural development. It is the task of
government extension organizations to help meet these goals by formulating subordinate
objectives and strategies to achieve them.

The amounts invested by government and the development community in agricultural

development influence the pace and scale of effort. In many instances, spending ceilings for
public institutions have been imposed by a structural adjustment programme agreed to by
government. Extension planning needs to take these limits into account, especially when dealing
with the question of staffing, which has major budget implications.

The endowment levels for public agricultural extension are set by government policy and
planning bodies and impose limits on expenditures. This can hamper extension efforts in basic
ways. The operating as compared to salary budget amounts are often inadequate, with negative
effects. For example, a lack of money to buy vehicles and fuel undermines the mobility of
extensionists. In addition, if salaries are too low, extension cannot attract or hold qualified staff,
and services will suffer. Careful planning, guided by a strategy and programme of action, can
improve the use of resources and the effectiveness of extension work within government funding
limits.

Market Intervention. Governments set policies on consumer and producer commodity prices,
subsidies for inputs, credit availability, import substitution, export earnings, food self-
sufficiency, and natural resource management. These send direct and indirect price signals to
farmers and influence their production decisions. High fertilizer prices, for example, cause
farmers to use less of this input. Extension organizations should be aware of market signals to
ensure that they are recommending technologies that meet farmers' current needs. They also
require feedback from farmers to ensure the continued relevance of their activities.

Commodity prices influenced by government policy act as incentives or disincentives for farmer
production. If there is no profit incentive for production of a specific crop, there is little point in
developing or transferring improved technology related to that crop. For example, policies that
favour the import of cereal grains at concessionary prices on the international market discourage
incountry production of those crops. Technology generation and transfer outputs that focus on
such crops are not likely to interest farmers. The examination of the policy context is important
and allows organizations to avoid wasted effort and resources.

Infrastructure

Infrastructure, particularly the condition of transport, communication, and market facilities,

affects both farmers and extension. The capacity to move people, inputs, and produce and to send
and receive information influences extension activities and capacity. Market infrastructure itself
can be lacking or inadequate.

Transportation. There may be many areas that cannot be reached by road, or transport vehicles
may be in short supply. In either case, farmers under these conditions are difficult to reach with
improved technology, and they will have problems transporting inputs and farm produce. For
example, input supply outlets can be far apart, and excessive transport distances can make it
difficult or impossible for traditional farmers to adopt improved technology.

Communications. Communication infrastructure can impose additional constraints for extension

organizations. Farmer access to mass media such as publications, radios, or television may be
limited, thus reducing the options available to extension for communicating its messages. At the
same time, extension itself may have little or no access to telephone and radio services for long-
range communications. This can severely hamper its ability to organize and carry out field
operations.

Two aspects of a country's media organizations, both print and audio-visual, affect the flow of
extension messages to farmers (Mathur & Sinha, 1991). One is the attitudes and subject interests
of media managers responsible for programming for rural audiences. The other is the
organizational climate, especially morale. It is crucial that extension consider the capacity of
mass media organizations (newspapers, magazines, radio, and television) as part of its strategy
and plans for communicating with farmers.

Institutional factors

Public agricultural extension organizations in most countries have the task of providing a two-
way flow of improved technology and information between research and users, primarily
farmers. They operate in an institutional environment that includes other public and private
organizations active in agriculture. In particular, those other actors involved in generating and
transferring agricultural technology must be examined and understood to improve extension's
effectiveness and efficiency.

Research
Agricultural research organizations are extension's closest institutional partners in technology
generation and transfer. While these functions are also undertaken by private organizations,
public sector organizations have the task of generating technology relevant for all categories of
producers and agroecological zones. The way research is structured and organized, and the
planning and management of research-extension linkages, can limit or enhance extension's
effectiveness.

Agricultural research organizations in developing countries confront many problems (Idachaba,

1987; Oram & Bindlish, 1984). These include lack of financial resources, acute shortages of
well-trained scientists, lack of farmer feedback to ensure relevance of research results, lack of
access to external sources of knowledge, inadequate research facilities and equipment, low staff
morale, and inadequate operating budgets, staff incentives, and remuneration. Few of these can
be addressed by extension managers, but they can impede the generation of technology, resulting
in fewer research outputs for extension to transfer. An understanding of research's problems is an
important step in planning extension activities and coordinating them with research.

Poor linkages between research and extension are major constraints in technology flow in many
countries (Kaimowitz, Snyder, & Engel, 1990; Eponou, 1993). The linkage problems are of two
basic types: those affecting feedback from farmers to research and extension and those relating to
coordination and cooperation between research and extension. In both cases, extension managers
can improve the situation by developing a linkage strategy and allocating responsibilities and
adequate resources for linkage tasks.

Education and Training

Educational organizations that train extensionists are important elements in the institutional
context for extension. The work of universities and training institutes in particular has a
significant impact on extension organizations. The content of their curricula as well as the
numbers and qualifications of their graduates are limiting or enabling factors in any country. In
many cases, communication between extension and education organizations is poor. As a result,
extension commonly has staffing problems. It is not unusual for extension organizations to have
posts that are either vacant or filled by underqualified personnel.
Inadequate numbers and qualifications of staff remain a difficult problem for public sector
extension organizations. Salaries and benefits are rarely competitive with those of comparable
private and public enterprises, resulting in low morale and high staff turnover. Education levels
may be quite low, especially for farmer contact staff. The ability to attract and retain qualified
extension staff is limited in most countries by civil service salary scales established by other
agencies of government.

The situation can be improved by establishing staffing and training plans. The staffing plan
inventories current human resources, identifies staffing gaps, and projects staffing needs over a
specified time. The training plan identifies specific types of training (in-service and formal)
required to fill skill gaps in human resources and to cover staffing needs for planned operations.
The additional step of coordinating training needs with the educational organizations is needed.

Input Supply

Farmers need inputs to increase production, but access to these is often poor in less developed
countries. While inadequate transport and marketing infrastructure are often at the root of the
problem, there are certain aspects that can be addressed by extension.

Genetic Technology. Among the major outputs of the technology generation subsystem is
improved genetic material. New plant and animal varieties with higher yields or resistance to
pests or diseases become available. However, farmers need to know when the variety is released,
how it performs under farm conditions, and where to obtain seed or breeding material. Extension
is responsible for disseminating this information through appropriate mass media and contact
methods. But a common constraint on the flow of technology is the availability of genetic
material. In some countries, extension is also involved in the multiplication and distribution of
seed. Establishing effective linkages with others involved in the process can also help ensure that
genetic material is available for farmers.

Agrochemicals and Other Inputs. The performance of new varieties is often improved by, or
even dependent on, the availability of agrochemical and other inputs at the farm level.
Recommendations for fertilizer types and amounts suited to local soil conditions, for animal feed
mixtures and practices, and for the control of plant and animal pests and diseases constitute an
indispensable part of extension messages. Lack of access to this information and materials
prevents yield maximization, so extension organizations need to ensure that farmers are informed
on availability and use. If access is limited because of external factors, extension should plan its
campaigns accordingly, with attention given to low-input recommendations.

Private companies and nonprofit organizations also provide advice to farmers on agrochemical
and other input use. Extension organizations need to develop communication and coordination
linkages with these actors because excessive use of agrochemicals can harm human health and
the environment. Conservative recommendations and alternative approaches, such as integrated
pest management, are in the interests of the public and can be promoted by extension through its
farmer contacts and other linkages.

Credit

Access to credit is one way to improve farmer access to new production technology and increase
productivity. Farmers' ability to purchase inputs such as improved seed and fertilizer is
particularly important. If appropriate technology is available but not being used by farmers, then
the way credit is handled by government may be part of the problem.

Understanding the credit context - government and bank policies, availability of credit, and the
institutional relationships involved in its delivery - is important for extension. At a minimum, the
existing credit situation should be examined so that factors affecting the adoption and use of
technology can be identified. These include inequitable access to credit, insufficient amounts of
it, and overlap of transfer activities due to credit institution involvement in extension work. The
knowledge is useful for extension managers in targeting farmers and in coordinating extension
objectives with credit institutions.

Farmer Organizations and Other NGOs

There is growing involvement of the private sector, both nonprofit and commercial
organizations, in agricultural research and extension. While such organizations may have limited
research objectives and restricted regional coverage targets, they are partners in technology
generation and transfer. Private corporations such as seed and agrochemical companies play a
key role in developing some types of technology, providing inputs, and advising farmers on their
use. Ideally, extension should reach agreements with these actors so that duplication of effort is
minimized and conflicting messages to farmers are avoided. At a minimum, their activities
should be noted and an attempt made by extension to catalogue and use their successful methods
and outputs.

Farmer organizations, particularly grass-roots organizations, are part of the utilization

component. They offer an effective channel for extension contact with large numbers of farmers,
as well as opportunities for participatory interaction with extension organizations. Feedback on
farmer needs, production problems, and the results of adoption from such groups will be
increasingly important considerations.

Concluding observations

This overview of an agricultural technology system, and the place of extension within it, has
stressed the importance of understanding the dynamic context in which the system operates. The
agricultural technology systems model given here places extension work in a conceptual
framework that underscores the significance of contextual factors for extension planning and
strategies. Systematic consideration by managers of the particular outside forces influencing an
extension organization allows it to plan its resource use, approaches, methods, and linkages in
ways that are responsive to farmer needs and the roles of other organizations.