1 Books

• Classical Dynamics: Thornton & Marion

• An Introduction to Classical Mechanics: Kleppner & Kolenkow
• Classical Mechanics: Doglus Gregory
• Classical Mechanics: Goldstein
• Classical Mechanics: John Taylor

2 Elementary Principles
2.1 Single Particle Mechanics
Position vector of a single particle in a Cartesian coordinate system is

~r(t) = îx(t) + ĵy(t) + k̂z(t) .

Since I am lazy to type these notes, from now onwards I will not show the time dependence of the position
vector. Velocity of the particle is
d~r
~v = , (1)
dt
and linear momentum is
p~ = m~v , (2)
where m the mass of the particle. If the force acting on the particle is F~ then from Newtons’s second law
it follows that
d~
p d
F~ = = p~˙ = (m~v ) . (3)
dt dt
What the Newton’s 2nd law tells us is that, unless acted on by a force, an object is either is at rest or
in uniform motion relative to the coordinate system. The reference frame in which this law is valid is
called the inertial frame or Galilean frame. Unless otherwise mentioned, we will take a coordinate system
attached firmly to the earth as an inertial frame. Acceleration of the particle is
d2~r
~a = . (4)
dt2
If F~ = 0 then p~ =constant:- in the absence of a force, linear momentum is conserved. This is conservation
of linear momentum.
The work done by F~ to move the particle from point 1 to point 2 is
Z 2 Z 2
d~v m
W12 = F~ .d~r = m .~v dt = (v22 v12 ) = T2 T1 (5)
1 1 dt 2
where v1,2 are velocities and T1,2 are the kinetic energies at the two end points
1
T1,2 = mv 2 .
2
Conservative force: There are certain forces for which the work done in moving a particle from point
1 to point 2 depends only on the initial and final positions, and is independent of the path taken. These
forces are known as conservative forces. In the case of a conservative force, if you move a particle from
point 1 to point 2 and then return it from point 2 to point 1, the total work done over the entire journey
will be zero, i.e.,
Z 2 Z 1 I
F~ .d~r + F~ .d~r = F~ .d~r = 0 . (6)
1 2

4
Vector analysis have taught us that if any vector F~ satisfies an equation like (6), then the vector can be
written as (Exercise)
F~ = rV~ , (7)
~ is known as the gradiant
where V ⌘ V (~r) = V (x, y, z) is a scalar function of position coordinates and r
operator gradiant of a scalar function (the concept of gradiant will be discussed in a tutorial session)

~ = ~i @ + ~j @ + ~k @ .
r
@x @x @x
In classical mechanics the function V is known as the potential energy or simply potential. Force is unique
if a constant is added to the potential, i.e., F~ = r(V~ + const.), therefore absolute value of a potential is
immaterial – what is physical is the potential di↵erence.
For a conservative force, the work done in moving a particle from point 1 to point 2 is
Z 2 Z 2
W12 = ~
F .d~r = ~
rV.d~
r = V1 V 2 . (8)
1 1

We have already found in (5) that W12 = T2 T1 . Hence we get

T2 T1 = V1 V2 ) T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 = E. (9)
In other words, the total energy E = T + V is conserved in case of conservative field. Example: motion of
a particle under gravity (when air resistance neglected).
In equation (8) we have Z Z
F~ .d~r = ~
rV.d~
r,

which implies that the force can be written as the gradiant of the potential

F~ = ~ .
rV (10)

2.2 System of many Particles

2.2.1 Constraints
In most problems, the Newton’s equation alone is insufficient to fully describe a system because there are
constraints that limit the motion. To understand what is meant by constraints, consider a single particle
moving along a straight line on the x-axis. In this case, the motion is constrained by the conditions:

y = 0, z = 0.
If the particle moves on the surface of a sphere with radius R, the constraint is:

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R 2 .
Similarly, in a multi-particle system—such as a gas inside a balloon—the molecules are constrained to
move within the surface of the balloon. For example, in a two-particle system where the distance between
the particles is always fixed at `, the constraint equation is:

(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 ) 2 = ` 2 .

In most of the problems we will discuss, the constraints can be expressed as equations. These are
referred to as holonomic constraints. However, there are systems where the constraints are such that they
can not be expressed by equations involving coordinates. Hence, dependent coordinates can not be fully
eliminated. They are called non-holonomic constraints. A classic example is that of a disk of radius R that
rolls on a surface without slipping. If ~v is the linear velocity of the disk and !
~ then the following constraints
apply
v = !R .
Some more examples of constrained system are

5
 • Cars on road
• Simple pendulum
• Double pendulum (2nd pendulum hanging from the mass of the first)
• Particle on a surface
For a constrained system, a straightforward approach to apply Newton’s law run into the following
difficulties
• One has to simultaneously solve the Newton’s law and the equations of constraints
• Equation of constraints can be enforced by force of constraints. Usually, the forces of constraints are
unknown. In the example of many particle system (11), the interparticle forces fji are constraint forces
that are unknown. Take an example of a system of many particles, where each particle experiences
two types of forces: an external force F~ie and an interaction force F~ji due to the j th particle. The
dynamics of the system are governed by Newton’s second law, which for each particle can be written
as:

d2~ri X
mi = ~ie +
F F~ji . (11)
dt2
j6=i

In this problem the forces of constraints Fij are unknown making the Newtonian setup unsuitable to
solve the problem. There are many such examples where the forces of constraints are unknown.
The first problems can be overcome by introducing the concept of generalized coordinates and the second
one by using Lagrange’s equation of motion instead of Newtons law.

2.2.2 Generalized coordinates

The number of independent coordinates required to specify the configuration of a system of N free particles
(no constraints) in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is 3N . In a Cartesian coordinate
system the coordinates are (x1 , y1 , z1 ) for the first particle, (x2 , y2 , z2 ) for the second particle, and so on.
The coordinate set if referred to as as degrees of freedom (dof ) of the system f = 3N .
If k holonomic constraints are imposed, then there exists k independent equations, each relating the
coordinates of the system. The equations allow us to eliminate k coordinates, reducing the number of
independent coordinates variables to f = 3N k. Consequently, the system will have

f = 3N k, (12)

degrees of freedom.
So far we have been thinking in terms of Cartesian coordinates. If a system has f degrees of freedom
then one can introduce a set of f independent coordinates called the generalized coordinates. What is
meant by “independent” is that there is no functional relation between the generalized coordinates. A set
of f generalized coordianates is usually denoted by qi where i = 1, 2, 3...f . The generalized coordinates are
not always Cartesian. It can be polar, cylindrical, or mix of many coordinate systems.
Lets take an example of a single particle moving on the surface of a sphere of radius R. The equation
of constraint
p is x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 . In this case if two coordinates x, y are determined then z is given as
z = R2 x2 y 2 . Hence the degrees of freedom of motion of a particle on surface of a sphere is 3.1 - 1
= 2. Alternatively the motion can be described in terms of spherical polar coordinates (R, ✓, )

x = R sin ✓ cos , y = R sin ✓ sin , z = R cos ✓ (13)

Since R is a constant, there are only two independent coordinates q = {✓, }, consistent with the previous
discussion. These are the generalized coordinates of the system. The equations (13) express the functional
relationship between old (Cartesian) and the generalized coordinates.

6
 So in a system of N particles with k constraints, there exist f = 3N k generalized coordinates
q1 , q2 , ...q3N k , and one can always express the old coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 )....(xN , yN , zN ) in
terms of the generalized coordinates

x1 = f1 (q1 , q2 ...q3N k , t) ,
y1 = f2 (q1 , q2 ...q3N k , t) ,
z1 = f3 (q1 , q2 ...q3N k , t) ,
... = ... ,
... = ... ,
... = ... ,
zN = f3N (q1 , q2 ...q3N k , t) ,

If t is absent in the above functions then constraints are independent of time – scleronomic constraints. We
will mostly deal with these types. These equations can be inverted to solve for the generalized coordinates.
Once the set of generalized coordinates of a system is known the set is said to completely determine
the configuration of the system. It means that the position vectors of each of the particle system can be
written in terms of the generalized coordinates.
Example: Consider a system of two particles shown in figure. The genaralized coordinates are x –
distance of the first particle from the origin, and ✓ – the angle that the second particle makes with respect
to the varticle. The position coordinates are

~r1 = x~i , ~r2 = (x + a cos ✓)~i (a sin ✓)~k .

326 Chapter 12 Lagrange’s equations and conservation principles

k
x P1
i
m
O θ a

P2
m
FIGURE 12.2 The variables x and θ are a set of generalised
coordinates
Figure 1: for
Thethis generalized
system. coordinates are x and ✓

Definition 12.1 Generalised coordinates If the configuration of a system S is deter-

Exercise: Three particles mined
P1 , Pby the values of a set of independent variables q1 , . . . , qn , then {q1 , . . . , qn } is said
2 , P3 , where P1 , P2 are connected by a light rod of length a and P2 , P3
to be a set of generalised coordinates for S .
connected by a light rod of length b. The system i) slides on a horizontal surface, ii) moves in a three-
dimensional space. This definition deserves some explanation.
Consider a system of N particles described by f degrees of freedom. So the position vector of all the
(i) When we say the generalised coordinates must be independent variables, we mean
particles are given by a set of f generalized coordinates
that there must q ⌘ relation
be no functional q1 , q2 ....q f , i.e.,them.
connecting ~ri = If~rithere
(q) for
were, allone
the of ithe
= 1...N .
The velocity of the ith particle is given by
coordinates could be removed and the remaining n − 1 coordinates would still deter-
mine the configuration of the system. The set of generalised coordinates must not be
reducible f
@~riin this way.
@~ri X @~ri
(ii) ~
vWhen
i = we q̇
say 1 +
the q̇ +
generalised
2 · · · =
coordinates q1 , . q̇. .j, .qn determine the configuration of (14)
@q @q @q
the system S , we mean that, when thejvaluesj of the coordinates q1 , . . . , qn are given,
1 2
the position of every particle of S is determined. In other words, the position vectors
The time derivative of i } of the particles
generalized {rcoordinates aremust be known
called functions of
generalized velocitythe independent variables q1 , . . . , qn ,
that is,
dqi
q̇ir i== r i (q1., . . . , qn ) (i = 1, . . . , N ). (12.2) (15)
dt
Abstract though this concept may seem, generalised coordinates are remarkably easy
to use. In practice, they are chosen to be displacements or angles that appear naturally in
the problem. This is illustrated by the following examples.

Example 12.2 Choosing generalised coordinates

7
Let S be the system shown in Figure 12.2 which consists of two particles P1 and
P2 connected by a light rigid rod of length a. The particle P1 is constrained to move
along a fixed horizontal rail and the system moves in the vertical plane through the
rail. Select generalised coordinates for this system and obtain expressions for the
position vectors r 1 , r 2 in terms of these coordinates.
The coordinates qi and the generalized velocity q̇i are independent of each other since at time t = 0, we can
chose qi (0) and q̇i (0) independently. From (14) one can show that the generalized kinetic energy is given
as
X f X f
T = ajk (q)q̇j q̇k , (16)
j k

where (exercise!)
N ✓ ◆
1X @~ri @~ri
ajk = mi . .
2 i=1 @qj @qk
It shows that the kinetic energy is homogeneous and quadratic in the generalized coordinates.
One can also define a generalized force as
@V
Qj = . (17)
@qj