BASICS OF PIPING AND PLOTTING

1. DIMENSIONING FROM REFERENCE POINT

Horizontal Reference

Defining a starting point of the site related to the North / South direction, is one of the first steps in
setting up a coordination system.

In principle, with a simple reliable compass the direction of the magnetic north can to be determined.
In the image below the true north is at 18°. As a draftsman would work with the true north coordinates,
he will immediately find out that each line from west to east and from north to south at an angle of 18°
must be drawn.

To avoid this, a Plant North will be determined. In the example below, the true north, 18° is reversed,
draftsmen and construction contractors will be grateful for it.
General there will be tried, to approach the true north-south coordinates as close as possible.

A rule is that the angle between true north and Plant North cannot exceed 45°. At 50°, for example,
the Plant North would be on the right side, so on the Eastern side of the image.

1 = Official reference point

2 = South West angle of new plant
X = East West distance from new plant to reference point
Y = North South distance from new plant to reference point

Vertical Reference

Before starting with any building, the site is levelled (graded), what means that the ground is made as
flat as practically possible. After levelling, we are talking about "finished grade", where the highest
graded point is termed "high point of finished grade".

This highest point of finished grade refers to an official reference point on which all vertical
measurements are related. In the Netherlands, for example, many vertical measurement are in
relation to the "Normal Amsterdam’s Peil" (NAP). If the field compared to the NAP is 1 meter higher,
usually the reference point will not become a zero start of 1000 mm, but in this case a zero start at
zero (0).

On an isometric view of a pipe line elevations are indicated by EL.109665 or EL.99450 etc.
What is meant by these vertical dimensions?

 The first EL.109665 you can read as. centreline of pipe is 9665 mm above zero point
 The second EL.99450 you can read as. centreline of pipe is 550 mm below zero point

Well, the vertical zero point in this case is 100 meters (100000 mm), and this has the advantage that
no negative (minus) values on drawings need to be applied.
 Centre-Line and Elevation symbol

I have learned to apply an Elevation symbol and a Centre-Line symbol to an isometric.

Namely, the Centre-Line symbol at the end of the centreline, and ‘ON’ that line the Elevation symbol,
followed by the elevation-numbers.

The sign on the left shows the centreline symbol.

Tip for AutoCAD users. use the CDT font, lower case Q.

The sign on the left shows the Elevation symbol.

That sign, you will see on almost every isometric.

A combination of both signs, you see rarely nowadays on an isometric. Usually only the Elevation
symbol is applied. Why? There are many reasons to make no old-fashioned isometrics.
Large-engineering companies can tell you why!

2. PLOT PLAN
A Plot Plan is a scale drawing that gives an overview (top view) of the entire plant. All roads,
buildings, units, tank farms, employee entrance etc. will be given on a Plot Plan. It also listed the true
north and Plant north, port address, sometimes prevailing winds, reference point(s), horizontal
references etc.

You will understand that a whole process plant usually cannot be given on a readable drawing.
Therefore, a distinction is made between a Overall Plot Plan and a Detailed Plot Plan.

Overall Plot Plan

An Overall Plot Plan, sometimes this plan called a Site Plan or a Site Master Plan, you can compare
with a city road map. Important buildings, parks and street names are given, but not the house
numbers or the number of rooms in a building.

With the drawing in your hands, you should find a certain process tank farm and a specific tank, but
not a pump or a plate cooler, or heights of buildings, tanks and so on. That kind of equipment and
dimensions are not shown on an Overall Plot Plan.
IMAGINARY OVERALL PLOT PLAN
Right down on the drawing you can see the starting point of this imaginary Overall Plot Plan.
North starting with N - 000.000 coordinate and East with E - 400.000 coordinate.
Both related to an officially recognized reference point, but in practice, the east coordinates refer often
to another reference object, and do not start with the coordinates E - 000.000.

Right on the top under "Notes" you can see the plant north coordinates and (important!) starting
reference elevation of this plant is EL.100000. (See Reference points)

There are no pipe-bridges, pipelines, pumps or other equipment shown on that drawing, but the plan
gives a good impression of a overall process plant.

Detailed Plot Plan

In contrast with a Overall Plot Plan, a Detailed Plot Plan gives a overview (top view) of a part of a
process plant. Generally it shows a part of a certain area, floor or unit.
As you might have seen on the overall Plot Plan, the process building is largely equipped with a roof,
and only some equipment parts are visible from above.

TOP VIEW 4th FLOOR DETAILED PLOT PLAN at EL.129200

The plan shows the whole 4th floor on a elevation of EL.129200. These elevations are related to the
upper part, Top of Concrete (T.O.C.) of the 4th floor of the FM-AREA, and indicate an elevation of
29200 millimetres from the starting point (EL.100000) of the process plant. Furthermore, it shows
some equipment, a large pipeline and some smaller, a staircase and the columns of the steel
structure of the building.

Watch out, that all East and North dimensions, starting at the canter lines of the columns.

A major advantage of a proper detailed Plot Plan is that you can determine from your office, or a new
piece of equipment in a certain area, floor or unit, can be placed. That however only applies to the
horizontal dimensions, because you cannot see possibly obstructions in the vertical level.

What you also cannot see on a Plot Plan, are the elevations of the equipment. That means that you
do not know, or a device on the 4th floor or may be already on the third floor begins...for this reason,
Equipment Arrangements have been considered.

What is an Equipment Arrangement?

Equipment Arrangements are drawings, which show the top and side-view of a part of a process
plant. The top-view is similar to a detailed Plot Plan, except that only equipment is shown.

Both equipment arrangements show the equipment in a particular area, and sometimes a few details
around a specific device. With a drawing of a site-view you can see the elevations of a certain device,
and if the device is going through one, or more floors.
TOP VIEW 4th FLOOR EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT at EL.129200
LOOKING SOUTH 3th and 4th FLOOR
EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT at EL.121900 and EL.129200

Summary

Plot Plans and equipment arrangements are resource(s) to help determine relative and specific
positioning of equipment on a process plant, related to the plant north that on the drawings must be
shown.

Both help the development of support facilities and are used to determine the most cost-effective
construction sequence and methods. They are also used for operational needs, such as training and
emergency access, and are essential for obtaining permits and determining environmental and
personnel safety. They are the main documents used in assessing fire protection and if necessary, to
obtain government permits.

Plot Plans and equipment arrangements are dynamic documents and evolve further during the
construction phase and the lifetime of a process plant.
3. Piping Arrangement

Views in Piping Drawings

There are two types of views in hand-drawn piping drawings.

 Orthographic - Plans and Elevations

 Pictorial - Isometric Views

Orthographic drawings are views (front, side, top etc.) of a piping system, and in Piping they are
called "Piping Arrangements".
An orthographic view shows only one side, and therefore multiple drawings (views) are necessary to
show a complete Piping Arrangement.
In complex systems, where orthographic views do not illustrate the details of the design, pictorial view
in isometric presentation is made for clarity.

Priorities on a Piping Arrangement

Process equipment and piping have priority on the Piping Arrangement. The major primary beams
and secondary beams are also shown, even as Utility stations so that the most efficient route for
utilities can be determined.

Order of importance of pipe lines in a Piping Arrangement.

 Alloy steel and other special materials
 Large bore piping
 High temperature/high pressure piping
 Lined piping
 Carbon Steel Process Piping
 Utility piping

Further (if possible) all equipment, instrument connections, with the tag numbers will be shown on a
Piping Arrangement. Important details are often in a larger scale in the same drawing shown.
Even as a Plot Plan, a whole process plant usually cannot be given on a readable drawing. Therefore
the Piping Arrangement show parts of a process plant.

Types of Piping Arrangement Drawings

Pipelines on a Piping Arrangement are shown by single lines and double lines.
In single line representation only the canter line of the pipeline is drawn using a solid line. In double
line representation the actual size to scale is drawn with canter line marked in chain-dotted lines.
Single lines representation

 Flanges are shown as thick lines drawn to the scaled outside diameter of the flange.
 For flanged joints a small gap between dimension lines will be shown to indicate a gasket.
 Valves are shown with identification number and a hand wheel is drawn with stem fully
extended. If a valve is lever operated, then the movement of handle position is given.
 Dimensions for flanged valves are given to the flange faces, while non flanged valves are
dimensioned to the canter lines of their stems.

Double line presentation Single line presentation

Example of a single line Piping Arrangement

The drawing shows 2 pumps, 4 valves (all Hand wheel operated and flanged), a pipe line and a
column.

The line number CD - PL - 101 - 12 - C300 - T2 - I2 tells something about the pipe line.

CD Indicator for plant or system, where the pipeline is located.

PL Indicator for a service designation.
101 Indicator for the serial number of the pipe line.
12 Indicator NPS, in this case the main pipeline is NPS 12.
C300 Indicator for Pipe Line Class or "Pipe Spec".
C tells that the material is Carbon Steel, and 300 indicate the Pressure Class.
T2 Indicator for E-tracing type.
I2 Indicator for Insulation type.

Above description of the line number is only an example. For line numbers are no standard
definitions, and therefore a customer specification can be different from what is here defined.
The indication 12-314 (Typ) on the valve told that the valve is 12 inches and 314 indicates the type of
valve. The same applies also to the valve near the pump, where DR indicates a Drain Valve.
Typ stands for Typical and means that there is another ore more valves in that drawing with the same
specification. The advantage of this indicator is that items with the same specification only once
need to be defined.
Furthermore, the red arrow indicates the flow direction, which perhaps is unnecessary, because the
pipe line is connected to the Suction side of the pump.
  Dis. = Discharge, pressure side of a pump
 Suc. = Suction, suction side of a pump

An important item is designation TF (Top Flat) which is shown to the eccentric reducer at the pump.
That means that the flat side of the reducer is on the top of de pipe line. If it was vice
versa BF (Bottom Flat), also the elevation to the suction side of the pump must be given.
Example for the pump suction side.
An eccentric reducer 12 to 8 inch has a canter-line difference from 52.4 millimetres.
(12" = O.D. 323.9 mm / 8" = O.D. 219.1 mm / Length = 203 mm / Canter-line difference = 52.4 mm).
If the reducer bottom flat, an elevation round off upwards EL.100548 must be shown.

Note. The connection to the column is Class 600. This change in Pressure Class is indicated
by a so-called "Spec break" (change of Piping Class Specification). In this case it means, that the
flange that connect to nozzle C1 also must be have a Pressure Class of 600, and that the material
probably not changed.
Another important item is the elevation (given in red) of nozzle C1 from the column. The elevation
EL.104966 is shown, because the pipe line ends with an eccentric reducer Bottom Flat (BF). In this
case it means that the vertical centreline from nozzle C1 is 15.88 mm above the centre line of the
pipeline.
An eccentric reducer 14 x 12 (355.6 mm x 323.9 mm) has a length of 330, mm and a centre-line
difference from 15.88 mm.

Symbols on a Piping Arrangement Drawing

On the drawing can be seen that the pipe line(s) from the pumps run up to the column. The pipeline
starts with elevation EL.100600 at the pump suction site and ends at elevation EL.104950 at nozzle
"C1" from the column. But without the elevations, the upward routing is also visible.
For single line representation there are a lot of symbols, which illustrate a directional change.
The three partly open blue circles in the drawing, indicate three Elbows which are bending down.
The two blue half-moons around the pipelines/valves indicate that the valves are at the bottom of the
pipeline are located. The two valves are needed to drain the pipeline. By applying eccentric reducers
(Top Flat) in the lowest part of the pipeline, the two valves make it possible to fully empty the system.
In the main Menu "Docs" the most used drawing symbols can be found.

3-Dimensional View
More and more engineering companies show Plot Plans, equipment and piping arrangements in a 3D
view. Better 3D software has made this possible, and generally has this way of drawing many
advantages.
There are many programs that can be made 3D views, but they are all very expensive. Large
engineering companies often have developed their own software. Some of these programs make it
possible "to walking through a whole plant" in order to find a particular item. It is very
impressive, what is possible with that type of software.

Summary

A standard Piping Arrangement does not exist.

Like a Plot Plan or Equipment Arrangement, in the development phase of a new plant, the
requirements for the drawings will be made by customer and/or Engineering Company.
Remark(s) of the Author...

My own experience with 3-Dimensional Views...

Since 1999, I draw many topics in 3D views.

The reason is that I have noted that a pipefitter or construction worker knows immediately what he
must build. Another reason is, that people who are not able to read a drawing, also know what I am
trying to explain.
For myself, I discovered that it cost me less time, to make different views, because with acceptable
3D software, each view (whatever you want) in seconds can be displayed and printed.

My first 3-D drawing

Simple drawing I show only two or three orthographic views. In complex drawings I show the
necessary orthographic these views with in the right corner of the drawing, a 3D view. It works
perfectly for those who must carry out the job.
 Simple drawing of a 3-Dimensional view from the Piping Arrangement above mentioned.

The 3D view from the Piping Arrangement is simple but it probably shows, for most users, a direct
understandable drawing.
At the end of 2008 I had a job for the design of a new 14 inch pipeline from and between two storage
tanks. Normally I had made isometric views from the new pipe line and orthographic views of the
supports. But in that case, for the first time, I made only 3d views to scale from the pipeline, valves,
supports etc. I gave the pipefitters and construction workers all possible views...the job are performed
without any problems.
With respect to our "grandfathers", they build without our current techniques, the largest plants on
earth.
 4. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
The piping and Instrument Diagram (P&ID) provides a schematic representation of the piping, process control, and instrumentation which shows the functional
relationships among the system components. The P&ID also provides important information needed by the constructor and manufacturer to develop the other construction
input documents (the isometric drawings or orthographic physical layout drawings)
The P&ID provides direct input to the field for the physical design and installation of field-run piping. For
clarity, it is usual practice to use the same general layout of flow paths on the P&ID as used on the system
flow diagram.

The P&ID ties together the system description, the system flow diagram, the electric control schematic, and
the control logic diagram. It accomplishes this by showing all the piping, equipment, principal instruments,
instrument loops, and control interlocks.

The P&ID contains a minimum amount of text in the form of notes (the system descriptions minimize the
need for text on the P&ID). The first P&ID in the set for the job should contain a legend defining all symbols
used; if certain symbols are defined elsewhere, it may be appropriate to only reference their Reference(s).
The P&IDs are also used by the start-up organizations for preparing flushing, testing, and blowout
procedures for the piping system and by the plant operators to operate the system. The correctness and
completeness of the SD, SFD, and P&ID drawings are crucial to the success of the start-up program.

The P&ID should show the following

Instruments significant to the process piping including

 Mechanical equipment
 All Valves associated with the process piping
 Process pipes
 Vents and drains
 Special fittings
 Sampling lines
 Permanent start-up and flushing lines

Specific information as applicable to job

 Instrument designations
 Equipment names and numbers
 Pipeline identification
 Valve identification

All size transitions in line.

 Reducers and increasers, swages, etc

 Direction of flow
 Interfaces for class changes
 Seismic category
 Quality level
 Interconnection references
 Annunciation inputs
 Plant computer inputs
 Vendor and contractor interfaces
 Identification of components and subsystems by others
 Reference to a vendor drawing for details not shown
 Intended physical sequence of equipment. Including branch lines, reducers, etc.

Remark(s) of the Author...

The P&ID for a defined system should be limited to coverage of that system to the maximum practical extent.
Other systems that interface with the subject system are shown in phantom if such portions are detailed
elsewhere.

Whenever a line is broken off as a matter of drafting convenience, both the break and the continuation are
labelled so that one can readily trace the line from both sides of the break. This applies whether the break
and continuation are on the same sheet or on different sheets of the drawing.

Except for very simple P&ID, the drawing should have the horizontal and vertical borders marked to permit
reference to any small area of the drawing, such as by "Continued at PG-12".

Care should be taken to ensure that these markings are within the sized field of the drawing so that they will
always be reproduced with the drawing regardless of the process used.
 5. Piping Isometrics
Unlike orthographic, piping isometrics allow the pipe to be drawn in a manner by which the length, width and
depth are shown in a single view. Isometrics are usually drawn from information found on a plan and
elevation views. The symbols that represent fittings, Valves and flanges are modified to adapt to the
isometric grid. Usually, piping isometrics are drawn on pre-printed paper, with lines of equilateral triangles
form of 60°.

The Iso, as isometric are commonly referred, is oriented on the grid relative to the north arrow found on plan
drawings. Because iso's are not drawn to scale, dimensions are required to specify exact lengths of piping
runs.

Pipe lengths are determined through calculations using coordinates and elevations. Vertical lengths of pipe
are calculated using elevations, while horizontal lengths are calculated using north-south and east-west
coordinates.

Piping isometrics are generally produced from orthographic drawings and are important pieces of information
to engineers. In very complex or large piping systems, piping isometrics are essential to the design and
manufacturing phases of a project.
Piping isometrics are often used by designers prior to a stress analysis and are also used by draftsmen to
produce shop fabrication spool drawings. Isometrics are the most important drawings for installation
contractors during the field portion of the project.

How to read a Piping Isometric?

A pipe into a isometric view, is always drawn by a single line. This single line is the centreline of the pipe,
and from that line, the dimensions measured. So, not from the outside of a pipe or fitting.
The image below shows an orthographic view of a butt welded pipe with three sizes (A, B, C).

 The A size is measured from the front to the canter line of the elbow / pipe.
 The B size is measured from centreline to centreline.
 The C size is like the A size, measured from the front to the centre line of the elbow / pipe.

Double line presentation Isometric view

The isometric view shows the same pipe as in the orthographic view

As you can see, this drawing is very simple and quick to implement. The red lines show the pipe, the black
dots are the butt welds and A, B and C are the dimensions of front to centre line and centre line to centre
line.

The simplicity with which a pipe isometric can be drawn is one reason to made iso's.

A second reason to made isometrics; if a pipe should be drawn in several planes (north to south, then down
and then to the west, etc.), orthographic views really not an option. In a orthographic view it is not a problem
if the pipe runs in one plane, but when a pipe in two or three planes to be drawn, a orthographic view can be
unclear.

Another reason why isos are preferred is the number of drawings that for orthographic views should be
made.
For example. For a complex pipeline system, 15 isometrics must be drawn. I've never tried, but I think for
orthographic views maybe 50 drawings are needed to show the same as the Iso's.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
Isometric, Plan and Elevation Presentations of a Piping System

The image below show the presentation used in drafting. The isometric view clearly show the piping
arrangement, but the plan view fails to show the bypass loop and valve, and the supplementary elevation
view is needed.

Isometric views in more than one plane

Below are some examples of isometric drawings. The auxiliary lines in the shape of a cube ensure better
visualization of the pipeline routing.

Figure 1 show a pipeline which runs through three planes.

The pipe line begins and ends with a flange.

Routing starting point X

 pipe runs to the east

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs to the north
 pipe runs to the west
 pipe runs down

Figure 2 is almost identical to the drawing above.

A different perspective is shown, and the pipe that comes from above is longer.
Because this pipe in isometric view runs behind the other pipe,
this must be indicated by a break in the line.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs to the south

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs to the west
 pipe runs to the north
 pipe runs down

Figure 3 show a pipe that runs through three planes and in two planes it makes a bow.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs to the south

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs up and to the west
 pipe runs up
 pipe runs to the west
 pipe runs to the north-west
 pipe runs to the north

Figure 4 shows a pipe that runs through three planes, from one plane to a opposite plane.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs to the south

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs up and to the north-west
 pipe runs to the north

Hatches on a Isometric Drawing

Hatches on isometric drawings being applied, to indicate that a pipe runs at a certain angle and in which
direction the pipe runs.

Sometimes, small changes in the hatch, the routing of a pipe is no longer the east, but for example suddenly
to the north.

Figure 5 shows a pipe, where the hatch indicates that the middle leg runs to the east.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs up and to the east
 pipe runs up
 Figure 6 shows a pipe, where the hatch indicates that the middle leg runs to the north.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs up and to the north
 pipe runs up

The two drawings above show, that changing from only the hatch, a pipeline receives a different direction.
Hatches are particularly important in isometric views.

Figure 7 shows a pipe, where the hatches indicate that the middle leg runs up and to the north-west.
Routing starting point X

 pipe runs up
 pipe runs up and to the north-west
 pipe runs to the north

6. PIPING SUPPORT

How are pipe supports shown on an Isometric?

Pipe supports are usually indicated on isometric drawings as a "PIPE SUPPORT CALL OUT", and consists
of a combination of letters and numbers and indicates the type of support to be applied; see below...

Support for a pipe at a location can be a combination of standard support types or special pipe support.
These designations should be written as separate items. For example, a pipe support frame that supports
multiple pipes is indicated on only one isometric pipe drawing. For all other pipes, the isometric pipe drawing
is referenced with the designation "PIPE SUPPORT CALL OUT".
Special pipe supports are indicated on the pipeline isometric drawing. All parts, including standard support
items, are indicated on the separate special pipe support drawing. No support items are indicated on the
piping isometric. A special pipe support is called SPS, and stands for Special Pipe Support.

Recommended spans and guide distances for pipe supports

The span between supports depends on the load, size, and temperature of the fluid and material of the
pipeline. Guides support vertical pipes. The following should be considered when calculating the span.

 Pipes with liquid need support more often than pipes with gas
 Pipes with small bores need more frequent support to prevent sagging
 The span of hot pipes is shorter than cold pipes of the same size and thickness
 Insulated piping requires a shorter span because of the weight of the insulation
 Space requirements of ground floor equipment can sometimes affect the spacing of curved pipe
supports
 Spacing between supports shall be selected so that the maximum deflection does not exceed the
design requirement

Material selection for pipe supports

Material selection for supports and their components is determined by the design temperature of the pipe
and applicable regulations. When selecting the material for the primary support, we must ensure that it is of
compatible quality, if not the same as the pipe.

Maximum span between Pipe Supports

The locations of piping supports are dependent upon four factors. Pipe size, piping configuration, locations of
valves and fittings, and the structure available for support. Individual piping materials have independent
considerations for span and placement of supports.
Pipe size relates to the maximum allowable span between pipe supports. Span is a function of the weight
that the supports must carry. As pipe size increases, the weight of the pipe also increases. The amount of
fluid which the pipe can carry increases as well, thereby increasing the weight per unit length of pipe.

Water Steam, Gas, Air

NPS
Service Service
1 2.1 M 2.7 M
2 3.0 M 4.0 M
3 3.7 M 4.6 M
4 4.3 M 5.2 M
6 5.2 M 6.4 M
8 5.8 M 7.3 M
12 7.0 M 9.1 M
16 8.2 M 10.7 M
20 9.1 M 11.9 M
24 9.8 M 12.8 M

Suggested maximum spacing between pipe supports for horizontal straight runs of standard and heavier
pipe at maximum operating temperature of 750°F (400°C)

The spacing is based on a fixed beam support with a bending stress not exceeding 2,300 psi (15.86 MPa)
and insulated pipe filled with water or the equivalent weight of steel pipe for steam, gas, or air service, and
the pitch of the line is such that a sag of 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) between supports is permissible.

Does not apply where span calculations are made or where there are concentrated loads between supports,
such as flanges, Valves, specialties, etc.

The configuration of the piping system affects the location of pipe supports. Where practical, a support
should be located adjacent to directional changes of piping. Otherwise, common practice is to design the
length of piping between supports equal to, or less than, 75% of the maximum span length where changes in
direction occur between supports. Refer to the appropriate piping material chapters for maximum span
lengths.

Valves require independent support, as well as meters and other miscellaneous fittings. These items
contribute concentrated loads to the piping system. Independent supports are provided at each side of the
concentrated load.

Location, as well as selection, of pipe supports is dependent upon the available structure to which the
support may be attached. The mounting point shall be able to accommodate the load from the support.
Supports are not located where they will interfere with other design considerations. Some piping materials
require that they are not supported in areas that will expose the piping material to excessive ambient
temperatures. Also, piping is not rigidly anchored to surfaces that transmit vibrations. In this case, pipe
supports isolate the piping system from vibration that could compromise the structural integrity of the system.

Spacing is a function of the size of the pipe, the fluid conveyed by piping system, the temperature of the fluid
and the ambient temperature of the surrounding area. Determination of maximum allowable spacing, or span
between supports, is based on the maximum amount that the pipeline may deflect due to load. Typically, a
deflection of 2.5 mm is allowed, provided that the maximum pipe stress is limited to 1,500 psi or allowable
design stress divided by a safety factor of 415, whichever is less. Some piping system manufacturers and
support system manufacturers have information for their products that present recommended spans in tables
or charts. These data are typically empirical and are based upon field experience.

Remark(s) of the Author...

Pipe Span Charts

Pipe Span Charts are very nice, but not more than a guide. I've seen several tables and charts, all with
different values. You should consider the material used, wall thickness, density of the medium, isolation,
etc..For really good assessment of working stresses and deflections, pipe stress calculations are needed.
Also, the engineer must be determining what kind of support he wants to use. Should there be limits to the
movements, or even a fixed point etc. etc.Supporting is a profession.