CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background to the study

In every professional field, some ethical codes and standards guide practitioners, which may

differ from the general moral principles that govern human behaviour in society. Similar to other

professions, broadcasting requires certain basics such as education, experience and or acceptance

to respect a code of its practice (Oluwaseun, 2020). Despite clearly defined professional

standards for journalists, there have been recurring complaints that self-proclaimed professionals

in the field have not met the standards outlined in the code of professional practice mandated by

the National Broadcasting Commission. This is why Santas and Ezekiel (2014 p. 10) asserts that

“In Nigeria today, as it is elsewhere in the world, violation of the ethics of journalism has almost

become the rule, rather than an exception”.

In this direction, NBC must insist on the promotion of decency, accuracy, objectivity and

fairness, integrity, morality and social values to ensure that public interest is served (Okigbo,

1997). The remedy to the challenges faced by broadcasting largely lies within the confines of the

regulation of the industry and as such NBC should be adequately empowered to ensure that

broadcast stations adhere to the stipulations of the code. This would go a long way in eradicating

the challenges of commercialization, poor management, cultural imperialism and poor program

quality (Chioma, 2014). According to NBC Code (6th Edition 2016, p. 8)

Broadcasting is a creative medium, characterized by

professionalism, choice and innovation, to serve the interest of the
public... Broadcasting shall influence society positively, setting
the agenda for the social, cultural, economic, political and
technological development of a nation, for the public good.

1
 There is no doubt that the members of the public respect broadcasting as an industry and

accord it a high spirit of respect due to its efforts towards keeping them informed, entertained

and educated. However, the other side of the coin is not commendable to the extent that it has

thrown up public discontent and condemnation. Over time, scholars have established that some

Nigerian Broadcast Organizations air objectionable programmes, disregard the rule concerning

time on the broadcast of certain materials and negate the broadcasting of the materials that serve

the public interest. Broadcasting, not only in Nigeria but globally, is experiencing pressure

between the dominant societal ideals, which guide practitioners’ standards, and the ethical codes,

which contain rules that counteract professional practices, which are based on the dominant

philosophy (Eberwein, Fengler, Lauk & Leppik-Bork, 2011). Undoubtedly, journalists would

like absolute freedom and autonomy to broadcast whatever content they feel like broadcasting

but considering the boundless powers they wield in the shaping of society, the freedom they want

must be tempered by a commensurate sense of responsibility, because modern media’s all-

pervasive reach touches virtually all aspects of life (Franklin, 2006).

Since 1960, when Nigeria gained independence from British colonial rule, the guarantee

for the freedom of religious association, expression and practice has been provided for in all the

constitutions drafted and promulgated. However, the constitutions then did not, in any way, grant

citizens the freedom to own and operate a broadcast medium (Adum, Ojakor & Nnatu, 2019).

Between 1976 and 1979, broadcasting reverted to a federal matter under a centralized military

government until 1979 when the new constitution of that year moved broadcasting from the

exclusive to the concurrent legislative list (Ihechu & Okugo, 2013). This change facilitated the

establishment of radio and television stations by state governments. Although it resulted in an

expansion of stations and the dissolution of the federal monopoly on the subject, ownership of

2
broadcast stations continued to be predominantly governmental, with no individual participation

permitted.

In 1992, Nigeria saw a pivotal moment for the broadcast media with the establishment of

the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), a new regulatory authority. This move was a

response to the diverse nature of broadcast media in liberal democracies worldwide. As per the

legislation establishing the NBC, Idachaba (2015) asserts that NBC's regulatory functions align

with the implementation of the National Mass Communication Policy, which encompasses

national motivation, mobilization, and the pursuit of national or public interests. This indicates

that broadcasting in Nigeria is expected to positively influence societal values, thereby

enhancing and reinforcing the nation's social, cultural, economic, political, and technological

values, while also setting an agenda for the public good (NBC, 2010). Bello and Inuwa (2014)

noted that the deregulation of broadcasting in Nigeria in the year 1992 and the establishment of

the National Broadcasting Commission, NBC, brought about the advent of broadcast media

stations across several nooks and crannies of the country. Akinreti (2017) points out that biased

reporting by various broadcast media organizations has sparked criticism among analysts,

scholars, and stakeholders. They argue that broadcast media licenses are being used for political

patronage and profit-making rather than for developmental purposes.

According to Oluwaseun (2020), the menace of unprofessionalism over the years has

been ravaging the field of journalism. A lot of journalists both in the print and broadcast media

often violate the ethics of the profession especially the privately owned. This may be because the

majority of the private media stations in Nigeria are owned by politicians or their followers and

are like tools in the hands of the politicians who continue to dictate what goes to the general

public, how and when (Abubakar & Hasan 2017). In today’s Nigeria, many practitioners are
3
being accused in numerous cases of unprofessional conduct and unethical misconduct while

discharging their responsibilities as watchdogs of society. Issues regarding unfettered political

programmes and other unethical adverts, violation of constitutional human rights, interference of

politicians in broadcasting stations, deranged reporting, inciting crimes and serious transgression,

biased reporting and much more have filled the airwaves used by the Nigerian broadcasters

(Idemudiam, 2008).

With the rise of digitization and new media, a fresh set of challenges emerge for the

broadcast industry. To effectively address these challenges, it is essential to establish a

comprehensive regulatory framework to guide industry operators. In this regard, NBC has put in

place the Nigeria Broadcasting Code to establish standards for the content and quality of

broadcast material. This code is a comprehensive document that outlines the regulations and

guidelines for broadcasting in Nigeria. It is worth noting that this document was developed with

input from professionals, academics, and experienced broadcasters in legal, advertising, and

communication, as well as other industry stakeholders (Ezeigbo, 2004).

The broadcast code, introduced on 8th December 1993, upholds the "fairness principle"

as the cornerstone of its philosophy. While promoting a free and market-driven broadcast

environment, it also strongly protects the rights of all segments of Nigerian society. It

encompasses economic, technological, professional, cultural, political, social, and other

objectives of broadcasting in Nigeria. Culturally, it aims to showcase and celebrate Nigeria's

diverse culture, as well as to nurture and promote indigenous aesthetic values. Additionally, it

strives to promote universally accepted moral, uplifting, and spiritual values (Idachaba, 2015).

Some of the aspects of the code that relate directly to journalistic practice are general

programming, political coverage, news and current affairs, religious programmes, children's
4
programmes, advertisements, sponsorship, sports and outside broadcasts, as well as technical

requirements which are the also the aspects journalists are expected to be knowledgeable about.

Despite the regulations outlined in this code, broadcast stations in Nigeria have faced

numerous backlashes of unprofessional and unethical behaviour over the years. These include

biased political programs, unethical commercials, violations of human rights, political

interference in broadcasting, unbalanced reporting, incendiary language, and various other

transgressions. The media, as a reflection of society, has been tainted by pervasive societal issues

like corruption and bribery. Broadcast media, in particular, appear to have strayed from their role

in informing the public due to the commercialization of their services (Ihechu, Ebenezer, &

Savior 2022). Studies including those of Tsegyu and Asemah (2014) revealed that the most

frequently violated aspects of the code include its chapter one which sets the minimum

requirement of broadcasting standards in Nigeria most especially during coverage of disasters

and emergencies. To a large extent, chapter three of the code, which sets out the general

principles of legality, decency and truthfulness in programming, is also among the sections of the

NBC code that are violated by journalists. This clearly shows that though the NBC Code was

provided to guide the operations of broadcast stations in Nigeria, they don’t usually comply with

its demands. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to examine both the broadcast

industry and NBC as a commission to identify the real cause of these flaws and violations and

the specific areas that both parties need to address towards sanitizing the profession, especially in

Kaduna State.

5
1.2. Statement of the Research Problem

Many media scholars including Olajide, Talabi and Ogundeji (2012), Okoro, and Chinweobo-

Onuoha, (2013), Tsegyu and Asemah (2014), Barigbon (2016), Martins, Chidera and Benjamine

(2019), Mohammed (2020) and Gbadeyan (2021) have established that broadcasters violate the

professional code of conduct including the required standards enshrined in the NBC code. This

is also evident in the frequent cases of sanctions NBC has been imposing on broadcast stations

for faulting one provision of the code or the other.

However, no study has been conducted with a focus on Kaduna State to examine their

level of knowledge on the NBC Code. Also, the majority of the studies conducted neglected the

aspect of whether or not the broadcast stations put mechanisms in place to educate their staff

about the NBC Code. This is why there is no sufficient empirical evidence to establish whether

or not the practitioners are aware of the NBC Code which is the most important precursor to their

compliance with its provisions. Moreover, the negligent attitude of some broadcast journalists

towards the NBC Code is another aspect of concern. This is because some may deliberately

choose to throw caution into the air due to the market need or to satisfy the newsmakers’ desires

who provide funds for the payment of fines as a result of the breach. This, however, cannot be

established without empirical evidence to support it.

This is why this study seeks to examine whether the journalists are aware of the

components of the NBC code and whether or not broadcasting stations in Kaduna State have put

in place mechanisms for educating their staff on the code. By extension, it seeks to provide

empirical data to explain the main causes of the violation of broadcasting standards among

practitioners in Kaduna State with a view to proffering solutions where necessary.

6
1.3. Aim and Objectives of the Study

This study is aimed at ascertaining the knowledge, awareness and practice of the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code among Journalists in Kaduna State. The following objectives serve as guides

towards achieving this aim:

1. To ascertain the knowledge level of journalists in Kaduna State on the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code.

2. To examine the strategies used by broadcast stations in Kaduna State in educating staff

on the Nigeria Broadcasting Code and their level of effectiveness.

3. To determine the attitude of journalists in Kaduna State towards the Nigeria Broadcasting

Code.

4. To figure out the causes of breaches of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code by journalists in

Kaduna State.

1.4. Research Questions

This study attempts to provide answers to the following questions:

1. To what extent are journalists in Kaduna State knowledgeable about the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code?

2. What are the strategies used by broadcast stations in Kaduna State in educating staff on

the Nigeria Broadcasting Code?

7
 3. How effective are the strategies used by broadcast stations in Kaduna State in educating

staff on the Nigeria Broadcasting Code?

4. What is the attitude of journalists in Kaduna State towards the Nigeria Broadcasting

Code?

5. What are the causes of breach of the provisions of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code by

journalists in Kaduna State?

1.5. Significance of the Study

This study fills the gap of empirical backing on the knowledge level of journalists in Kaduna

State on the Nigeria Broadcasting Code among journalists and also establishes the strategies

broadcast media stations use in educating their staff on the NBC Code. It also expands the

frontiers of research in causes and solutions to the problem of increased violation of the

provisions of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code among Journalists in Kaduna State as the majority

of studies conducted in the field of broadcasting did not touch the area.

1.6. Scope of the Study

This study is delimited to the journalists working with any of the licensed broadcast stations in

Kaduna State that are registered with the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ) Kaduna Chapter.

The research is concerned with the selection or sampling of items from an entire population and

the selected or sampled items would be taken in such a way that it will be of general application

to the overall population. Consequently, the study is limited to only serving broadcasters based

and practising in Kaduna State neglecting retirees and other practitioners operating outside the

State.

8
1.7. Operational definition of terms

The following are the terms which are operationalized within the context of this study.

i. Attitude: in this study means the predisposition of the journalists including their opinions

and personal assessment of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code. This includes whether they

see it as necessary or obstructive, and their commitment to abiding by its principles.

ii. Awareness: in this study means comprehension of the NBC Code's provisions, ethical

guidelines, permissible content, and the causes of non-compliance by the journalists.

iii. Causes: in this study means the triggering factors that bring about violation of the NBC

Code among journalists in Kaduna State.

iv. Deregulation: in this study means the removal of barriers to broadcast media ownership

in 1992 that paved the way for private ownership of the broadcast stations in Nigeria.

v. Journalist: in this study means any practising broadcaster working with any licensed

broadcast station in Kaduna State.

vi. Knowledge: in this study means what broadcasters know about the Nigeria Broadcasting

Code.

vii. Practice: in this study involves the journalists' actual adherence to the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code in their journalistic endeavours. This also includes their compliance

or otherwise with ethical standards outlined in the code, and their willingness or

otherwise to apply the principles of the code in their day-to-day work.

9
viii. Regulation: in this study means the act of directing, monitoring, sanctioning and

enforcing compliance with the requirements of broadcasting by NBC.

ix. Standards: in this study refers to the required ethical and professional conduct of

broadcasters as stipulated in the NBC Code.

x. Strategies: these are the means through which broadcast stations in Kaduna State educate

staff on the provisions of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. Introduction

The literature evaluation begins below with a conceptual review of relevant variables of the

study, analysis and criticisms of empirical studies conducted on relevant fields and review of

theories related to the objectives of the research. This is done to give the study enough empirical

base and theoretical backing.

2.2.1. The Concept of Broadcasting

Simply put, broadcasting is radio and television. Put differently, according to Onabajo

(2000), broadcasting is the transmission of information through radio waves from a radio or

television station to the audience in far and near places, through their receivers, which help in

decoding such information. Similarly, broadcasting can also be defined as the dissemination of

information by an organization (radio or television station) to a large widely dispersed

heterogeneous audience through the use of electromagnetic spectrum. “Broadcasting is the term

used to refer to the transmission of a program (radio, television, web-based, and so on) for public

use (Danesi, 2013 p. 90)”.

According to Pate and Abubakar (2013), the African Charter on Broadcasting recognizes

three-tier radio regimes in African countries, thus:

Public Service Broadcasting (PSB): this is generally conducted by a statutory entity usually

owned and controlled by the government. It is non-profit broadcasting as it mostly receives

subsidies from authorities. According to Uyeh (2007), in public broadcasting, the government

shoulders the responsibility of paying staff salaries and censorship the programme when

11
necessary. The censorship is mostly to arrest the situation whereby a news item or a programme

content will be broadcast against the government.

Private/Commercial Broadcasting: This is when individuals or corporate organizations own

media stations and operate them to achieve their set goals. According to the sixth edition of the

NBC Code (2016, pp. 123), “private/commercial broadcasting is a business venture owned by

corporate entities”. It is usually profit-oriented. However, the government regulates the activities

of such kind of organizations to ensure that the public good is protected. In such situations, the

commercial stations devise means of generating revenue to pay staff and stay in business through

the sale of airtime, carrying out advertisements, endorsements or even donations from well-

wishers (Apuke, 2017).

Community Broadcasting: as defined by the Nigeria Broadcasting Code (2012, p. 97), a

community is “a group of people residing in a particular geographical location or sharing a

strong interest which the community desires to develop through broadcasting”. Such

communities include non-profit organizations, cultural associations, cooperative societies,

partnerships of associations and educational institutions (universities, colleges of education etc.).

From the foregoing, community broadcasting is any broadcast station established and operated

by the people of a specific community to serve their interests. In this regard, institutional

broadcast stations such as FMs operated by colleges and universities also fall under this

category. Akingbulu (2007) itemized some of the features of community broadcasting to include:

I. Community ownership clears external factors from militating against the motive of its

establishment.

II. A horizontal organization treats community members as active partners rather than a

vertical organization treating them as passive receivers.

12
III. Committed to building sustainable community powers.

IV. Power is asserted in the hands of many rather than a few individuals.

V. Content is determined through community dialogue rather than external influence.

VI. Programmes mostly are defined by interest not necessarily by geographical location.

This form of broadcasting is encouraged by the African Charter on Broadcasting as a

response to calls for media independence, freedom of information, universal access to

information and the need to enhance democratic culture and values (NBC, 2016).

According to Emakpore (2005), broadcasting represents the vital ingredient of oxygen,

since communication, in general, has been described as the oxygen of democracy. Therefore,

broadcasting has the responsibility of serving as the best means of dissemination and reception of

information. It enables the individual to partake in ideas that will enrich his/her life.

Broadcasting has a sacred responsibility to influence society positively in an all-round manner.

Okigbo (2007) noted that the media has the responsibility of being responsible in the coverage of

public and private affairs which is the foundation upon which the universal Social Responsibility

Theory was propounded. The NBC code (2016) stipulates specific objectives which relate to the

public interest and social responsibility to comprise the following:

I. Social objectives including the promotion of generally accepted social values, norms and

civic responsibilities.

II. Cultural objectives that have to do with the preservation and promotion of cultural values.

III. Economic objectives concerned with the promotion of a just and economically justifying

society.

IV. Political objectives relating to awareness to achieve a democratic society, and

13
 V. Technological objectives comprising the promotion of self-reliance and indigenous

technological development.

Omu (2007) stated that broadcasting exercises a massive power and cannot be indifferent

to the logic of that situation in terms of responsibility which power implies. The powerful and

sensitive nature of broadcasting imposes on it an obligation to internalize the core values of

statesmanship. This brings to the limelight the need for journalists and media stations to ensure

strict adherence to their responsibilities for the overall public good. Failure to do this will lead to

chaotic situations in which irresponsibility will become the order of the day.

2.2.2. Broadcasting in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the history of broadcasting can be traced back to 1936 when the British Broadcasting

Corporation (BBC) listening post in Lagos was transformed into what was known as a Radio

Distribution Service (RDS) station. Historical evidence established that with the establishment of

the BBC Empire Service in 1932, the British Government decided to set up a “Listening Post” in

Lagos and other strategic locations in British Colonial West Africa to monitor BBC studios in

London (Nweke, 2002). The Radio Distribution Service is a process where news emanating from

BBC studios in London was relayed to Nigerian audiences through distribution boxes

specifically designed by engineers from the then Post and Telegraph (P&T). The boxes only

contained loudspeakers for the reception which were through subscription. However, only a few

privileged elites could afford to have it at their homes except in communities where there were

listening centres.

In 1935, the colonial Public Relations Office, in appreciation of the immense cultural and

political benefits of the RDS stations for colonial administration, began to provide the Lagos

14
station with cultural programmes featuring Nigerian artists. That marked a significant

development for the future of broadcasting in Nigeria. Between 1946 and 1950, the Radio

Distribution System (RDS) expanded its scope of coverage to all three regions of the country.

Relay stations were established in some strategic towns in the East, West and North which

accounted for about 12,000 box receivers throughout the country. In 1948, the colonial office in

London commissioned a survey of the broadcasting needs in Nigeria and three other British

Colonies. The outcome of that survey paved the way for the introduction of serious broadcasting

in Nigeria (Jega, 2016).

April 1, 1951, marked the beginning of direct radio transmission in Nigeria with the

establishment of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS). The NBS, which became fully

operational on June 27 1952, started transmission in Lagos. To ensure its effective national

coverage, regional stations were established in Kaduna in May 1952, Enugu in September 1952

and Ibadan in April 1955. In 1957, the NBS became autonomous when by an Act of Parliament

assented to by the Queen; it was converted to a statutory corporation called the Nigerian

Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). The NBC act was however amended in 1961 by the then

Prime Minister Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa to give the information minister powers in

matters of policy and appointment. The monopoly enjoyed by NBC as the sole provider of

broadcasting services in the country was broken in 1959 when Chief Obafemi Awolowo

established the first regional broadcasting station known as Western Nigeria Broadcasting

Corporation (WNBC) radio. In the same year, Chief Awolowo pioneered the establishment of

the first television station in Africa Western Nigeria Television (WNTV). One year after, the

then Premier of the Eastern Region, Dr. Michael Okpara joined the race with the establishment

of Eastern Nigeria Broadcasting Service with both radio and television facilities. On March 15,

15
1962, the Northern Region, under the leadership of Sir Ahmadu Bello as the Premier completed

the circle of regional ownership of broadcasting stations with the establishment of Broadcasting

Corporation of Northern Nigeria.

The acquisition of broadcast stations expectedly triggered the Federal Government to

establish its television station. In April 1962, the Nigeria Television Service was established

(Jega, 2016). The establishment of the first television station in Nigeria by Chief Obafemi

Awolowo followed by Dr. Michael Okpara, who in 1960 established a television station for the

Eastern Region and the set-up of Radio-Television Kaduna by Sir Ahmadu Bello, marked the

beginning of broadcasting at the regional level. Each of the regional stations was professionally

managed because they were set up in partnership with more experienced expatriate companies,

under a management agreement under which they were to train and retrain Nigerian workers and

gradually transfer the management of the broadcasting establishment to them at a given period.

Under this environment, professionalism thrived and there was adequate funding, at least the

programming reflected the trend of the times and rightly were good and informative

programmes.

Consequently, radio and television stations established at the regional levels played

pioneering roles in ensuring that government activities and programmes were received at the

grassroots level. By 1975, Governor Joseph Gomwalk established the second generation of

broadcasting stations when he established the first colour television in Jos, Plateau State.

Moreover, in 1979, most civilian governors of states set up their own radio and television

stations. Nevertheless, in more developed areas, television has replaced radio as the most trusted

and main source of news. Salomon (2008 p. 11) reveals that “as well as news, broadcasting

provides education and entertainment; in Western societies like the UK, people spend an average
16
of 24.4 hours a week watching television, and 23.9 hours listening to the radio”. This goes to

show that whoever controls access to so much viewing and listening, and whoever controls the

content of what is watched and heard, is in a prime position to influence how viewers and

listeners see the world and their attitudes towards their own and other's cultures (Salomon,

2008). According to Adeyemi (2013, p. 4),

the mass media industry can be likened to manufacturing outfits; the only
difference is in the product. Media product is news and information and its
consumer is the media audience. The media industry will flourish to the
extent of public trust in the quality of its product. The media industry
should therefore do everything within its power to put in place trust
building mechanism.

The majority of professions including doctors, lawyers, engineers and teachers have

enforced standard ways of practice geared towards preserving the integrity of its members. A

professional code of conduct, therefore, becomes very essential in the media profession because

of the important role it plays in shaping the society and influencing individuals. Therefore, the

importance of ensuring knowledge and enforcing compliance with the professional standards

among journalists cannot be overemphasized taking into cognizance the observed violations of

ethical and professional codes among many practitioners. This is essentially why out of the

persistent problems that have continued to generate a lot of debate among media scholars, the

tenacious non-compliance of journalists with professional standards in discharging their

responsibilities, especially in Nigeria continues to take centre stage (Tsegyu & Asemah, 2014).

Media practitioners in the country are being accused of flouting the professional standards of

objectivity, balance, accuracy, fairness and accountability which are essential norms of the

profession globally. The repercussion has dwindled the standard of the profession in the public

17
domain and brought about the loss of trustworthiness in the activities of media practitioners in

the country.

According to the Nigerian Broadcasting Code (2016 p.8), “broadcasting is a creative

medium, characterized by professionalism, choice and innovation, to serve the interest of the

public... Broadcasting shall (therefore) influence society positively, setting the agenda for the

social, cultural, economic, political and technological development of a nation, for the public

good”. The rudimentary objective of broadcasting is to educate, entertain and inform listeners.

This makes it enormously important for guidelines and standards to be put in place by relevant

authorities to drive home professionalism in the conduct of practitioners to ensure that Listeners

receive high-quality broadcast signals completely free of all types of interferences (Directorate of

Technical Regulations of the Gambia, 2014).

From the foregoing, it would not be out of place to say that broadcasting regulations are

very essential tools for achieving development. According to Emakpore (2005), a profession is

nothing if it is not of useful value to society. Hence, it must respect society, rather than itself. In

this regard, chapter one of the sixth edition of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code “stipulates the

global best practices of broadcasting, the regulations and procedures for developing and

upholding professionalism in Nigerian broadcasting” (NBC Code 6th Edition 2016 p. 24).

Indubitably, broadcast media management is an essential vehicle for the promotion of

social, economic and political progress. Consequently, as the media utilize the airwaves which

belong to the public, the broadcast media should be used to improve and promote unity and

security of the people of the nation. As much as Nigeria’s constitution guarantees freedom to

own, establish and operate media organizations in Nigeria, there need for checks to ensure that

18
such mediums are working in tandem with the provisions of the country’s constitution (Adesa,

2009). In this regard, “the NBC Code which represents the minimum standard of broadcasting in

Nigeria, was published to provide regulations for broadcasters and to ensure that broadcasting

played a pivotal role in the social, cultural, technological, economic, and political lives of

Nigerians” (Oturu & Takuro, 2020). Also, Ihechu and Okugo (2013 p.1) stated that the study of

broadcasting regulation “has started to creep into the edges of the media studies curriculum.”

This wind of change should be welcomed because it will aid the apprehension of the major

forces that shape the communication environment.

2.2.3. Broadcast Stations in Kaduna State

Kaduna State is one of the states in Northern Nigeria with several broadcast media stations. The

state housed the following thirty-five broadcast stations:

1. Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) Kaduna Network Center

2. Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) Zaria

3. Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) Birnin Gwari

4. Kaduna State Media Corporation (KSMC) TV, Kaduna

5. Capital TV, Kaduna

6. Liberty TV Kaduna

7. AIT TV, Kaduna

8. FRCN (Hausa), Kaduna 594MW (AM)

9. FRCN (English), Kaduna 1107MW (AM)

10. KSMC Radio, Kaduna 639MW (AM)

11. Nagarta Radio, Kaduna 747MW (AM)

12. Brilla FM (88.9)

19
13. Hyai FM (89.5)

14. KADA FM, Kaduna (89.9)

15. Rockside FM, Kafanchan (89.9)

16. Capital Sounds, Kaduna (90.9)

17. Liberty Radio (English FM), Kaduna (91.7)

18. Liberty Radio (Hausa FM), Kaduna 103.1

19. Karama FM, Kaduna 92.1

20. Vision FM, Kaduna 92.5

21. Freedom Radio FM, Kaduna 92.9

22. NUBA FM (Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic Radio) Zaria 93.1

23. FCE Zaria FM 93.7

24. Queen FM, Zaria 94.1

25. Correct FM, Kaduna 94.3

26. Supreme FM, Kaduna 96.1

27. Alheri Radio FM, Kaduna 97.7

28. Alheri Radio FM, Zaria 97.7

29. KASU FM (Kaduna State University Radio) 98.5

30. Invicta FM, Kaduna 98.9

31. Human Rights Radio, Kaduna 99.9

32. ABU Samaru FM, Zaria 101.1

33. Teachers Radio (Nigeria Institute of Teachers NTI) 102.5

34. Spider FM (Kaduna Polytechnic Radio) 102.7

35. Ray Power FM, Kaduna 106.5

20
Out of the above thirty-five broadcast stations, seven (7) are television stations out of which five

(5) are public and two (2) are privately owned, four (4) AM Radio Stations; out of which three

(3) are public stations while one (1) is private. The remaining twenty-four (24) are FM Radio

Stations out of which six (6) are Public, twelve (12) private and six (6) are campus FM stations.

However, out of these broadcast stations domiciled in various parts of Kaduna State, less than

one-third of them operate optimally and can be qualified to be tagged as a standard broadcast

organization.

2.2.4. Media Regulations in Nigeria

According to Nwodu (2006, p. 157) “Journalists, as the watchdog of the society, operate in an

organized social system that is guarded by rules and regulations as such they ought to know the

limitations, constraints and challenges facing them in the pursuit of their calling”. Sambe and

Ikoni (2004) state that the basic functions of law are to maintain tranquillity in society, to

achieve fairness, to protect individuals’ integrity and to preserve the fundamental values of

society. Some of these laws recognized by the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

include the following:

Law of Defamation: According to Apuke (2016), defamation is the transmission to a third party,

either orally or written, of information which tends to damage the reputation of another person.

Enemo (1999) pointed out that defamation can be both a civil and criminal act and it entails any

statement that tends to lower the reputation of the plaintiff in society or cause them to dishonour

him. According to Sambe and Ikoni (2004), a statement can be clarified as defamatory if it tends

to expose the individual to hatred, ridicule or contempt, causes him or her to be shunned or

avoided, lowers him or her in the estimation of right-thinking members of the society generally

and disparage him or her in his or her office, profession or trade. There are two types of

21
defamation: libel and slander. While libel is a technique of defamation in printed or written form,

slander involves words of mouth.

Law of Sedition: this law regulates the practice of mass media in Nigeria in such a way that

media stations or any practitioner has no right to publish any article or broadcast any sound that

will expose the government to ridicule or insight people against the constituted authority.

According to Ewelukwa (2004), sedition is a crime against society that is equated to treason that

embraces all practices planned to distort the tranquillity of the state-public relationship. In the

words of Nwodu (2006), while defamation is a communication that tends to instigate the public

against an individual, sedition is communication that poisons public minds against the

government. This is not unconnected with the fact that no government, including those of the

developed countries, will endure mass action against it. This is essentially why such actions are

usually treated as treasonable offences against the state.

Copyright Law: it is highly required of every broadcaster to comply with laws relating to

copyright law. According to Nwodu (2006), copyright law is the constitutional right of an

originator of a creative work to reap the benefits of his work by exercising maximum authority

over it. The law covers the originality of every work created based on the effort of an individual.

Okoye (2008) defines copyright as the right the law gives the author of an intellectual production

with the sole and exclusive privileges of reproducing and selling copies of his/her work. This is

why the NBC code (2016) stipulates that no broadcaster is allowed to broadcast or re-broadcast

any content without the permission of the original owner. This is done to curtail the excesses of

the mass media from copying someone’s work and using it as their own.

Law of Privacy: this upholds an individual’s right to keep personal information out of the public

reach and the right not to have their personal life intruded or invaded. Oyakhilomen (2009) cited

22
an example of taking a photograph of an individual reading a particular newspaper to use it as a

promotional picture for the newspaper without the consent of the person being snapped. When an

individual feels that a photograph, a video or an audio clip used without his/her consent inflicts

injuries on his/her person, such an individual may decide to file a suit against the media house or

the journalist that portrayed him/her (Adelakun, 2013).

2.2.5. National Broadcasting Commission (NBC)

The National Broadcasting Commission was established by President Ibrahim Babangida's

administration on August 24, 1992, when the Federal Military Government promulgated the

National Broadcasting Decree No. 38 of 1992 (Nweke, 2002). It is a statutory body set up by the

government to regulate broadcast industries in Nigeria and also to issue licenses for the

establishment of radio and television stations”. Though the body was originally established in

1992, it was later amended by the National Broadcasting Commission (Amendment) Decree No

38 of 1992 (now referred to as Act No. 58 of 1999) under the administration of General

Abdulsalami Abubakar (MRA, 2001). The deregulation of the industry ended over sixty years of

the monopoly of the broadcasting industry by the Federal and State Governments. It ended the

first tier of broadcasting (i.e. government monopoly) and introduced the second tier of

broadcasting; private stations eventually came into operation (Jega, 2016).

Act No. 38 section (1) of 1992 (as amended) vested on the NBC the responsibility of

advising the Federal Military Government generally on the implementation of the National Mass

Communication Policy with particular reference to broadcasting; receiving, processing and

considering applications for the ownership of radio and television stations including cable

television services direct satellite broadcast and any other medium of broadcasting. Others are

recommending applications through the Minister to the President, Commander in Chief of the

23
Armed forces for the grant of radio and television licences; regulating and controlling the

broadcast industry; undertaking research and development in the broadcast industry; receiving,

considering and investigating complaints from individuals and bodies corporate or incorporate

regarding the contents of a broadcast and the conduct of a broadcasting station.

Moreover, part of the responsibilities is upholding the principles of equity and fairness in

broadcasting; establishing and disseminating a national broadcasting code and setting standards

concerning the contents and quality of materials for broadcast; promoting Nigerian indigenous

cultures, moral and community life through broadcasting; promoting authenticated radio and

television audience measurements and penetration; initiating and harmonizing Government

policies on trans-border direct transmission and reception in Nigeria.

The NBC is also responsible for regulating ethical standards and technical excellence in

public, private and commercial broadcast stations in Nigeria; monitoring broadcasting for

harmful emission, interference and illegal broadcasting; determining and applying sanctions

including revocation of licences of defaulting stations which do not operate following the

broadcast code and in the public interest. The commission also has the responsibility of

approving the transmitter power, the location of stations, and areas of coverage as well as

regulating types of broadcast equipment to be used; and carrying out such other activities as are

necessary or expedient for the full discharge of all or any of the functions conferred under this

Decree (NBC Act of 1992). The decree also provided that the Commission shall consist of a

Chairman and nine other members as may be appointed to represent law, business, performing

arts, education, social science, media, public affairs, and the Director General of the

Commission. Currently, the commission has ten zonal offices including Abuja, Benin, Enugu,

24
Ibadan, Jos, Kaduna, Lagos, Maiduguri, Uyo and Sokoto. The commission also has seventeen

state offices for effective monitoring of the airwaves.

As much as Nigeria’s constitution guarantees freedom to own, establish and operate

media organizations in Nigeria, there need for checks to ensure that such mediums are working

in tandem with the provisions of the country’s constitution. To achieve this aim, there was the

need for a body that will regulate their operations. While this body is expected to have

controlling powers over the broadcasting media; it shall at least provide an operational code that

will prevent the abuse of the media management and audience in general. However, without a

national policy that provides clear guidelines for other operations, broadcast media organizations

may not play their proper role in the growth and development of the nation and may not stand on

their feet.

To understand this, a flashback to history will aid tremendously. Joy (2014) states that in

1989, a National Mass Communication Policy Conference was held in Badagry where the idea of

deregulation of broadcast media in Nigeria was first conceived. Most of the discussants were of

the view that if the print media can be deregulated, the same should be done to broadcast media.

However, some few others refuted the idea raising concerns that private ownership of

broadcasting could put the electronic media in the hands of selfish individuals who most likely

will use it to promote their interests to the detriment of the nation’s goals. Convinced by the idea

of privatizing the broadcast industry, the then military Head of State, General Ibrahim Badamasi

Babangida decided to allow both private and public participation in broadcasting with the

promulgation of decree No 38 of 1992 on 24th August 1992. This decree birthed the National

Broadcasting Commission. The Decree authorized the National Broadcasting Commission to

issue licenses and regulate broadcasting organizations in Nigeria. This is why every transmission

25
of sound and vision either by cable, television, radio, satellite or any medium of broadcasting

from anywhere in the country is subjected to its authority (Okunna, 2005).

2.2.6. NBC Code and Broadcast Regulation in Nigeria

According to Ezekiel, (2011), code generally refers to “a set of rules and principles about how

people or organization should behave or something must be done; for instance, the journalistic

code of ethics and NBC code.” Specifically, the term code refers to “the regulatory document of

the (National Broadcasting) Commission as may be reviewed from time to time under the

provisions of NBC Act 38 of 1992 and any amendment thereto” (NBC 2016, p. 121). Under the

responsibility of regulating and controlling the broadcast industry vested in the National

Broadcasting Commission as stipulated in the NBC Act 38 of 1992, the commission stipulated

some regulations for upholding professionalism in Nigerian Broadcasting. The procedures are

contained in the Nigeria Broadcasting Code, which was first published in 1993 and revised five

more times in 1996, 2002, 2006, 2012 and 2019 respectively.

In light of this, Olubiyi and Oriakhogba (2020) examined the impact of the Nigeran

Broadcasting Code on the broadcast industry and recommended that consultation should be made

among relevant stakeholders for review of the amended Code to align with the Copyright Act

and Nigeria’s international obligations. Ogunyombo (2016) reviewed the state of broadcasting

and broadcast policies vis-a-vis the national communication policy of Nigeria and established the

need for a significant convergence that accommodates all operators in the interest of national

integration and development. The study concluded that NBC must realign itself with the

objectives of the national communication policy, particularly its regulatory role to reflect itself as

a fair arbiter in broadcast regulations in Nigeria and contribute to a healthy society.

26
2.2.7. Overview of the Sixth Edition of the NBC Code

The sixth and current edition of the Code published in 2019 is two hundred and thirty-three

pages consisting of an introduction, fifteen chapters and a chapter dedicated to the definition of

terms.

The introductory segment of the code provides background information on the minimum

standard required for broadcasting in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. It also explains the general

principles of broadcasting, and the objectives of broadcasting including social, cultural,

economic, political, technological and professional objectives. It also highlights the relevance of

broadcast regulation, challenges to the industry, an overview of the deregulation of broadcasting

in Nigeria, the legal framework of the code, powers of the National Broadcasting Commission as

well as a declaration by the commission that it will ensure adherence to all the provisions of the

Code and any other related regulation.

Chapter One, on the other hand, dwells on broadcasting standards with sub-chapters

stipulating the procedures for upholding professionalism in the Nigerian broadcasting industry. It

stipulates the principles of the Code on approval of agreements and transactions, coverages of

crisis, disaster and emergency and station identification for broadcast media. Furthermore, the

chapter elaborates on the public’s right to complain and emphasises the necessity of having a

programme schedule, log books and continuous off-air recording of transmission. There are also

segments dedicated to the explanation of the commission’s right of entry into the premises of

every station, mode of programme presentation, issue of piracy, staff empowerment,

employment policy, human resource development, broadcast curricula in tertiary institutions as

well as laws and other professional standards governing broadcasting in Nigeria.

27
 Chapter Two of the NBC Code discusses and provides regulations on issues of licensing

and related issues. The chapter listed the three tiers of broadcasting; public, commercial, and

community broadcasting. It also mentions the types of broadcasting, the categories of broadcast

licenses, broadcast permits and directives to broadcast signal distributors. License usage, renewal

of license, consideration of an application for renewal of a license, public assessment of a

situation by the commission, amendments of a license and prohibitions related to the practice of

broadcasting in Nigeria are also highlighted.

Chapter Three of the NBC Code elaborates on the general programming standards which

include the central tenet of broadcasting which aims to ensure that content gratifies the

requirements of all audience categories. It also highlights the professional rules of broadcasting

that ultimately aim to discourage unethical conduct that may hurt or negatively affect the

audience. The chapter also stresses the need for straight dealing which challenges the

broadcasting industry to be the pivotal point and driving force in the establishment of democratic

culture in Nigeria. The need for accuracy, objectivity and fairness is also discussed in this

chapter. Others include integrity, authenticity, privacy consent, good taste and decency; morality

and social value; women, crime, law and order, violence, cruelty, pain and horror as well as a

watershed which demands the broadcaster to issue a prior warning before transmitting any

material that may not be suitable for the vulnerable. Also, the issues relating to local and

foreign content are addressed as well as user-generated content and the obligation on the

broadcaster to give a right of reply.

Chapter Four of the NBC Code dwells on programmes on a general note. Specifically, the

chapter highlights regulations governing discussion programmes, children and young person’s

28
programmes, religious programmes, instructional programming and programme

credit/attribution.

Chapter Five discusses the nature of News and Current Affairs and the general rules

governing news reportage. The chapter also touches on the etiquette of news-related interviews,

political news and current affairs broadcasts, rules governing the coverage of crises and

emergencies, live/outside broadcasts as well as how to handle unconventional reportage.

Chapter Six dwells on sports rights under which sports broadcasts were discussed.

Acquisition of sports rights and arbitration are the other sub-chapters under this.

Chapter Seven of the Code highlights the rules and regulations governing advertising. It

also highlights the need for every broadcaster to ensure that children and young persons are not

exploited in any form of advertisement. In addition to this, the chapter covers guidelines relating

to contests, medical, alcohol, religious, and political advertisements.

Chapter Eight centres on sponsorship and infomercials because broadcasting is seen as a

crucial instrument of business development. This attracts sponsors who in return want their

products or services to be advertised. In this regard, the chapter sets out rules and standards

governing the sponsorship of programmes on broadcast stations.

Chapter Nine focuses on the three recognized tiers of broadcasting; public,

private/commercial and community broadcasting. The chapter sets out rules governing the

conduct of every tier of broadcasting with a particular focus on their administration, operation,

and funding among others.

Chapter Ten highlights the rules governing network broadcasting, the character of

network broadcasting, the network broadcaster, affiliation/association, syndication and content

29
distribution. Others are the category of network broadcast services and network broadcast

programming.

Chapter Eleven of the NBC Code has to do with regulations relating to Pay Subscription

Broadcasting. It sets out guidelines requiring broadcast stations to forward decoders/set-top-

boxes to the commission to monitor all channels on its bouquet among other requirements. Other

components of the chapter include subscription services, movie rights, programme schedules,

addition of channels, removal of channels, classification symbols and consumer advice. There

are also guidelines on Direct Satellite Broadcast, the issue of parental control, the issue of trans-

border direct transmission and reception in Nigeria, submission of franchise and conditional

access as well as content programming and internet broadcasting.

Chapter Twelve of the NBC Code focuses solely on directives to broadcast signal

distributors. This is because broadcast signal distributors play significant roles in providing

services to the audience. Mostly it emphasizes the need for the Broadcast Signal Distributor to

ensure equitable and non-discriminatory provision of services among many other related

guidelines.

Chapter Thirteen sets out technical standards that conform with international standards in

the broadcasting industry by providing safety regulations which broadcasters should follow to

ensure industrial safety. The need for broadcasters to ensure radiological protection, shielding,

danger signs, interlocking and lightning protection are among the sub-chapters under this

chapter. It also touches on the issue of safety precautions and first aid kits to tackle unforeseen

circumstances. Other components of the chapter include the list of broadcasting band

designations, antenna support structure, and coverage area and field strengths of broadcast

stations in both urban and rural areas concerning AM Radio stations, FM Bands and Cable TV

30
systems. The chapter also provides regulations related to transmission standards, radiated energy,

frequency and spectrum regulations and station commissioning. The last segment of the chapter

borders on the need for broadcasters to provide adequate tools and test gear as well as

cautiousness of technical breaches.

Chapter fourteen focuses on the right of the audience to complaints about non-

compliance with the content or conduct of the broadcast or broadcaster, the Act, the Code and

any other regulation of the Commission. It explains the complaints format, limitation period for

receiving complaints, procedure of handling complaints, rights to reply and the public’s right to

complain about the broadcaster.

Chapter Fifteen dwells on the sanctioning process and procedures. It discusses the classes

A, B and C of sanction, consequences of revocation, issues related to illegal broadcasting and

penalties in respect of a breach committed by the broadcaster. The penalties are categorized into:

a. Light…. N250,000 to N500,000;

b. Heavy… N2,000,000 to N10,000,000;

c. Severe…. N20,000,000 and above.

Definition of Terms

Under this chapter, one hundred and twenty-five terms are defined. These terms were previously

mentioned in the previous chapters of the NBC Code to facilitate its easy understanding.

Appendices I, II & III

Appendix I provides supplementary information about the arrangement of sections of the

National Broadcasting Commission ACT CAP N11, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004. It

has 27 sections itemized from pages 195 to 223. Appendix II presents article 12; seasonal

planning of the HF bands allocated to the Broadcasting services between 5 900 kHz and 26 100

31
kHz while Appendix III is the last and final component of the NBC Code containing proposed

modification of recommendation ITU-R BS.450-2 stereophonic system of broadcasting.

2.2.8. Knowledge, Awareness and Practice Study in Mass Communication

The origins of Knowledge, Awareness and Practice (KAP) studies can be traced back to the mid-

20th century when researchers started recognizing the importance of understanding human

behaviour and beliefs. These studies were initially conducted in the fields of public health and

communication to examine the effectiveness of health education interventions (Ajiboye, 2017).

The concept of KAP studies evolved from earlier models such as the Knowledge, Attitudes, and

Act (KAA) model, which focused more on the behavioural aspect. However, researchers soon

realized that behaviour is influenced by not only knowledge and attitudes but also by other

factors such as societal norms, cultural values, and availability of resources.

KAP study has three basic concepts that need clarification:

1. Knowledge: Knowledge is the foundation of any study or learning process. It involves

acquiring information, facts, concepts, and theories, and understanding how they interrelate. A

knowledge-based study focuses on gathering factual and theoretical knowledge about a specific

subject or area of interest. This can be accomplished through various means such as reading

books, articles, research papers, attending lectures, participating in workshops, or enrolling in

structured courses (Ajiboye, 2017).

2. Attitude: Attitude refers to the mindset and approach of a particular individual or group of

people. It encompasses aspects such as perseverance, discipline, motivation, curiosity, and

adaptability. A growth mindset, which involves believing in the ability to learn and improve, is

32
particularly important in this context. It encourages taking risks, seeking feedback, and

embracing continuous learning (Ogunleye, 2016).

3. Practice: Practice is the practical application of acquired knowledge. It involves actively

engaging with the subject matter to gain hands-on experience and develop practical skills.

Through practice, one refines one’s abilities, enhances problem-solving capabilities, and builds

confidence. Practice can take many forms, depending on the nature of the study. Ajiboye (2017)

noted that it may involve conducting experiments, solving case studies, practising simulations,

engaging in role plays, or participating in real-life scenarios.

The synergy between knowledge, practice, and attitude is crucial for effective and

comprehensive learning. Simply knowing without practice or the right attitude may limit one’s

ability to apply what one has learned. Similarly, practice without the necessary knowledge or a

positive attitude may lead to ineffective or incomplete learning outcomes (Ogunleye, 2016).

KAP studies gained prominence in the 1960s and 1970s with the rise of development programs

and the need to assess the impact of interventions in various sectors like agriculture, education,

and social development. These studies provided valuable insights into the factors that influence

the adoption or rejection of new ideas, technologies, or practices in different communities. The

methodology of KAP studies typically involves quantitative and qualitative data collection

techniques. Surveys, interviews, focus groups, and direct observation are commonly used to

gather information from individuals or groups. Statistical analysis is then applied to interpret the

data and identify patterns, trends, and correlations (Yusuf, 2020).

Over the years, KAP studies have been widely utilized in diverse fields such as public

health, environmental sciences, social sciences, and marketing research. They have helped

33
researchers and policymakers understand the knowledge gaps, existing attitudes, and prevailing

practices related to specific issues, thereby guiding the design of targeted interventions and

campaigns. According to Onabanjo and Iwendi (2019), KAP studies are very relevant in the field

of social science research because they help in assessing the knowledge, attitudes, and practices

of individuals or communities on a particular topic or issue. They also provide valuable insights

into the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of individuals or communities, offering a foundation

for evidence-based decision-making and effective interventions in a wide range of fields.

KAP studies can be effectively applied to explore various aspects of mass

communication. Conducting KAP studies in the field of mass communication helps researchers

gain valuable insights into the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of individuals or groups

concerning media consumption, media literacy, media effects, and media preferences. One area

where KAP studies in mass communication are beneficial is in understanding the knowledge of

audiences regarding media content. Researchers examine the level of awareness and knowledge

among individuals about specific media messages or campaigns (Sambo, 2018). For example, a

KAP study can assess the knowledge of people about public service announcements related to

health issues or social causes disseminated through mass media. This knowledge assessment

helps in gauging the effectiveness of the messages and identifying areas where further

educational interventions may be needed.

Furthermore, KAP studies in mass communication can explore the attitudes of audiences

towards various media platforms, genres, or content. For instance, researchers can investigate the

attitudes and perceptions of viewers towards news media, reality television, or advertising. This

assessment provides valuable insights into how media content is perceived and received by

different segments of the population, allowing media organizations to make informed decisions
34
regarding content creation and programming. Also, studies delve into the practices of individuals

concerning mass communication. This includes media consumption patterns, media engagement,

and media preferences. Ogunleye (2016) noted that researchers examine the frequency and

duration of media usage, the types of media platforms preferred, and the motivations behind

media choices. Understanding these practices helps in identifying trends and patterns, enabling

media professionals to tailor their content or delivery strategies to meet the audience's

preferences effectively.

2.3. Review of Related Empirical Studies

Relevant empirical studies conducted by communication scholars that are directly or indirectly

related to this research are selected and reviewed according to the objectives of the study.

Some pieces of evidence of a breach of the NBC Code manifest in the findings of some

studies about the unprofessional conduct of some journalists through the collection of brown

envelopes. Okoro and Chinweobo-Onuoha (2013) examined journalists’ perception of the brown

envelope syndrome and its implication for journalism practice in Nigeria. The study found out

that greed is the major cause of the brown envelope syndrome in Nigeria noting that this brings

about the distortion of the ethical conduct of the profession where journalists involved tend to

throw the profession into the wind by downplaying important issues and prioritizing important

ones in a bid to satisfy the demand of the givers of the brown envelope. This validates the claim

the violations of the NBC Code are not a result of unawareness alone but also deliberate actions

to satisfy some needs. As relevant as this study is, however, did not examine the attitude of the

journalists towards the NBC Code. This is a gap this study attempts to fill. Also, Tsegyu and

Asemah (2014) investigated media practitioners’ adherence to the journalism code of ethics,

using Minna, Nigeria as an area of study. The study found out that media practitioners were

35
involved in several unethical practices and recommended that government, media owners and

media professional associations review upwards, the welfare package of journalists while at the

same time, striving to ensure compliance of the journalistic codes for the profession to reclaim its

credibility. The study, though very relevant to this study, is silent on the major causes of the

violation and whether or not the stations put in place mechanisms to educate the journalists about

the NBC Code. This is another research gap, this study intends to fill.

Over the years, professional journalism has attracted different debates among media

stakeholders. There is a popular assumption that many media stations in Nigeria house both

trained and untrained personnel. This brings about widespread non-adherence to the required

standards as the majority of them are not even knowledgeable of the NBC Code and Journalistic

Codes of Ethics. Alexander, Chidera and Benjamine (2019) evaluated the adherence of

journalists to the codes of journalism practice in Enugu State. The study found that the

knowledge level of journalists about the codes of the profession was not above the average of

50%. This underscores the need to find out the main reasons for this occurrence to be able to

bring about a lasting solution; a very significant gap to be filled in this study. This is because the

importance of upholding professionalism in journalism requires certain things including a

resolute commitment to truth and objectivity; preserving the privacy of sources and appropriate

attribution to sources. Yahaya, (2016) examined how Nigerian journalists carry out their duties.

The research concluded that Nigerian journalists are found wanting in one way or another

violating the journalistic code of ethics and its professional conduct. However, the study left the

gap of the major causes and the attitudes of journalists that affect their compliance which this

study intends to fill.

36
 In the wake of fake news, financial constraints and economic downturns facing the media

industry, experts have expressed fears that Nigerian journalists might not be able to fulfil their

traditional duties soon. Folarin, Adesina and Ismail (2019) reviewed the theoretical basis of

ethics in journalism against current complaints of alleged poor adherence to ethical standards by

Nigerian journalists. After examining the theoretical literature on ethics and journalism ethics

and putting the arguments in perspective, the study concluded that generally, journalists in

Nigeria are slipping below the threshold of international journalistic ethics. Though, the study

proffers solutions to current ethical problems facing Nigerian journalists based on their appraisal,

it is silent on the causes of these ethical violations and the factors that increase them.

Sanctioning defaulters of ethical and professional conduct by the NBC and other

concerned regulatory bodies will help tremendously in addressing the menace of flouting the

expected professional standards. Apuke (2017) reviewed some ethical issues in media practice in

Nigeria: character assassination, junk journalism and Aghanistanism. The study reveals among

other things that Afghanistanism is the practice of concentrating on problems in distant parts of

the world while ignoring controversial local issues; character assassination is damaging the

reputation of an individual, while junk journalism otherwise known as sensationalism is the

tendency to publish information that causes any interest or emotional reaction. Based on the

study, these ethical issues are affecting journalism practice in Nigeria. This is why this study

intends to fill the research gap by providing empirical evidence on the effective strategies to use

in mitigating the problems. This is because one of the most important things to note about

journalism is the ethics that enhance the profession and the need for any information

disseminated via any media to be ethically standard. In this regard, Gbadeyan (2021) conducted a

study on social media and journalism ethics in Nigeria taking journalists of Kwara State as a case

37
study. The study found out that a lot of conventional media stations and professional journalists

are now creating social platforms on social media for global reach many of which are in line with

the codes of ethics of journalism. However, the study found that there are numerous users of

social media platforms, that also post or disseminate information on social media and aren’t

trained in journalism practices, by implication it means that they are disseminating information

that is not ethical. The research gap identified in this study is what should be done to bring about

a solution to the increasing unethical practices.

Not only in Nigeria but also globally, the issue of compliance with the stipulated

professional codes has been a thing of concern. HooQ, YeingL and ChaiG (2010) conducted a

study and explored how Malaysian journalists with idealistic and relativistic orientations

perceive their ethical codes, the code’s usefulness and their professionalism. The study found

that Malaysian journalists, who scored higher in idealism and lower in relativism, were more

inclined to adhere to their codes of ethics compared to their counterparts, who were higher in

relativism and lower in idealism. Journalists in foreign countries battle with a lot of pressure

from political class interference that tries to interfere with the professional conduct of their

practice. For instance, Mauri-Rios, López-Meri and Perales-García (2020) conducted a study on

the Professional ethics of journalists in the face of governments and politicians: perceptions of

professionals and citizens in Spain. The study analysed the pressures being exerted or attempted

to be exerted by politics on journalism to find out how politics influence journalists and how it

limits media instruments of accountability. Despite journalists recognizing political and

government pressures, the study concluded that they do not give in or feel responsible to political

parties or governments. Moreover, in a study conducted by Villegas S, (2015), digital journalists

from Belgium, Spain and Italy argue that the ethical exercise of journalism depends on the

38
personal and professional values of journalists as well as on external factors. In this regard,

journalism practice is inclined towards the kind of working conditions as well as the

technological advancements employed in carrying out professional duties. The degree of

independent practitioners enjoys is seen as the most important factor in the professional practice

of journalism. Also, Mauri-Ríos, Marcos-García and Zuberogoitia-Espilla (2020), conducted a

study on the analysis of professional perceptions relating to the effectiveness of codes of ethics

for journalists in Spain. The study found that Spanish journalists are largely confident in the

effectiveness of ethical codes in their profession. Likewise, it was seen that variables such as age,

professional experience or the media with which they work influence the perceptions that

professionals have of such instruments. This study intends to domesticate the findings of the

study to bridge the gap.

For journalism as a profession to guarantee the citizens their right to information, it is

essential to be familiar with the tools provided by the profession itself to be accountable to the

public regarding this professional mission. In this direction, Ekeh and Adekunle (2022)

conducted a study and found out that the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) was been

able to perform its monitoring role as watchdog of the broadcast industry since its establishment

and that broadcast media journalists in Kwara and Osun states generally have high-level

awareness of the existing NBC codes of ethics. The study attributed this to sensitization being

carried out in the state by the agency to ensure that every journalist is up-to-date about the

provision of the NBC Code by making copies available. Though this goes in line with the

objectives of this study, it is silent on the strategies of broadcast media organizations

complimenting the efforts of NBC towards achieving this aim.

39
 Kurfi (2015) studied the application of the Code of Ethics among journalists in Kano

State. The study largely discussed the application of press freedom and codes of ethics as well as

their applications in journalism practice in Nigeria. The study discovered that the majority of

journalists were aware of the existence of the codes of ethics but some challenges hinder their

will to comply with the provisions of the code. It was recommended that journalists should be

socially responsible in carrying out their responsibilities despite the challenges they may

encounter. However, the study was silent on whether or not broadcast stations put in place any

mechanism to educate the journalists on the need for them to always adhere strictly to the

provisions of the code, hence the need for this research.

Going further, Akinrosaye, Idowu and Isamuko (2018) examined the perception of media

ethics among journalists and its implication on journalism practice in Oyo and Osun states. The

central aim of the research was to find out the level of journalists’ understanding of the media

code of conduct, factors responsible for the breach of the ethical code, its implication on the

practice and likely solutions to the problem. The findings of the research showed that the

respondents understand the ethical codes and apply them in their professional duties, while some

do not apply the codes faithfully. The study further pointed out that the problem with the

journalism practice in Nigeria is not strictly ethical but a combination of other problems which

ethical compliance has the potential to solve. The research recommended that press organizations

should ensure compliance with the ethical codes. Concerning this, Ekeh & Adekunle (2022) in

their study on the level of compliance to the National Broadcasting Commission’s (NBC) Code

of Ethics among broadcast stations in Kwara and Osun states, Nigeria found that there is a high

level of compliance among the practitioners to the extent that no broadcast media station in

Kwara and Osun states was reported to have been sanctioned by NBC in recent years. However,

40
the study did not examine the strategies that paved the way to this high level of compliance in

Kwara State. This study intends to fill this gap by conducting research in the context of Kaduna

State.

Oluwaseun (2020) assessed the roles of the National Broadcasting Commission in

Enforcing Media Ethics among Broadcast Journalists in Ondo State. The study investigated the

level of broadcast journalists’ awareness of the ethics of the profession as stipulated in the

broadcasting code and also considered the extent to which the National Broadcasting

Commission is enforcing adherence to these ethics as embedded in the code. The findings of the

study revealed that the majority of the respondents are aware of the existence of the ethics of the

profession as embedded in the broadcasting code. The study also found out that some broadcast

journalists are not fully adhering to the dictates of the code because the commission saddled with

the responsibility of enforcing adherence is yet to be at its best in ensuring full compliance to the

provisions of the code. The researcher further recommended that the commission should make

copies of the code available in all broadcast stations and the commission should not hesitate to

take stringent measures on any erring station without fear or favour. However, the study did not

examine whether the attitude of the journalists has anything to do with the non-compliance;

another gap this study intends to investigate.

Mohammed (2020) conducted a study on the compliance of Radio Taraba (TSBS) with

the NBC code for developmental purposes and found out that the staff of TSBS are aware of the

NBC code and comply with the NBC code in its programmes by being objective, balanced and

accurate in its reportage. Nonetheless, it was realized that TSBS more often than not prioritizes

the interest of the government particularly as it is owned, funded and administered by the state

government. This brings about some challenges militating against the much-needed compliance

41
with the NBC code as required. In this regard, the study recommended that Broadcast stations

should be allowed to operate independently without government interference to be more

dedicated to serving the interest of the general public. The study also recommended that NBC

should resolve the issue of political inference, especially in government media outfits. A gap

identified in this study is its silence on the perception or opinion of the journalists on what

caused this problem will be filled in this study.

Olajide, Talabi and Ogundeji (2012) conducted a study on the effects of Non-

Professionalism in Nigeria Journalism and found that the persistent violations of professional

conduct by broadcasters in Nigeria are because a large number of the practitioners dived into the

profession either to make ends meet, practice for political ambition or easily pick it up at the time

of employment recession in Nigeria. Consequently, the practice of journalism in Nigeria has

been hijacked by quacks and people from other professional careers to the detriment of the noble

profession. In light of this, the study raised who is a professional journalist and how non-

professionalism affects the practice of journalism in Nigeria. Results of the study showed that

Nigerian journalists are yet to attain the standard of professionalism. As true as this finding is,

the study is silent on whether the stations educate their staff on the professional standards

required of them in the cause of discharging their responsibilities which this study intends to fill.

In a study that focused on broadcast stations and the influence of politics in Nigeria,

Okoduwa (2014), noted that ownership and control of the broadcast media are essential parts of

modern broadcasting operations in Nigeria because the media is largely submerged in the

quagmire of partisan politics in their broadcasts. The study found that most owners of broadcast

media in the country are active supporters of political parties and make evident their loyalty by

throwing caution into the air and broadcasting unethical content. To further validate this position,

42
the study noted that despite the regulation and sanctions of NBC on partial political broadcasts,

many managers of some stations breach the NBC code on the instructions of some officials who

pay the fine whenever NBC penalises the station for broadcasting the unprofessional content. In

this regard, the study recommended that NBC should be allowed to appoint the managing

directors of public and privately owned stations among core professionals and sanction broadcast

stations appropriately for unethical conduct. However, the study carried out by Asodike, and

Udoh, (2014) on the effects of Private and Government Owned Broadcast Media on Nigerian

Public Opinion differed from the submissions of Okoduwa (2014). The study found out that

news and programmes from private media stations are impartial by giving room for different

views on government policies which eventually fetches public believability to the stations

broadcast. According to the study, the case is not the same in public broadcast stations as the

findings of the research revealed that the stations concentrate more on government policies with

little or no divergent opinions at all. The study, among many other things, recommended

approval of more broadcast licences to private individuals to establish more broadcast stations

across Nigeria. The research did not examine the relationship between the practitioners and the

professional conduct which is a core gap this study attempts to fill.

Barigbon (2016) conducted a comparative study of NTA and AIT with a focus on the

challenges of Public and Private Television stations in Nigeria. The study found that the two

stations have derailed from the core objectives of broadcasting largely due to ownership

influence, inadequate funding, political interferences and insufficient manpower. In light of this,

the study recommended the urgent need for sufficient funding of NTA by increasing its

allocation and ensuring additional funds to AIT by its owner as it also suggested that should

intensify efforts towards enforcing the broadcasting standards and the enforcement of

43
broadcasting code on journalists and other practitioners. This study is particularly relevant to this

research work as it provides a lot of insight into some of the causes of the violation of the NBC

code by journalists and other practitioners as well as broadcast media stations. Malam and Rabilu

(2019) analyzed the broadcast monitoring process in Nigeria by the industry regulator, the

National Broadcasting Commission (NBC). It sought to identify and highlight the gatekeeping

processes that are obtained in broadcast monitoring and regulation, similar to the news

production process. Two methods of data gathering (participant observation and questionnaire)

were used to collect data from the NBC broadcast monitoring rooms and officers. The findings

of the research showed that, though a gatekeeping process is put in place to detect breaches of

the Nigeria Broadcasting Code at State and Zonal levels, NBC seems to use its discretion in

using the stick-and-carrot approach. The study recommended that NBC should employ the idea

of self-regulation just as it is obtainable in many big liberal democracies. This study will bridge

the gap of how effective are the strategies used by the NBC and the media stations towards

achieving this aim.

Martins, Chidera and Benjamine (2019) evaluated the adherence of journalists to the

codes of journalism practice in Enugu State. The findings of the study revealed that 54.8% of the

journalists were aware of the codes of the profession. It was also revealed that the knowledge

level of journalists about the codes of the profession was not above the average of 50%. Further

findings showed that all of the Nigerian codes for professional journalism practice were adhered

to except the code for Discrimination. It further recommended that journalists should consider

discrimination (balance and fairness) as one of the key codes for the journalism profession and

adhere to it. Iredia (2017) undertook a critical examination of the provisions of the National

Broadcasting Commission Act No 38 of 1992 as amended and found certain inherent defects in

44
the enabling law for the regulation of broadcasting in the country. The study pointed out that

unless such defects are redressed where they are found to exist, accruable public interest gains

from broadcast regulation may never endure in Nigeria. By equal measure, international

broadcasting is important in projecting an image of the country to the external world. This is why

Olarinmoye, Uwom, Chioma, and Olatunbosun (2014) in their assessment of Nigerian

International Broadcasting by Nigerians in the diaspora. The study revealed that more than 50%

of Nigerians living abroad assessed the programme quality as poor especially pictures which are

adjudged as lacking professionalism. The study recommended that there should be an

improvement in the standard of professionalism of presenters to make the programmes more

appealing to the viewers as presentation is the window to the world.

Maryan (2004) in a study on Critical Appraisal of the Role of (NBC) in Controlling the

Performance of the Broadcast Industry in Nigeria, considered the level of compliance of the

various broadcast stations with the NBC code of conduct and to know if the government under

the administration of General Badamasi Babangida was justified in its decision to deregulate the

media industry. Intending to examine the level of adherence of broadcast stations to the existing

broadcasting codes, the scholar appraised the various strategies applied by NBC in keeping the

broadcast industry under constant check. Major findings of the work indicated that programs

portrayed by broadcast stations are yet to meet the demands of the populace according to the

social norms and values inherent among the audience. The study also discovered that excessive

advertisements have taken the place of important programs on the radio/television stations

among other things as against the stipulation of the National Broadcasting Commission as spelt

out in the broadcasting code. The study however did not consider the broadcast journalists’ level

of awareness of the content on the NBC code. Another gap that demands to be filled that was not

45
addressed by the researcher is the need for empirical data that will explain the causes of frequent

violations of the guidelines stipulated in the NBC code.

Joy (2014) investigated the implication of the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC)

code with a specific focus on African Independent Television Lagos using the survey as

methodology. The findings of the work concluded that the NBC code does affect the operation of

the organization under study (which is AIT Lagos) but that the 2006 NBC ban on the

organization affected the organization restructuring, retrenchment of few staff and reduction of

image. The study then recommended that NBC should make some amendments to the code and

dedicate a chapter listing and explaining where and how media organizations can also hold it

responsible. Even though the study elaborated extensively on the impacts of the NBC code on

the broadcast industry, it is limited to only one broadcast station and it did not explore whether or

not the practitioners are aware of the provisions contained therein.

Moreover, in a study conducted by Santas and Ezekiel (2014) on Media Practitioners’

Adherence to Professional Ethics in Minna, Nigeria, the researchers attributed the emergence and

establishment of various regulatory bodies to the worrisome state of media practitioners’

negative attitudes during the process of carrying out their day-to-day activities to curb or reduce

to the barest minimum the excesses of media practitioners through the introduction of various

professional code of ethics which media practitioners still do not adhere to. The findings of the

research revealed that poor remunerations, media ownership patterns, pressure and stiff

competition in the media industry, poor working conditions, and ethnic and cultural factors

among other circumstances are some of the factors that influence unethical behaviour among

journalists. The study however did not examine the shortcomings of the NBC Code in addressing

the core issue of the causes of the violation. This study provides responses to fill this gap.

46
 Olusegun and Olawale (2017) explored the influence that the workplace has on the

professional conduct of journalists. The study showed that the major cause of unethical

behaviour among journalists surpasses lack of training but includes the operational happenings in

the environment of the journalist. To restore credibility to the profession, the study

recommended that, a revisit to the existing code of conduct to explicitly state those who can

practice journalism in Nigeria is necessary; the various media professional and controlling bodies

should strive for enhanced remuneration for journalists and other media practitioners; training

institutions should intensify efforts in the teaching of ethics to form a philosophical base for the

new entrants into the profession while violation of ethics must be treated with all sense of

seriousness it deserves. A gap created by this study is that it only provided recommendations that

the journalists should be educated and sensitized but did not examine the strategies to be used.

Yusuf, Usman, and Ibrahim (2019) conducted a Comparative Study of Borno Radio

Television (BRTV) and Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) Maiduguri on compliance with the

Nigeria Broadcasting Code on Religious Programs. The study figured out that ever since the

broadcast industry was regulated in 1922 coupled with the issuance of licenses to individuals and

groups, the Nigerian broadcast industry has seen a mushrooming growth of religious

programmes on radio and television. Yusuf, Usman, et al (2019) noted that even though the

National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), stipulates that, religious programs should not exceed

10% of the total programs of a particular broadcast outlet, observations have revealed that a large

percentage of BRTV and NTA’s airtime is allocated to Islamic programs during the 29- or 30-

day fasting period. Key findings of the research revealed that the two selected stations studied

violated the provision of the code with BRTV Maiduguri allocating more airtime to the religious

programs in comparison to NTA Maiduguri. However, the study dwelt more on the compliance

47
of the practitioners of the selected broadcast stations with the NBC code on religious programs

alone neglecting other important components. This is a gap to be filled in this study.

Researchers have extensively explored the standards and practices of journalism. Many

surveys of journalists have attempted to measure ethical orientations in terms of questionable

reporting methods that might be justified by some employees while not by others (Plaisance,

Skewes & Hanitzsch, 2012). After establishing that the professional criteria of journalists were

mostly based on values learnt from their socio-cultural background, research has often focused

on investigating journalists’ roles and their degree of acceptance of the deontological codes of

their profession (Deuze, 2002; O'Sullivan and Heinonen, 2008). Aviles, Cobo and Barber (2014)

attempted to analyze how journalists from companies based in Madrid perceive the main

problems they face in their work and their views about media regulation. The research shows that

the Madrid-based professionals’ perceptions about the conflicts and the obstacles they face in

their daily work tend to be quite pessimistic. They emphasize the companies’ need to achieve

profits and the lack of ethical leadership at the management level as their main problems and

they also increasingly advocate for more external media regulation. This study intends to fill the

gap by domesticating some of the findings in Nigeria.

Mbuba (2018) examines censorship of radio and television broadcasts in Nigeria using

Anambra State as a study. The result of the study shows that the efforts of the National

Broadcasting Commission have been undone by the disorderly conduct of some of the broadcast

organizations which pay little attention to the content of the broadcasting code and feed the

public with junk information. The study recommended among others that the commission should

do more by setting up a body that would be in charge of monitoring the content of the materials

broadcast by the organizations, generating public awareness of the existence of this body that

48
would also receive complaints from the members of the public and report them directly to the

commission. The commission is also expected to review the penal aspects of the broadcasting

code to ensure that they are qualitative enough to deter recalcitrant broadcast organizations. As

relevant as the work is to this study, it, however, did not establish whether broadcast stations in

Kaduna State have a strategy(ies) for educating their staff about the Nigeria Broadcasting Code.

This is another literature gap this research work intends to fill.

In Nigeria, there are many ethical problems arising from the natural inclination to over-

simplification and falsification in journalism and those which result from submitting to various

public pressures that journalists must address themselves daily. Even though Nigerian Journalists

most often lay claim to the observance of the professional tenets of objectivity, neutrality,

impartiality, and the rest, it is however doubtful whether it could be said that Nigerian Journalists

practice and belong to a profession in the real sense of it. According to Omojuyigbe (2010), a

profession is qualified to be one only when it can be identified by the body of knowledge to be

imbibed by those who would be its members, a membership register, a code of conduct that

would find its monitors, a disciplinary body that would enforce the code.

2.4. Theoretical Review/Framework

This research is anchored on the tenets of the System Theory by Hegel Kaufmann and Duty

Theory by Immanuel Kant.

2.4.1. System Theory: Systems theory owes its origin to the works of Hegel Kaufmann in the

19th century and was more fully developed by a biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanfy in 1928. Until

that period, the scientific method had suggested that any system can be broken down into its

parts and each piece could be analyzed in its vacuum. Bertalanfy (1928) claimed that this

approach was wrong stressing that the components take on their meaning due to their place in the

49
system, definition by context concerning the rest of the system and could not be accurately

studied alone. He argued that everything is interconnected and therefore we should study

interconnectedness as a means of understanding the world. This departs from empirical

approaches that traditionally study phenomena by looking at individual components.

When applied to mass communication, the system theory seeks to understand the

interconnectedness of the communication process rather than just looking at one part, especially

in studying organizational communication. Scholars in this area are focused on studying the

interaction of people to see how they create an organization to assess their strength or otherwise

as one entity (Midgley, 2003). The power of looking at communication from a system

perspective is that every communicative act impacts the system as a whole. This is essentially

why whenever a change occurs in one part of a system, the entire system changes to a large

extent. In essence, system theory seeks to understand a more complete picture by examining

multiple layers of communication as interconnected rather than looking at isolated people or

communication acts. It does not try to predict human behaviour but rather explains it in ways that

highlight the interconnectedness of people and their communicative acts.

In relation to this study, System Theory helps to understand the complex interactions and

processes involved in mass communication. This is because it views mass communication as a

dynamic system comprising various interconnected components, including sources, messages,

channels, receivers, and feedback. Examining deeper into the System Theory, mass

communication functions as a system where each component plays a crucial role in the

transmission and reception of messages. The theory emphasizes the interdependence and

interrelationships between these components, highlighting that any change in one component can

affect the entire communication system.

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 According to McQuail, (2005), system theory can be looked at in mass communication

according to the following key tenets:

I. Input and output: The communication process is seen as a system that takes in information

(input) from various sources and delivers messages (output) to the audience. This input-

output dynamic is crucial in understanding mass communication.

II. Interdependence: The elements within the communication system, such as the media,

audience, and content, are interconnected and influence one another. Changes in one

element can have ripple effects throughout the system.

III. Feedback: Feedback loops play a vital role in the system. The audience's response to media

messages provides feedback to content producers, allowing them to evaluate the

effectiveness of their communication and make adjustments accordingly.

IV. Contextual factors: The system theory recognizes the significance of contextual factors,

such as social, cultural, and technological contexts, in shaping mass communication. These

factors influence both the production and reception of media content.

V. System equilibrium: The system theory suggests that a stable and balanced relationship

between different elements of the mass communication system is desirable. Achieving

equilibrium ensures effective communication and minimizes disruptions.

System Theory is relevant to this study in the following ways:

1. Understanding the entire communication process: The System Theory provides a holistic

approach to studying mass communication by examining the entire process from source

to receiver. Through the application of this theoretical framework, the study analyzes

how knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding the NBC Code are disseminated,

received, and interpreted among journalists in Kaduna State.

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2. Identifying key components and their interactions: The System Theory identifies distinct

components within the communication system. In the context of this study, the

components can be identified as National Broadcasting Commission (source), the NBC

Code (message), various communication channels (seminars, workshops, conferences,

meetings etc.), journalists in Kaduna State (receivers), and feedback mechanisms

(surveys, interviews). Examining these components and their interactions helps in

comprehending how knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the NBC Code are shaped and

influenced among journalists.

3. Exploring feedback loops and system dynamics: In the System Theory, feedback loops

are crucial for maintaining balance and stability within the system. Studying the feedback

received from journalists in Kaduna State regarding their knowledge, attitudes, and

practices of the NBC Code allows the study to figure out the dynamics and effectiveness

of the regulatory framework.

4. Analyzing external influences and contextual factors: The System Theory recognizes that

mass communication is influenced by social, cultural, economic, and political factors. By

applying this theoretical framework, the study identifies and analyzes external influences

shaping the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of journalists regarding the NBC Code.

This can include assessing the impact of government policies, media ownership

structures, professional codes of ethics, and societal norms in Kaduna State.

5. Identifying potential areas for improvement: The System Theory of Mass

Communication provides a framework for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the

communication system. By applying this theory, the study identifies gaps and areas for

improvement in the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of journalists regarding the NBC

52
 Code. This can inform policy recommendations, training programs, or awareness

campaigns aimed at enhancing understanding and compliance with the code.

In conclusion, the System Theory of Mass Communication offers a comprehensive

theoretical framework for understanding the complex dynamics of mass communication and its

relevance to the study of the "Knowledge, Awareness, and Practice of NBC Code among

journalists in Kaduna State." Applying this theory therefore gives room to exploring the

interconnections between various components of the communication system and provides

insights into the effectiveness of the NBC Code in shaping journalistic practices in the Kaduna

State broadcast industry. Also, the tenets of system theory are very useful in explaining the

strategies media organizations use for educating their journalists about the Nigeria Broadcasting

Code. Essentially, system theory is related to this study because its tenets offer a holistic

perspective on mass communication, emphasizing the interconnectedness of various components

and the importance of feedback and contextual understanding in the communication process.

2.4.2. Duty Theory: Duty theory by German Philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is based

on specific foundational principles and moral obligations. This is essentially why duty theory is

categorized under deontology; a term derived from the Greek word “deon” which connotes duty

or obligation. Duty theory stresses that certain rules must be followed. For example, the rule that

directs journalists to respect people’s privacy, avoid sedition, refrain from libel and uphold true

objectivity in their reportage. According to Abraham (2019), the concept of duty is seen as one

of the pillars of Kant’s theory. Kant’s exposition on duty clearly defines why ethics is

deontological. The theory is based on the fact that human beings have a unique capacity for

rationality. Kant argued that no other animal possesses such a propensity for reasoned thought

53
and action and that it is exactly this ability that requires human beings to act by laid down rules

and regulations.

When applied to mass communication, the theory revolves around four main principles:

I. Obligation to inform: The media has a responsibility to provide accurate and timely

information to the public, serving as a watchdog and informing citizens about important

events and issues.

II. Public interest: Journalists should prioritize the needs and interests of the public, rather

than pursuing their own personal interests or commercial gains. They should act as public

trustees, working for the greater good.

III. Objectivity and fairness: The media should strive for impartiality in their reporting,

presenting diverse perspectives and providing balanced coverage. They should avoid bias

and ensure fairness in their news content.

IV. Social responsibility: The media should recognize their influence and actively promote

democratic values, societal progress, and cultural development. They have a duty to

contribute to the well-being and advancement of society.

These tenets serve as a guiding framework for responsible journalism and highlight the

ethical obligations of the media in mass communication.

Essentially, Kant’s duty theory accepted the basic proposition that a set of rules

prescribing what certain individuals or groups of people are obligated to do in a particular

situation is the right approach to ethical and professional problems. Unlike other ethical theories

that mostly focus on the need to be loyal to one principle or another, duty theory is set to

emphasize the use of duties in our everyday experience. The bottom line of duty theory is that

54
 moral obligations must come not from authority or tradition not from religious commands, but

from reason (David, 2013). In his work, Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals (1959), Kant

argued that the supreme principle of morality is a principle of practical rationality that he dubbed

“Categorical Imperative” (CI). He characterized the CI as an objective rationally necessary and

unconditional principle that must be adhered to at the expense of any natural desire one may

have to the contrary. In essence, duty theory emphasizes the need to follow certain rules humans

know unconsciously and discover through reasoning. Also, it argues that whenever an action is

morally right, one is obligated to perform that action regardless of one’s private desires.

Duty Theory has a lot to do with this study because it helps evaluate the journalists’

adherence to ethical standards, their role in promoting the public interest, their sense of social

responsibility, and their contributions towards media literacy and awareness. The theory explores

the ethical responsibilities and obligations of the media towards society and emphasizes the idea

that mass communication should prioritize the public interest and serve as a watchdog in society.

According to Duty Theory, the primary role of journalists is to act as gatekeepers and provide

accurate, unbiased, and relevant information to the public, thereby fostering an informed

citizenry. This theory posits that journalists have a moral duty to gather and disseminate news

that is truthful, fair, and responsible.

The relevance of Duty Theory to the study of "Knowledge, Awareness, and Practice of

NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna State" is multi-fold:

I. Ethical Guidelines and Professionalism: Duty Theory highlights the importance of adhering

to ethical guidelines in reporting. With this theory, the journalists' knowledge of the National

Broadcasting Commission (NBC) Code, which outlines ethical standards and broadcasting

regulations, is assessed. By examining their understanding of these guidelines, the level to

55
 which journalists adhere to the principles of Duty Theory, such as truthfulness, fairness, and

accuracy in their reporting are examined.

II. Public Interest and Accountability: Duty Theory emphasizes that information dissemination

should serve the public interest. The theory creates room for the study to explore how

journalists in Kaduna State perceive their role in promoting public interest and holding those

in power accountable. By examining their attitudes towards the NBC Code, the study

evaluates the extent to which journalists prioritize the public interest and actively engage in

investigative and critical reporting.

III. Social Responsibility of the Media: Duty Theory considers the media as a social institution

with a responsibility to contribute positively to society. It can be used to investigate how

journalists in Kaduna State perceive their responsibility to inform and educate the public,

particularly regarding the content and implementation of the NBC Code. It also helps in

assessing their understanding of media's role in social development, democracy, and nation-

building, and whether they actively practice responsible journalism.

IV. Media Literacy and Awareness: Duty Theory acknowledges the importance of media literacy

among the public. It can be used to explore the journalists' understanding of media literacy

and their efforts to promote it in Kaduna State. It can assess their knowledge of the NBC

Code's provisions regarding media literacy programs and initiatives. Additionally, the study

can examine whether journalists take part in raising awareness about the code among the

public and actively engage in media education initiatives.

From the foregoing, it could be said that the epitomes of duty theory and system theory

have proved quite strong and practicable, even if their full implications are rarely understood by

journalists most especially in developing nations like Nigeria. Notwithstanding, the basic

56
principles of the theories are mostly reflected in the NBC code which is a dependent variable in

the study. In essence, Duty Theory and System Theory serve as a guide for the researcher to

explore how broadcasters in Kaduna State perceive, accept and implement the code of conduct

stipulated by NBC.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter discusses the procedure and strategies used in this study. Research design, target

population, sample and sampling techniques/procedures. Furthermore, it deals with the

instrument and method of data collection, data collection procedures, scoring procedures,

validation of the instrument, as well as methods of data analysis of the collected data.

3.2. Research Method

This study adopts a quantitative research approach to find answers to the research questions of

the study. Specifically, the quantitative survey method is used to obtain data from the population

of the study. The selection of the method is based on its usefulness in “getting information about

certain groups who are representative of some larger group of people of interest to them”

(Berger, 2000). Essentially, the survey method is used to determine the knowledge level of

people, their thinking, what they own, what they do, their planning as well as attitudes, tastes,

beliefs and values.

This study adopts a descriptive survey design as a strategy for obtaining data from the

broadcasters in Kaduna State broadcast media stations. This design is considered appropriate for

the study because it captures people’s opinions, beliefs and attitudes (Kombo, 2006). The

descriptive survey is the most frequently used to identify variables that exist in a given situation

and to describe the relationship which exists between variables (Osuala, 2005).

From the foregoing, it is deduced that the descriptive survey method is useful in

exploring the level of awareness of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code among Journalists in Kaduna

State. It is also the most suitable method of obtaining data from media houses, particularly on the
58
strategies being put in place by the broadcast stations if any and the possible challenges faced by

practitioners in the course of carrying out their various responsibilities.

3.3. Population of the Study

The population of the study is made up of journalists working with any of the licensed broadcast

stations in Kaduna State that are registered with the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ) Kaduna

Chapter. As of the year 2022, the number of registered broadcasters with the NUJ, Kaduna

Chapter stands at four hundred and twelve practitioners dispersed across broadcast houses in the

state.

3.4. Sample Size

Since it would be difficult and near impossible to study every member of the population due to

their diverse affiliations and the impossibility of reaching out to all of them at the same time, the

study used Survey-Monkey Sample Size Calculator to arrive at a representative sample of two

hundred (200) respondents drawn from the entire population. The confidence level is 95%, with

a 5% margin of error.

3.5. Sampling Technique

The study adopted two non-probability sampling techniques to arrive at a representative sample

size; quota and convenient techniques. The reason for using quota sampling is that the target

population is diverse in terms of affiliations and mode of ownership and control. For this, the

study uses the following three tiers of broadcast stations obtainable in Kaduna State:

1. The Journalists of Public Broadcast Stations (Fourteen Stations).

2. The Journalists of Private Stations (Fifteen Stations).

3. The Journalists of Community FM stations (Six Stations).

59
 The above classification is used as the first stage of the sampling to ensure that every

category of the population is represented. Specifically among the public broadcast stations,

KSMC, FRCN and NTA Kaduna were selected while Nagarta Radio, Alheri Radio and Liberty

TV were selected to represent the private broadcast stations just as ABU Samaru FM, FCE Zaria

FM represented the six community radio stations in Kaduna State. After this, the researcher

adopted a quota sampling technique to allocate a number of respondents to every category.

Since the public sector is the highest employer in the Kaduna State broadcast industry,

the journalists of the public broadcast media organizations are allocated the highest number

followed by the journalists of private stations and lastly those of campus FM stations.

Specifically, one hundred and ten (110) representing 55% of the sample size was allocated to the

public sector; sixty (60) which is 30% of the sample size to the private stations while thirty (30)

or 15% was allocated to Campus FM stations. The quota allocation is determined taking into

cognizance the fact that the data obtained from the NUJ register shows that more than half of the

practitioners in the Kaduna State broadcast industry are working with government-owned media

stations.

After this, then the researcher used the convenient sampling technique while

administering the instrument in every category to arrive at the required number of respondents

from the entire population. Specifically, the selection was made based on the availability,

accessibility and willingness of the journalists to participate. Sampling bias was avoided through

the selection of the respondents strictly by chance.

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3.6. Data Collection Instrument and Method of Data Collection

The main instrument adopted for collecting data for this study is the questionnaire. This

is because it comprises a series of questions that cover various topics of relevance to the

investigation. The· two hundred (200) questionnaires were self-administered by the researcher.

Precisely, it covered relevant demographic and background information as well as detailed data

relevant to the objectives of the study. Respondents were given a reasonable period to respond to

the questionnaire at their convenience.

3.7. Measurement of Validity and Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability of the instruments is tested through a pilot study with ten per cent of the sample

size. Specifically, twenty questionnaires were distributed to journalists in Zaria and Kaduna

metropolis and the result indicated that they are knowledgeable of the existence of the NBC

Code as a guiding document but the majority of them are out of touch with its contents. This

proved the validity and reliability of the instrument towards providing answers to the research

questions of the study. After the pilot study, significant changes and adjustments were made to

the instrument of data collection to do away with the possibility of non-representation of the

objectives of the study.

3.8. Method of Data Presentation and Analysis

Data presentation and analysis in Descriptive survey studies involved a variety of descriptive and

inferential statistics. This study used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software

to interpret and analyze the data obtained from the field. Also, frequencies and percentages tables

are used because they easily communicate the research findings to the majority of the readers

(Gay, 1992). Frequencies show the number of times a response occurred or the number of

subjects in a given category while percentages are used to compare the sub-groups that differ in

61
proportion and size. Different statistical and analytical methods were used in analyzing data

obtained from respondents. This includes tabulations, chi-square tests and simple percentages.

Also, the researcher analyzed the data obtained from the field using thematic analysis via an

inductive approach. This is because the inductive approach allows the data generated to

determine the themes.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the presentation and analysis of data collected through the use of

the questionnaire. A total of two hundred (200) copies of the questionnaire were administered to

the respondents from which one hundred and ninety-three (193) copies were retrieved. This

shows that the research recorded a 96.5% response rate. The data was analysed using the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 20th edition in which relevant contingency tables

were attached that guided the data analysis and discussion of findings from each of the research

questions. The variables in the study are all nominal hence the frequency and percentage

distribution is used to present each of the tables and discussed. Finally, data with cross-tabulation

tables are used to enhance understanding. Finally, the raw SPSS analysis tables are presented as

an appendix at the end of chapter five.

4.2. Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis

Table 4.1: Gender of the Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Male 116 60.1 60.1 60.1

Female 77 39.9 39.9 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.1 shows that the journalism profession is dominated by males in Kaduna state despite the

number of female mass communicators graduating from universities and polytechnics.

63
 Table 4.2: Age Range of the Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 20-29 42 21.8 21.8 21.8

30-39 86 44.6 44.6 66.3

40-49 53 27.5 27.5 93.8

50-60 12 6.2 6.2 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

By age distribution, table 4.2 shows that the majority of journalists in Kaduna State are young.

The data presented in the above table also shows that the elderly in Kaduna State broadcast

industry are the least in number as only twelve (12) respondents representing 6.2% are aged

between fifty and sixty (50 to 60) years. This shows that the majority of the journalists in Kaduna

State are young people whose age ranges from twenty to thirty-nine.

Table 4.3: Highest Educational Qualification

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Diploma 49 25.4 25.4 25.4

NCE 10 5.2 5.2 30.6

HND 30 15.5 15.5 46.6

BSc 66 34.2 34.2 80.3

MSc 20 10.4 10.4 90.7

Others 18 9.3 9.3 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

64
Table 4.3 shows that the majority of journalists have a BSc degree with sixty-six respondents

representing 34.2% of the population followed by those with a Diploma whose number stands at

forty-nine (49) with 25.4% just as thirty (30) out of them representing 15.5% hold HND as their

highest educational qualification.

Table 4.4: Discipline of the Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Mass Comm 134 69.4 69.4 69.4

English 29 15.1 15.1 84.5

Hausa 6 3.1 3.1 87.6

Others 24 12.4 12.4 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.4 shows that 134 respondents representing 69.4% studied Mass Communication.

This means that a large number of journalists in Kaduna state studied mass communication and

obtained the minimum requirement.

Table 4.5: Respondents’ Years of Service

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 0-5 61 31.6 31.6 31.6

6-10 75 38.9 38.9 70.5

11-20 45 23.3 23.3 93.8

21-35 12 6.2 6.2 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Presenting the years of service of the Journalists, table 4.5 shows that the majority of the

Journalists in Kaduna State have been in service for 6 to 10 years.

65
 Table 4.6: Journalists’ level of familiarity with the NBC Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Very well 79 40.9 40.9 40.9

Fairly 110 57.0 57.0 97.9

Not at all 4 2.1 2.1 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

The table 4.6 shows that most of the Journalists claimed in Kaduna State are familiar with

the Nigeria broadcasting code as a guiding principle.

Table 4.7: Journalists’ Means of Accessing the NBC Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Broadcast Station 145 75.1 75.1 75.1

Library 22 11.4 11.4 86.5

School 21 10.9 10.9 97.4

Online 5 2.6 2.6 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

The table 4.7 shows that one hundred and forty-five (145) respondents occupying an

overwhelming 75.1% get access to the NBC Code through their broadcast stations. Going by

this, most of the Journalists said they get access to a copy of the NBC code through their

Broadcast station.

66
 Table 4.8: Frequency of Journalists’ Reference to NBC Code for Compliance

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Never 4 2.1 2.1 2.1

Seldom 24 12.4 12.4 14.5

Often 109 56.5 56.5 71.0

Very often 56 29.0 29.0 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Regarding how often the journalists refer to the NBC Code to keep themselves informed

of its provisions, table 4.8 shows that a total of one hundred and nine (109) respondents with

29% refer to the NBC Code to keep themselves informed of its provisions very often, fifty-six

(56) among them 56.5% do that often, twenty-four (24) representing 12.4% seldom do that while

four (4) with 2.1% refer to the NBC Code once in a while. This indicates that the majority of the

journalists in Kaduna State said they refer to the NBC Code often to keep themselves informed

of the professional guidelines required of them.

Table 4.9: Journalist’s knowledge of the current edition of the NBC Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Fifth edition 36 18.7 18.7 18.7

Sixth edition 79 40.9 40.9 59.6

Seventh edition 24 12.4 12.4 72.0

I do not know 54 28.0 28.0 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

67
 Table 4.9 shows that only 40.9% of the respondents are aware that the sixth edition of the

NBC is the edition currently in use. This means that an overwhelming 59 per cent of the

journalists do not know the current edition of the NBC Code out of which only 27.9% were bold

enough to admit non-knowledge.

Table 4.10: The edition of the NBC Code which journalists are mostly familiar with

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Fifth edition 58 30.0 30.0 30.0

Sixth edition 87 45.1 45.1 75.1

Seventh edition 18 9.3 9.3 84.4

All of the above 5 2.6 2.6 87.0

None of the above 25 13.0 13.0 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

On the edition of the NBC Code that the journalists are familiar with, table 4.10 shows

that eighty-seven (87) respondents with 45.1% are more familiar with the sixth edition, fifty-

eight (58) with 30% indicated that they are more familiar with the fifth edition of the NBC Code

than the remaining editions, eighteen (18) with 9.3% picked sixth edition, five (5) with 2.6%

pointed out that they are familiar with all editions of the NBC Code while twenty-five (25)

respondents with 13% indicated that they are not familiar with any of the editions. Most of the

Journalists said the sixth edition of the NBC Code is the one they are familiar with.

However, the total number of those who are familiar with the sixth edition of the NBC

Code occupies only 45.1% which is less than half of the respondents. This also means that the

majority of the journalists are not in tune with the current edition of the code.

68
 Table 4.11: Frequency of educating journalists about the NBC Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Regularly 99 51.3 51.3 51.3

Occasionally 80 41.5 41.5 92.8

Almost not 11 5.7 5.7 98.5

Never 3 1.5 1.5 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

As captured in Table 4.11, ninety-nine (99) respondents with 51.3% are regularly

educated about the NBC Code in their stations while eighty (80) 41.5% are educated on an

occasional basis. This means that the majority of the Journalists said their respective stations

educate them about the NBC Code regularly.

Table 4.12: Strategies through which broadcast stations educate journalists on the NBC
Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Seminar 31 16.1 16.1 16.1

In-house training 91 47.1 47.1 63.2

Meeting 71 36.8 36.8 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

On the means through which their station educates them about the NBC Code, table 4.12

shows that a total of ninety-one (91) respondents with 47.1% get educated about the NBC Code

by their broadcast stations through in-house-training, seventy-one (71) representing 36.8%

acquire their knowledge of the NBC Code during meetings in their broadcast stations while

thirty-one (31) respondents with 16.1% get educated about the NBC Code by their broadcast

69
stations through seminars. This shows that the most frequently used means of educating

journalists about the NBC code by broadcast stations in Kaduna State is in-house training and

meetings.

Table 4.13: Journalist’s views on the level of effectiveness of the strategies used to
educate them about the NBC Code

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Highly effective 37 19.2 19.2 19.2

Effective 102 52.9 52.9 72.1

Partially effective 46 23.8 23.8 95.9

Ineffective 8 4.1 4.1 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.13 shows that one hundred and two (102) respondents with 52.9% see the

strategies used to educate them about the NBC Code as effective while forty-six (46) with 23.8%

think that the strategies are partially effective. The majority of the Journalists said the strategies

that are being used to educate them about the NBC Code are effective.

Table 4.14: Responses on National Broadcasting Commission as a regulator ensures

fairness and equity

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Strongly disagree 1 .5 .5 .5

Disagree 13 6.7 6.7 7.3

Agree 114 59.1 59.1 66.3

Strongly agree 65 33.7 33.7 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

70
 As presented in Table 4.14, one hundred and fourteen (114) respondents occupying

59.1% agree that the National Broadcasting Commission ensures fairness and equity as a

regulatory body. Most of the Journalists agree that the Nigeria Broadcasting Commission as a

regulator ensures fairness and equity.

Table 4.15: Responses on NBC Code upholds the standard for broadcasting in Nigeria as
expected

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Strongly disagree 2 1.0 1.0 1.0

Disagree 14 7.3 7.3 8.3

Agree 129 66.8 66.8 75.1

Strongly agree 48 24.9 24.9 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.15 shows that one hundred and twenty-nine (129) respondents with 66.8% agree

in a light term that NBC Code upholds the standard for broadcasting in Nigeria as expected while

forty-eight (48) among them representing 24.9% agree that in a strong term. Most of the

Journalists agree that the NBC Code upholds the standard for broadcasting in Nigeria as

expected.

71
Factor(s) that contribute to the breach of the NBC Code among journalists:

Table 4.16: Journalists are unaware of the provisions

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 118 61.1 61.1 61.1

Agree 75 38.9 38.9 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.16 shows that the majority of the Journalists are of the opinion that the journalists in

Kaduna state do not breach the provisions of the NBC Code because they are unaware of its

provisions.

Table 4.17: Carelessness by the Journalists

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 56 29.0 29.0 29.0

Agree 137 71.0 71.0 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.17 shows that the majority of the Journalists agree that carelessness is one of the factors

that contribute to the breach of the provisions of the NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna

State.

Table 4.18: Corruption and Brown Envelope

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 70 36.3 36.3 36.3

Agree 123 63.7 63.7 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

72
Table 4.18 shows that the majority of the Journalists do not believe that the journalists in Kaduna

state breach the provisions of the NBC Code because of corruption and brown envelope.

Table 4.19: Lack of orientation to the journalists

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 101 52.3 52.3 52.3

Agree 92 47.7 47.7 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.19 shows that the majority of the Journalists are of the opinion that lack of orientation is

not among the causes of breach to the provisions of the NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna

state.

Table 4.20: Shortcoming(s) of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code

Response Category Frequency

Valid Pro-Government 86

Lack of transparency 63

Biases 54

Victimization 27
The table 4.20 presents data on what the journalists in Kaduna State view as the major

shortcomings of the NBC Code. It shows that the major shortcoming identified by the journalists

is that the NBC Code is overprotective of the government. The second identifiable shortcoming

is that the NBC Code lacks transparency while biases are seen as the number three shortcoming

just as victimization is identified as the fourth.

73
Challenge(s) journalists encounter in complying with the provisions of the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code

Table 4.21: Copies of the NBC Code are unavailable

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 77 39.9 39.9 39.9

Agree 116 60.1 60.1 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Concerning whether the unavailability of copies of the NBC Code is a challenge faced by

the Journalists in complying with the Code’s provisions, table 4.21 shows that most of the

Journalists said the unavailability of copies of the NBC Code is one of the challenges

encountered in complying with the provisions of the code.

Table 4.22: Copies of the NBC Code are inaccessible

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 47 24.4 24.4 24.4

Agree 146 75.6 75.6 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

The table 4.22 presents data concerning whether the inaccessibility of copies of the NBC

Code is a challenge faced by the Journalists in complying with the Code’s provisions. It shows

that most of the Journalists are of the opinion that the inaccessibility of copies of the NBC Code

is one of the challenges encountered in complying with the provisions of the code.

74
 Table 4.23: Provisions of the NBC code are difficult to be understood

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Disagree 125 64.8 64.8 64.8

Agree 68 35.2 35.2 100.0

Total 193 100.0 100.0

Table 4.23 above presents data on whether the difficulty in understanding the provisions

of the NBC Code is a challenge faced by the Journalists in complying with the Code’s

provisions. It shows that most of the Journalists do not believe that difficulty in understanding

the provisions of the NBC Code is a challenge faced by the Journalists in complying with the

Code’s provisions

75
Cross tabulation

Correlation between gender and How effective are the strategies being used to educate you

about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to

educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially X2 X2 crit P

effective Effective effective Ineffective Total comp

Gender Male Count 29 60 23 4 116 4.84 0.184

% within Gender 25.0% 51.7% 19.8% 3.4% 100.0%

Female Count 12 37 24 4 77

% within Gender 15.6% 48.1% 31.2% 5.2% 100.0%

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within Gender 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

P > 0.05, X2 computed < X2 critical at df 1

The crosstab correlation statistics above showed that there is no significant correlation

between the gender of the respondents and views on the effectiveness of the strategies being

used to educate the journalists about the NBC code. This is because their calculated p-value of

0.184 is higher than the 0.05 alpha level. The views regarding the

How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC code is

relatively the same for both males and females. Therefore gender does not significantly

76
correlate with the effectiveness of the strategies used to educate the journalists about the NBC

code.

Correlation between Age and How effective are the strategies being used to educate

you about the NBC code.

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to educate

you about the NBC code

Highly Partially X2 comp X2 crit P

effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Age 20-29 Count 9 21 11 1 42 8.711a 16.919 0.464

% within 21.4% 50.0% 26.2% 2.4% 100.0%

Age

30-39 Count 12 48 21 5 86

% within 14.0% 55.8% 24.4% 5.8% 100.0%

Age

40-49 Count 15 23 13 2 53

% within 28.3% 43.4% 24.5% 3.8% 100.0%

Age

50-60 Count 5 5 2 0 12

% within 41.7% 41.7% 16.7% 0.0% 100.0%

Age

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

Age

P > 0.05, X2 computed < X2 critical at df 9

The crosstab correlation statistics above showed that there is no significant correlation between

the Age of the respondents and views on the effectiveness of the strategies being used to
77
educate the journalists about the NBC code. This is because their calculated p-value of 0.464 is

higher than the 0.05 alpha level. The views regarding How effective are the strategies being

used to educate you about the NBC code is relatively the same for all the age groups. Therefore

Age does not significantly correlate to how effective are the strategies being used to educate the

journalists about the NBC code in Kaduna State.

Correlation between Highest educational qualification and How effective are the strategies

being used to educate you about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to

educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially X2 comp P

effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Highest Diploma Count 12 23 11 3 49 11.672a 0.472

educational
% within Highest 24.5% 46.9% 22.4% 6.1% 100.0%
qualification
educational

qualification

NCE Count 2 3 5 1 11

% within Highest 18.2% 27.3% 45.5% 9.1% 100.0%

educational

qualification

BSc Count 15 40 23 3 81

78
 % within Highest 18.5% 49.4% 28.4% 3.7% 100.0%

educational

qualification

MSc Count 4 10 5 1 20

% within Highest 20.0% 50.0% 25.0% 5.0% 100.0%

educational

qualification

HND Count 8 21 3 0 32

% within Highest 25.0% 65.6% 9.4% 0.0% 100.0%

educational

qualification

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within Highest 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

educational

qualification

P > 0.05, X2 computed < X2 critical 21.026 at df 12

The above revealed that there is no significant correlation between the Highest

educational qualification and How effective are the strategies being used to educate the

journalists about the NBC code. This is because the calculated p-value of 0472 is above the 0.05

alpha level of significance and the computed X2 value of 11.672 is below the chi-square critical

value of 21.026 at df 12. All the educational categories have the same view concerning their

views on the effectiveness of the strategies being used to educate them about the NBC code.

79
4.3. Discussion of Findings

The discussion of the findings of this study is conducted using themes per the research

objectives.

Journalists’ level of knowledge of the NBC Code in Kaduna State

The result of this study reveals that the majority of journalists in Kaduna State are aware of the

NBC Code as a guiding principle for the professional conduct of the broadcast profession.

According to the data obtained from the field survey, table 4.6 shows that a combined 97.9%

indicated that they are very well or fairly familiar with NBC Code as a guiding principle for

journalists while only 2.07% indicated no awareness at all. This signifies that only an

insignificant few among the Kaduna State broadcasters are not aware of the NBC Code. This

finding corresponds with the findings of Oluwaseun (2020) in his study on the assessment of the

roles of the National Broadcasting Commission in Enforcing Media Ethics among Broadcast

Journalists in Ondo State who found out that the majority of the journalists in Ondo State are

aware of the existence of the ethics of the profession as embedded in the broadcasting code. It is

also in tandem with the tenets of Duty Theory that demand journalists to exhibit a high sense of

responsibility in the cause of discharging their professional obligations.

Ironically, on the other hand, table 4.9 shows that despite the claim by the majority of

journalists that they are aware of the NBC Code, only 40.9% are aware of the sixth edition of the

NBC Code as the current edition. This means that 59.1% which amounts to the majority are not

aware of this out of which only 27.9% indicated that they do not know while the remaining

31.1% went ahead to pick the wrong answers.

In addition to this, table 4.10 shows that only 45.1% of the overall population indicated

that the sixth edition of the NBC Code is the edition they are most familiar with in comparison

80
with the previous ones. According to the findings of this study, the remaining 54.9% are not

conversant with the latest edition of the document which is expected to be their guiding principle

in the discharge of their responsibilities professionally. This led to the conclusion that despite the

fact majority of the journalists in Kaduna State are aware of the NBC Code as the guiding

document for their profession; a lot of them have lost contact with the document to the extent

that they are not fully aware of its current edition. This is in line with the study of Alexander,

Chidera, and Benjamine (2019) that evaluated the adherence of journalists to the codes of

journalism practice in Enugu State and found that the knowledge level of journalists about the

codes of the profession was not above the average of 50%. This result is arrived at by taking the

core proposition of System Theory which insists on the need to examine the interconnectedness

of distinct components rather than just looking at one part. It is only through this that a

framework for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the communication system can be

examined.

The Strategies used by broadcast stations in Kaduna State in educating staff on NBC Code

Section 0.2.2.6 of the NBC Code emphasises “continuous training of the broadcaster by the

commission or its agents” (NBC Code 6th Edition 2019, pp. 16). Alternatively, broadcast

stations are mandated to ensure “that their staffs are trained quarterly on the Nigeria

Broadcasting Code” (NBC Code 6th Edition Draft 2016, pp. 12). In pursuance of this

professional objective, the research identified three (3) major means through which broadcast

stations educate journalists about the provisions of the NBC Code; Seminars, In-House Training

and Meetings.

According to the data presented in table 4.12, the most frequently used means of

educating journalists about the NBC code by broadcast stations in Kaduna State is in-house

81
training 47.1% followed by meetings at 36.8% and seminars which is the least frequently used

means of 16.1%. In all, it can be concluded that broadcast stations in Kaduna State put

mechanisms to educate their staff about the NBC Code.

Another look at the findings of this study reveals that 75.1% of the journalists in Kaduna

State get access to the NBC Code in their broadcast stations while the remaining 24.9% come

across its copies either in libraries, in schools or Internet as presented in table 4.8. This finding

differs from that of Mbuba (2018) who found that broadcast stations in Anambra State

undermine the efforts of NBC by paying little attention to the NBC Code.

Effectiveness of the strategies used by broadcast stations in Kaduna State in educating staff

on the NBC Code

The findings of this study as captured in Table 4.11 about the frequency rate at which the

journalists are being educated on NBC Code show that 51.3% and 41.5% are educated on a

regular and occasional basis respectively. This means that broadcast stations in Kaduna State

educate their staff on the provisions of the NBC Code as expected with a combined 92.8%.

Perhaps, this is why the majority of the journalists described the means through which

they are being educated about the NBC Code as effective. Table 4.13 shows that 52.9% view the

strategies (i.e. seminar, in-house training and meeting) as effective, 23.8% see them as partially

effective and 19.2% tag them as highly effective. According to this data, journalists in Kaduna

State are convinced 95.9% that the strategies being used by their respective broadcast stations are

effective despite the variance in the level of agreement.

This finding validated the proposition of the System Theory of using a holistic approach

and examining the entire process while studying any mass communication process from source

to receiver. It also shows that the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of journalists regarding the

82
NBC Code are greatly influenced by the broadcast media stations with which the journalists

work.

The attitudes of journalists in Kaduna State towards the Nigeria Broadcasting Code

According to NBC (2016), the Nigerian broadcasting industry is expected to match the best in

the profession worldwide and at the same time represent the diverse culture of the country by

projecting the best and discouraging the worst in our communities. In essence, the NBC Code is

put together to ensure that professionalism is upheld in the highest order but the attitude of the

practitioners remains cardinal to achieving this revered goal.

Table 4.14 shows that the majority of the journalists in Kaduna State agree that the

National Broadcasting Commission is a fair regulator that is set to uphold professionalism in the

best possible way. A combined 92.8% agree that the National Broadcasting Commission ensures

fairness and equity as a regulatory body. Perhaps, this is why a combined 91.7% as presented in

Table 4.15 believed that NBC Code as a document is living up to expectations by upholding

broadcasting standards in Nigeria. This corresponded with the study conducted by Ekeh and

Adekunle (2022) on the Perception of Journalists on NBC Code Compliance among Broadcast

Media Organizations in Kwara and Osun States, Nigeria in which they found out that the agency

has been able to carry out its duty monitoring and supervision of the broadcast industry since its

establishment.

Another look at the result of this study also revealed that the journalists in Kaduna State

try to maintain a close reference with the NBC Code. Table 4.8 shows that 56.5% of the

journalists keep themselves informed of its provisions often, 29% do that very often, and 12.4%

rarely do that while 2.1% refer to the NBC Code once in a while. This further revealed that the

83
attitude of Kaduna State journalists towards the NBC Code is positive as a combined 85.5%

maintain a no-distant relationship with the document.

Despite this, the journalists in Kaduna State are of the view that the NBC Code as a

product of human effort is not without shortcomings and defects. The major shortcoming of the

NBC Code identified by the journalists as presented in Table 4.20 is that it is seen as

overprotective of the government. This means that they see the NBC Code and by extension the

National Broadcasting Commission as a witch-hunt mechanism of the government especially the

opposition station. Other identifiable shortcomings include a lack of transparency, biases and

victimization of the journalists and their broadcast stations by extension. To some extent, this is

in tune with the finding of a study conducted by Oluwaseun (2020) who figured out that the

majority of the journalists believe that the National Broadcasting Commission is yet to be at its

best in improving the performance of broadcasters in the industry.

Causes of Breach of the NBC Code among Journalists in Kaduna State

According to the data presented in Tables 4.17 and 4.18, carelessness by the journalists as well

as corruption and brown envelope are the major factors causing the breach of the NBC Code

among journalists in Kaduna State. By implication, this signifies that the majority of the

incidences of the breach that occurred from the journalists emanate from the nonchalant attitude

of the journalists and to a large extent their respective media stations. Some journalists are so

careless that they hardly refer to the NBC Code to serve as a guide for them in the conduct of

their social responsibilities. Sometimes this happens because the journalists want to break the

news or attract listenership or viewership to their stations. Brown envelope syndrome fueled by

some broadcast stations' non-adherence to the NBC guideline of ensuring appropriate

84
remuneration for staff by some media stations contributes significantly to the increase in breach

of the NBC Code provisions.

This is in line with the findings of the study conducted by Kurfi (2015) on the application

of the Code of Ethics among journalists in Kano State. The study found that even though the

majority of journalists were aware of the existence of the codes of ethics, some challenges

hindered their will to comply with the provisions of the code. It is also in line with the study of

Okoro and Chinweobo-Onuoha (2013) who found that brown envelope syndrome brings about

the distortion of the ethical conduct of the profession as journalists involved tend to compromise

the professional requirements in a bid to satisfy the demand of the givers of the brown envelope.

Moreover, the result of this study as presented in Table 4.21 reveals that the

unavailability of copies of the NBC Code is seen by many as the major challenge which

journalists encounter in complying with the provisions of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code with a

60.1% agreement level. This means that the hard copy of the document which is supposed to be

the guiding principle for the journalists is usually beyond their reach. Contrary to this, Ekeh and

Adekunle (2022) in their study maintained that the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC)

lived up to the expectations of its monitoring role as watchdog of the broadcast industry since its

establishment and that broadcast media journalists in Kwara and Osun states generally have

high-level awareness of the existing NBC codes of ethics. The study did not figure out any

challenge and attributed this to sensitization being carried out in the state by the agency to ensure

that every journalist is up-to-date about the provision of the NBC Code by making copies

available. The difficulty of understanding is also seen by some as another challenge that hinders

the journalists’ compliance with the provisions of the code as 64.8% of the journalists are of this

view as presented in Table 4.23. Another challenge that hinders noncompliance with the NBC

85
Code as identified by 75.6% of the journalists is the inaccessibility of the few available copies by

the journalists (see table 4.22). This means that apart from the fact that the copies of NBC Code

are limited in stock and availability, getting access to them also becomes difficult for some

journalists and as a consequence poses a serious challenge when it comes to compliance with its

provisions since only a few catch a glimpse of it in many instances.

This finding also reechoed the need for a relook at the tenets of Duty Theory that

emphasizes the need for Media Literacy and Awareness. Duty theory acknowledges that the best

way through which journalists could be socially responsible is by being conscious of ethical

guidelines that ensure professionalism. This can only be done if the broadcast media stations and

the National Broadcasting Commission re-strategize towards addressing the challenges that

hinder the journalists’ compliance with the provisions of the NBC Code.

86
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Introduction

This chapter deals with the summary of the research problem, related previous studies, findings

of this study, conclusion and recommendations that will help in upholding professionalism in the

broadcasting industry and reduce wrong conduct by some journalists.

5.2. Summary

Broadcasting as a universal medium plays a very vital role in shaping societies and communities

worldwide. This is evident in the fact that people revere it and accord its content a high degree of

premium to such an extent that exerts a lot of influence on its immediate society. This is why the

issue of professionalism becomes imperative due to the sensitivity of the medium in terms of eliciting

emotional feelings from the members of the public. The deregulation of Nigeria’s broadcast industry

in 1992 brought about the advent of broadcast media stations across several nooks and crannies of the

country with the privately owned stations outnumbering the public controlled. This necessitated the

establishment of the National Broadcasting Commission, NBC, to checkmate the activities of the

broadcast media stations across the country and ensure conformity with the global best practices in

the profession.

However, scholars, over the years, observed that some of the Nigerian Broadcast stations throw

caution into the air and flout the rules enshrined in the NBC Code that are meant to serve as a guide

for them towards achieving the general public good (Gbadeyan, 2021). This problem brings about the

distortion of the professional standards of broadcasting thereby creating bottlenecks in the industry.

In this regard, it becomes pertinent to find out the knowledge, attitude and practice of the NBC Code

among the practitioners to establish whether or not they are aware of the NBC Code which is the

87
most important precursor to their compliance with its provisions. This is the foundation on which this

research work is based, with a specific focus on Kaduna State.

Among many other findings, this study figured out that the majority of journalists in Kaduna

State are aware of the NBC Code as a guiding principle for the professional conduct of the broadcast

profession but they are not compellingly conversant with the content of the document which is the

most important aspect. This problem is more prevalent among the journalists working in the private

broadcast stations of Kaduna State apart from the fact that the private broadcast stations employ the

highest number of untrained journalists in the state. Another major finding of this research is that

broadcast stations in Kaduna state educate their staff on the provisions of the NBC Code using three

(3) major strategies; In-House Training, Seminars and Meetings. On the other hand, the study found

out that the strategies are not as effective as expected despite the claim of many journalists of its

effectiveness because more than half of them do not even know that the latest edition of the NBC

Code is the sixth edition not to talk of its content.

The study also established that the attitude of Kaduna State journalists towards the NBC Code is

a positive one as a larger majority among them agreed that the National Broadcasting Commission is

a fair regulator that is set to uphold professionalism in the best possible way. They also see the NBC

Code as a document that facilitates professionalism and helps uphold broadcasting standards in

Nigeria. Despite this, the journalists in Kaduna State identified four (4) major shortcomings of the

NBC Code as being overprotective of government, lack of transparency, bias and victimization of the

journalists. The major factors that make journalists in Kaduna State breach the provisions of the NBC

Code identified by this study are lack of orientation for the journalists on the document, inadequate

knowledge about the content of the document, brown envelope syndrome and carelessness. Also, the

study identified unavailability of the copies of the NBC Code as the major challenges that hinder

88
 journalists’ compliance with the provisions of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code because the copies are

very few and usually beyond the reach of the junior staff. The difficulty of understanding and

inaccessibility of the document are also identified as challenges journalists encounter which fuels

noncompliance with the NBC Code.

5.3. Conclusion

The findings of this study have shown that knowledge of NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna

State, though prevalent, is still at the surface level and this has a lot to do with the non-availability of

copies of the document within the reach of the practitioners. No matter the number of staff in a

particular broadcast station, the available copy of the NBC Code hardly exceeds one which more often

than not is in the custody of a top management officer of the broadcast station. Notwithstanding,

broadcast stations deploy strategies to educate their staff on the provisions of the NBC Code to ensure

that they are carrying out their duties in a professional manner. However, the strategies and the

frequency of deploying them seem inadequate as a lot of journalists seem to be in severed connections

from the content of the document that is expected to serve as their guide.

Despite this, the National Broadcasting Commission NBC, is still held in high esteem by the

journalists in Kaduna State as they posited that the agency is living up to the expectations in the

discharge of its statutory responsibility of enforcing and upholding the broadcast industry of the

country.

89
5.4. Contributions to Knowledge

The study contributes to knowledge in the following ways:

1. The outcome of the study reveals that the majority of journalists in Kaduna State are aware of

the NBC Code as the guiding principle for the broadcast profession but not in full knowledge

of the guidelines contained therein.

2. The study also establishes that broadcast stations in Kaduna State have strategies for

educating their staff about the NBC Code and according to the journalists, the strategies are

effective.

3. The study provides insight into the attitude of journalists towards the NBC Code and the

identified operational defects that need to be looked at and addressed. These include the need

for the NBC as a commission to reduce the overprotective tendencies towards government and

improve in the aspect of transparency and equity.

4. The study also identified corruption, carelessness and negligence as the major factors that

cause the increase in the breach of the NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna State.

5.5. Recommendations

Going by the findings of this research, the following recommendations are made:

1. NBC should make sure that broadcast journalists in Kaduna State become optimally aware of

the NBC Code, adhere to its provisions and be in close contact with the guidelines contained

therein especially when filing their stories.

2. The broadcast stations and the NBC should ensure regular training and retraining of

journalists on the NBC Code especially the aspects that have to do with their journalistic

work.

90
3. NBC should consider increasing the number of copies of the NBC Code being given to

broadcast media stations and monitoring to ensure that the document is made available to the

journalists.

4. NBC should continue to ensure fairness and equity while acting as a regulator to consolidate

the already existing respect and reverence journalists accord it as a commission and the NBC

Code as a guiding document.

5. NBC should step up and come up with measures that will tackle the increasing cases of NBC

Code violations among journalists in Kaduna State and their media stations.

5.6. Limitations of the Study

The major limitation of this study is the lack of a comprehensive umbrella that puts the

journalists in Kaduna State under its shed except the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ). This

becomes a challenge because not all practising broadcasters in the state are registered with the

NUJ as such they could not be captured in the union’s register. This, therefore, poses a serious

limitation to the research work that necessitates the study to neglect any other journalists not

under the umbrella of NUJ Kaduna even though; they fall under the population of the research.

Another major limitation is the lack of clear demarcation between the staff of the News

and Programmes Department (which is the main target of this research) and those of other

departments. This is most evident in privately owned broadcast stations where few people

operate the whole media house working virtually under every department. Also, in some public

broadcast stations like KSMC that have a television channel (KSMC TV), one A.M. channel

(KSMC Radio), one Hausa FM channel (Kada F.M.), one English F.M. channel (Capital Sounds)

and two F.M. outside stations (Queen F.M. in Zaria and Rockside F.M. in Kafanchan), there is

no staff official dispatching of staff to a specific channel like it is obtainable in Federal Radio

91
Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN). For this reason, the register of the Nigeria Union of Journalists

(NUJ) containing the names of registered broadcasters is used without looking at the stations the

practitioners come from.

92
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Yusuf, M. F. (2020). Assessing the Knowledge and Practices of Nigerian Press Photographers in
Conflict Reporting. International Journal of Mass Communication and Media Research,
7(2), 101-113.

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 APPENDIX I

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA

QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear sir/madam

REQUEST FOR COMPLETION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a student of the Department of Mass Communication, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. I am

presently conducting a research on the awareness of the NBC Code among journalists in Kaduna
state in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of Science (MSc) Degree
in Mass Communication.

I humbly request your assistance to aid this project by answering the questions contained herein
honestly. Your response will be used for academic purpose only and will be treated
confidentially.

Thanks

SECTION A (DEMOGRAPHY OF RESPONDENT)

(Please tick where appropriate)

1. Gender:
(a) Male (b) Female
2. Age
(a) 20-29 (b) 30-39 ) (c) 40-49 ( ) (d) 50-60 )
3. Highest Educational Qualification
(a) Diploma NCE HND BSc MSc

102
4. Discipline
(b) Mass Comm. (b) English (c) Hausa (d) Others, specify: ___________
5. Type of Broadcast Station
(a) Public ( ) (b) Private ( ) (c) Campus FM ( ) (d) Others ( )
6. Years of Service
(a) 0-5 ( ) (b) 6-10 ( ) (c) 11-20 ) (d) 21-35 )

7. How familiar are you with the Nigeria Broadcasting Code?

(a) Very Well (b) Fairly (c) Not At all

8. How do you get access to the copy of the NBC Code?

(a) Broadcast Station (b) Library (c) School (d) Others, Specify: ______
9. How often do you refer to NBC Code to keep yourself informed of its provisions?
(a) Very Often (b) Often (c) Seldom (d) Never
10. Which edition of the NBC Code is the latest and currently in use?
(a) Fifth Edition (b) Sixth Edition (c) Seventh Edition
(d) I do not Know
11. Which edition of the NBC Code are you familiar with?
(a) Fifth Edition (b) Sixth Edition (c) Seventh Edition
(d) All of the above (e) None of the above (f) Others, specify ____________
12. How often does your station educate you about the NBC Code?
(a) Regularly (b) Occasionally (c) Almost not (d) Never
13. Through which means does your station educate you about the NBC Code?
(a) Seminar (b) In-House Training (c)Meeting (d) Others; Specify:
_____________________________________________________________________
14. How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC Code?
(a) Highly Effective (b) Effective (c) Partially Effective (d) Ineffective
15. Nigeria Broadcasting Commission as a regulator ensures fairness and equity.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Disagree (d) Strongly Disagree
16. NBC Code upholds the standard for broadcasting in Nigeria as expected.
(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree (c) Disagree (d) Strongly Disagree

103
17. What in your opinion make journalists in Kaduna State breach the provisions of Nigeria
Broadcasting Code?
(a) Journalists are unaware of the provisions (b) Carelessness by the journalists
(c) Corruption & Brown Envelope (d) Lack of Orientation to the journalists
(f) Others: Specify: _____________________________________________________
18. What do you see as shortcoming(s) of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code? You can select
more than one option.
(a) NBC Code is partial (b) NBC Code lacks transparency
(c) NBC Code victimizes journalists (d) NBC Code is over-protective of government
(f) Others: Specify: _____________________________________________________
19. What challenge(s) do you encounter in complying with the provisions of the Nigeria
Broadcasting Code? You can select more than one option.
(a) Copies of the NBC Code are unavailable (b) Copies of the NBC Code are
inaccessible (c) Provisions of the NBC Code are difficult to be understood
(d) Others: Specify:_____________________________________________________

104
 APPENDIX II

Crosstabs correlations

Gender * How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to

educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially

effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Gender Male Count 29 60 23 4 116

% within 25.0% 51.7% 19.8% 3.4% 100.0%

Gender

Female Count 12 37 24 4 77

% within 15.6% 48.1% 31.2% 5.2% 100.0%

Gender

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

Gender

105
 Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic

Significance

Value Df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 4.840a 3 .184

Likelihood Ratio 4.858 3 .183

Linear-by-Linear 4.447 1 .035

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 2 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum

expected count is 3.19.

106
Age * How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to educate

you about the NBC code

Highly Partially
effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Age 20-29 Count 9 21 11 1 42

% within 21.4% 50.0% 26.2% 2.4% 100.0%

Age

30-39 Count 12 48 21 5 86

% within 14.0% 55.8% 24.4% 5.8% 100.0%

Age

40-49 Count 15 23 13 2 53

% within 28.3% 43.4% 24.5% 3.8% 100.0%

Age

50-60 Count 5 5 2 0 12

% within 41.7% 41.7% 16.7% 0.0% 100.0%

Age

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

Age

107
 Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic

Significance

Value Df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 8.711a 9 .464

Likelihood Ratio 8.914 9 .445

Linear-by-Linear 1.719 1 .190

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 6 cells (37.5%) have an expected count of less than 5. The

minimum expected count is .50.

108
Highest educational qualification * How effective are the strategies being used to educate

you about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being

used to educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially

effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Highest Diploma Count 12 23 11 3 49

educational
% within 24.5% 46.9% 22.4% 6.1% 100.0%
qualification
Highest

educational

qualification

NCE Count 2 5 2 1 10

% within 20.0% 50.0% 20.0% 10.0% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

109
BSc Count 11 32 20 3 66

% within 16.7% 48.5% 30.3% 4.5% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

MSc Count 4 10 5 1 20

% within 20.0% 50.0% 25.0% 5.0% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

HND Count 7 20 3 0 30

% within 23.3% 66.7% 10.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

110
 Others Count 3 10 4 1 18

% within 16.8% 55.5% 22.2% 5.5% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

Highest

educational

qualification

Chi-Square Tests

Value Df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 11.672a 12 .472

Likelihood Ratio 13.337 12 .345

Linear-by-Linear 1.704 1 .192

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 9 cells (45.0%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is .46.

111
Discipline * How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used to

educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially
effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Discipline Mass Count 25 75 27 7 134

Comm
% within 18.6% 56.1% 20.1% 5.2% 100.0%
Discipline

English Count 5 12 11 1 29

% within 17.2% 41.4% 38.0% 3.4% 100.0%

Discipline

Hausa Count 2 3 1 0 6

% within 33.3% 50.0% 16.7% 0.0% 100.0%

Discipline

Others Count 8 9 7 0 24

% within 33.3% 37.5% 29.2% 0.0% 100.0%

Discipline

Total Count 40 99 46 8 193

% within 25.6% 46.2% 26.1% 2.1% 100.0%

Discipline

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 Chi-Square Tests

Value Df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 11.010a 9 .275

Likelihood Ratio 11.587 9 .238

Linear-by-Linear .476 1 .490

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 7 cells (43.8%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is .46.

113
Types of broadcast station * How effective are the strategies being used to educate you

about the NBC code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being

used to educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially
effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Types of Public Count 24 53 26 5 108

broadcast
% within Types 22.2% 49.1% 24.1% 4.6% 100.0%
station
of broadcast
station

Private Count 12 30 16 0 58

% within Types 20.7% 51.7% 27.6% 0.0% 100.0%

of broadcast
station

Campus Count 4 14 6 3 27
FM
% within Types 14.8% 51.8% 22.2% 11.2% 100.0%
of broadcast
station

Total Count 40 97 48 8 193

% within Types 19.2% 50.9% 24.6% 5.3% 100.0%

of broadcast
station

114
 Chi-Square Tests

Value Df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 5.929a 9 .747

Likelihood Ratio 8.312 9 .503

Linear-by-Linear .031 1 .861

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 7 cells (43.8%) have an expected count of less than 5. The minimum expected count is .08.

115
Years of service * How effective are the strategies being used to educate you about the NBC

code

Crosstab

How effective are the strategies being used

to educate you about the NBC code

Highly Partially
effective Effective effective Ineffective Total

Years of 0-5 Count 11 29 20 1 61

service
% within Years of service 18.0% 47.5% 32.8% 1.6% 100.0%

6-10 Count 15 41 16 3 75

% within Years of service 20.0% 54.7% 21.3% 4.0% 100.0%

11-20 Count 11 22 9 3 45

% within Years of service 24.4% 48.9% 20.0% 6.7% 100.0%

21-35 Count 4 5 2 1 12

% within Years of service 33.3% 41.7% 16.7% 8.3% 100.0%

Total Count 41 97 47 8 193

% within Years of service 21.2% 50.3% 24.4% 4.1% 100.0%

116
 Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance
Value Df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 6.796a 9 .658

Likelihood Ratio 6.633 9 .675

Linear-by-Linear .666 1 .415

Association

N of Valid Cases 193

a. 6 cells (37.5%) have an expected count of less than 5. The

minimum expected count is .50.

117