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 "Boo'

e art of

painting animals
IIARJJ-^«B8
 —

^Halarope
The Art & Design Series

PHalarope Books are designed specifically for For beginners, students, and working profes-
the amateur naturalist. These volumes repre- sionals in both fine and commercial arts, these
sent excellence in natural history publishing. books how-to introductions to a
offer practical
Each book PHalarope series is based on
in the variet\' of ideas in contemporary art and de-
a nature course or program at the college or sign. Each illustrated volume is written by a
adult education level or is sponsored by a mu- working artist, a specialist in his or her field,
seum or nature center. Each PHalarope Book and each concentrates on an individual area
reflects the author's teaching abilit)' as well as from advertising layout or printmaking to in-
writing ability. Among the books in the series: terior design, painting, and cartooning, among
others. Each contains information that artists
will find useful in the studio, in the class-

The Amateur Naturalist's Handbook

room, and in the marketplace. Among the

VINSON BROWN books in the series:

The Amateur Naturalist's Diary

VINSON BROWN
The Guidebook Drawing: The Creative Process
Wildlife Observer's
CHARLES E. ROTH, Massachusetts Audubon Society
SEYMOUR SIMMONS III and MARC S.A. WINER

The Fossil Collector's Handbook: Nature Drawing: A Tool for Learning

A Paleontology Field Guide CLARE WALKER LESLIE

JAMES REID MACDONALD Nature Photography: A Guide to
Better Outdoor Pictures
Nature in the Northwest: An Introduction to
the Natural History and Ecology
STAN OSOLINSKI
of the Northwestern United States Drawing with Pastels
from the Rockies RON LISTER
to the Pacific
SUSAN SCHWARTZ Photographs by Bob and Ira Spring Understanding Paintings:
The Elements of Composition
At the Sea's Edge: An Introduction to FREDERICK MALINS
Coastal Oceanography for the Amateur Naturalist
WILLIAM T. FOX Illustrated by Clare Walker Leslie Painting and Drawing: Discovering
Your Own Visual Language
Exploring Tropical Isles and Seas: An Introduction ANTHONY TONEY
and Amateur Naturalist
for the Traveler
FREDERIC MARTINI A Practical Guide for Beginning Painters
THOMAS GRIFFITH
Suburban Wildlife: An Introduction
to the Common Animals of Your Transparent Watercolor:
Back Yard and Local Park Painting Methods and Materials
RICHARD HEADSTROM INESSA DERKATSCH

Outdoor Education: A Manual for

The Art of Painting Animals:
Teaching in Nature's Classroom A Beginning Artist's Guide to the Portrayal
MICHAEL LINK, Director, of Domestic Animals, Wildlife, and Birds
Northwoods Audubon Center, Minnesota FREDRIC SWENEY
Fredric Sweney has been a professional
artist for the past 50 years with experience
in painting and illustrating wildlife as well
as teaching art. A recipient of several
awards, Mr. Sweney has done illustra-
tions for such magazines as National Geo-
graphic, Outdoors, The Outdoorsman, Nature
Magazine, and Sports Afield. He is listed in
Who's Who in American Art and lives in a
beautiful part of the state of Washington,
where he has ample opportunity to paint
wildlife.
FREDRIC SWENEY

The art of

PAINTING
ANIMALS
A heginning artist's guide
to the portrayal of domestic animals,
wildlife, and birds

k SPfCTlUM BDDK

PRENTICE-HALL, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

WAMiE DOUD Fl^'^Wk -
*'^
PUBLIC LIBRARY
BROOMFIELD. COI.OP^n.
Litrary of Omptm dt^hgmf m PiMtatwn 0««

Swmry. Frfdnc
Thir «rt ot punting «ninul»

rrhr Aft k 6eufp smrs) (PHaUropr book*)

"A Spfctnim B«ik
BtMioKraphv p
Inclutlrt uvlrx
I Painting— Technjqu*. 2 Animals in art.
I Titlr n ScTM.
NDUWS^ 1<)83 751. 45432 &3-831
ISBN 0-13-0*7787-7
ISBN 0-13-0*7779-* (pbk )

This book is available at a special discount when ordered in

bulk quantities. Contact Prentice-Hall, Inc., General
Publishing Di\ision, Special Sales, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632.

© 1983 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.

AH rights reser\'ed. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. \

A Spectrum Book. Printed in the United States of America. /y9 i i )

THE ART & DESIGN SERIES.

10 987654321
ISBN D-13-DM77fl7-7
ISBN a-13-aM777^-b -CPBK.>

Editonal production suf)er\-ision by Eric Newman

Page layout b\' Gail Cocker
Cover illustration h\- the author; design bv Hal Siegel
Manufacturing buyers: Christine Johnston and Edward J. Ellis

Prentice-Hall LvTERNATiONAL, Lsc, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pnr. Limited, Sydney
Prentice-Hall Canada Lnc, Toronto
Prentice-Hall of I.ndia Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
Prentice-Hall of Southeast Asia F^. Ltd., Singapore
Whitehall Books Limited, Wellington, New Zealand
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil Ltda Rio de Janeiro ,
To Clair V. Fry
whose subtle guidance as an art director made
it possible for me to follow my chosen field.
Contents

INTRODUCTION

Painting animals
and birds

CHAPTER ONE

The first artist

 CHAl'ItR TWO

^^Sm The horse 7

HISTORY 7

KNOWING YOUR SUBJECT 8

PHOTOGRAPHS 8

SCULPIURES 10

ANIMALS IN MOTION 11

SCHRECKENGOST, BROWN,
AND WARREN 12

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 14

Proportions, 15

Planes of the Horse, 16

Nomenclature, 17
Skeleton, 19

DRAWING AND PAINTING

THE HORSE 40

Research, Sketch,
and Composition, 40
Painting the First Stage, 44

The Halfway Stage, 45

Completing the Painting, 46

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 47

CHAPTER THREE

77ie dog 50

HISTORY 50

ROUSSEAU 50

^Cb*^ ^ I ANATOMY OF THE DOG 51

DEALING WITH YOUR MODEL 54

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 56

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 60
 CHAPTER FOUR

The cat 62

HISTORY 62

ANATOMY OF THE CAT 63

jm ^;s^^
^-«?
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING
The Halfway Stage, 71
68

Completing the Painting, 71

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 72

CHAPTER FIVE

The bull the ox,

and the cow 74

HISTORY 74

NOTEWORTHY PAINTERS
OF CATTLE 76

ANATOMY OF THE BULL,

THE OX, AND THE COW 77

A Potpourri of Horns, 78

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 81

The Halfway Stage, 82

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 84
CHAPTER SIX

The deer 87
HISTORY 87

ANATOMY OF THE DEER 89

Antlers and Horns, 92

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 93

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 96

CHAPTER SEVEN

The bear 97

TYPES OF BEARS 97

SIZE AND BEHAVIOR 98

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 100

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 104

CHAPTER EIGHT

Goats and sheep 106

TYPES, BEHAVIOR,
AND ANATOMY 106

USE OF THE CAMERA FOR

ANIMAL AND BIRD ART 110

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 110

The Halfway Stage, 111

Completing the Painting, 112

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 114

CHAPTER NINE

Small animals 116

TYPES, BEHAVIOR,
AND ANATOMY 116

PROBLEMS OF PAINTING AND

DRAWING SMALL ANIMALS 118

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 121

Completing the Drawing, 123

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 124

CHAPTER TEN

Exotic animals 125

EXAMPLES OF
EXOTIC ANIMALS 125

An African Safari, 132

Other Exotics, 134

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 135

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 138

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Birds 140

EXPRESSIONISM, IDEALISM,
REALISM, AND
IMPRESSIONISM 140

ANATOMY OF THE BIRD 143

The Folding of a Wing, 146

The Colors of Feathers, 146

APPROACHES TO
PAINTING BIRDS 147

Flight, 149

Sketches, 152

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING 153

PRACTICE SUBJECTS 158

Bibliography 161

Index 165
Acknowledgments
to production matters guided this book to
I would like to give special thanks to its completion.
Mary E. Kennan for her editorial knowl- My sincere appreciation goes to all

edge and guidance, and to her staff, who museums and other artists for the use of
helped me throughout the three years it their paintings and art, and also to Viktor
required to write the book and make the Schreckengost and Bill Webster for their
paintings and numerous illustrations nec- help.
essary to complete it. Finally, a big thank you goes to my
I also want to thank Eric Newman, wife and my friends for their interest and
whose competent attention to detail and understanding.
The art of
painting animals
INTRODUCTION

Tainting animals
and birds

There is an old saying, "A horse is serv'e as the model for the structure, wing
beautiful to look at but terrible to draw," construction, and flight characteristics of
and this is quite true, particularly if you birds. If you understand the bone and su-
do not understand the physical structure perficial muscle structure of the horse,
and behavior of that animal. Whether you you should not have any trouble drawing
are drawing an elephant or the family pet, other animals, whether they are large or
the same axiom holds true. small. Their anatomy is basically the same.
A very good example is the oil paint- However, it is important for artists to
ing of "Saint Martin dividing his cloak understand that great animal art requires
with the beggar" by Jorge Manuel The- a knowledge of the subject that is to be
otocopuli, who was the son of El Greco. painted. The success of the illustrations is
(See Figure 0.1.) He worked in a conspic- dependent upon the artist's design, en-
uously distorted style like that of his fa- thusiasm, and emotional interpretation.
ther, but his horse and figures look right This book is designed to assist the
even though they are stylized to enhance artist and the sculptor in approaching
the painting's emotional appeal. these problems. The comparative anatomi-
In this book the horse will be used as cal drawings and sketches of animals and
the basis for understanding the physical humans, and the accompanying text, will
structure of animals. The wild duck will be a guide to understanding their actions.
 I

Figure 0.1
JORGE MANUEL THEOTOCOPULI
(Spanish, (1578-1631)
Saint Martin Dividing His Cloak xvith
the Beggar.
Courtesy of the John and Mabie Ringbng
Museum of Art Sarasota Florida.

Figure 0.2
KONRAD GESXER (German, 1516-1565)
From Curious Woodcuts of Fanciful and
Real Beasts.
Courtesv of Dover Publications, Inc.

Figure 0.3
RiOGETSL" Gapanese)
Duck (woodblock print on paper).
From the collection of the author,
courtes\- of the Charles F. Tuttle Co., Inc.

4
 -•Chiii ,'8; '« .». .

Figure 0.4

Figure 0.5
PAUL BROWN (American, 20th century)
From The Horse in Sport.
Courtesy of Sports Afield magazine.

Figure 0.6
R.H. PALENSKE (American, 20th century)
And He just Loves Horses (etching).
From the archives of and copyright
Brown and Bigelow, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Figure 0.7
PAUL BROWN (American, 20th Century)
From The Horse in Sport.
Courtesy of Sports Afield magazine.
CHAPTER ONE

The first artist

From the slimy, foul-smelling swamp of noceros searched for food, and they in
250 million years ago, the amphibians, turn were being hunted by the Nean-
those sluggish creatures of the reptilian derthal.
world, took their first tentative footsteps The sabre-toothed tiger (Figure 1.2)
into the Paleozoic period. From this ances- still prowled the land but, inexplicably,
tralbeginning the reptiles, birds, and ani- these giants — the mammoths, mastodons,
mals had their birth. Humans did not appear —
and sabre-tooths died quicklv as the ice
until many millions of years later. The retreated toward the north, leaving the
golden age of the dinosaurs lay ahead, but smaller animals, such as the rabbits, rein-
the first bird, Archaeopterv'x, a magnificent, deer, and bison, to replenish and inhabit
crow-sized, reptile-like creature with the the earth.
beautiful feathers, already was here. (See The Cro-Magnon, who replaced the
Figure 1.1.) Neanderthal of the Stone Age 35,000
During this era, when gigantic, cold- \ears ago, were successful in recording
blooded, egg-laying vertebrates roamed their impressions of the animals and birds
the world, many warm-blooded creatures of their time. Some of these illustrations
who bore their young alive and nursed are found on the walls and ceilings of the
them through infancy also inhabited this caves at Lascaux, Niaux, and Rouffignac
planet. The mammoth and the woolly rhi- in France, and at Spain's Altimira Cave.
 Figure 1.1
VIKTOR SCHRECKENGOST (American,
20th centur\')
Archaeopteryx (glazed colored
terra cotta).
Courtesy of Viktor Schreckengost and
the Cleveland Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio,

Culturally superior and intelligent,

the Cro-Magnon set the pattern for con-
temporary families. Although they hunted
most of the day in order to live, they still
found time to produce beautiful art.
They endured extreme hardship and
privation in a primitiveand hostile land
and environment. It is not surprising,
then, that they would paint and sketch
animals and birds that they hunted each
day. Interestingly, very few human fig-
ures appeared in their art. The animals
and birds were more important to them
because they faced them daily when hunt-
ing for food.
The Cro-Magnon were very versatile
in their art. In addition to the drawings,
they made sculptures in the round and
cut engravings into cave walls.
The sculptures give insight into Cro-
Magnon life. These early humans are to
be admired for the spark of intelligence
that guided them into leaving their artistic
Figure 1.2
mark on the walls of caves for posterity to Sabre-toothed Tiger.
learn from and enjoy. A large carnivore with long, cutting canine teeth;
The caves that served as homes were became extinct during the Pleistocene period.

practically devoid of decoration. The great

cave art that we know of today is re-
stricted to the caves that had labyrinths of fat-filled stone lamps in order to enter
deep underground galleries and passages, them.
and subterranean pools and rivers with Cave art depicting animals and wild
colorful parades of stalactites and stalag- game are at present the oldest graphic
mites. Since these caves were dark and representation of form in the history of
mysterious, people had to carry torches or the human race.
 Cave does not exhibit any ab-
art Performing magic and religious ritu-
stract, expressive forms of symbolic sub- als before the hunt was believed to mag-

jects, but these sketches and paintings are nifv the power of the "wish picture." The
the masterpieces of Cro-Magnon, consid- fact that more than one painting occupies

ering their limitations in terms of tools, the same space suggests that a new paint-
equipment, and cramped working areas. ing was not for displav but was used for
Lascaux was the most recent cave to new magic for the next hunt.

be discovered, and it is without doubt the This brings up the question: Were
most interesting. A dog fell into a crack, these paintings made by a single person
and this accident led to the discovery of within a community' or were they made
Lascaux. No one knows when the next bv more than one artist? After a study of
cave might be found by a picnicker or a these cave paintings the viewer is not
wandering animal seeking shelter. The aware of any obvious differences in tech-
cracking of a thin wall might also reveal nique or st\le.
the existence of additional caves. Some of Apparently, good wall space was at a
the paintings are located in the worst pos- premium since concentrations of paintings
sible places for viewing, behind rocks and occupy certain favored areas, possibly be-
in narrow niches. cause these spots were thought to have
What could have been the purpose of stronger magic.
these out-of-the-way paintings? According Cave magic required magicians.
to experts, this art provided a means of There are more than fifty known pictures
employing magic before a hunt. of dancing shamans that look like human
Cro-Magnons were well equipped figures dressed in animal skins, some-
with all of the necessary- weapons for a times even with animal heads and antlers.
successful hunt, but in spite of all their Increasing numbers of families and
powers and equipment they knew that hunters, as well as seasonal migrations,
they would face extremely dangerous ani- resulted in a scarcity of game that caused
mals that could cost them their lives. They Cro-Magnon to resort to additional hunt-
also felt that if they painted pictures of ing magic.
the animals they wished to kill, this It is also conceivable that, in this lan-
would forestall a tragic ending to a hunt. guage-less culture, the cave paintings
Quite often primitive people would ser\'ed as technical illustrations used to in-
fabricate an enemy, an animal, or other struct new hunters.
game into a wall painting or clay sculp- Since the cave art was not located
ture in order to attack it physically in the near an entrance, these paintings were
hope that the real object itself would be obvioush' not made for decorative pur-
injured or killed. To kill the game bv poses, and thev were not thought of as
throwing a spear toward the painted im- "fine art" bv their creators. Instead, they
age would assure them of success in the were magical weapons to ensure a suc-
forthcoming hunt. cessful hunt.
CHAPTER TWO

The horscj

Portrayals of the horse back

date As the urge to run on the developing
35,000 years to the time when
they were grasslands and savannas increased, the
sketched on the walls of caves in France horse's evolution raised it up onto its cen-
and Spain. The horse, with its magnifi- tral toes. The side toes or digits slowly
cent grace, strength, and beauty, always disappeared, leaving only vestigial evi-
has been a challenge for the artist. dence that they ever existed. The central
toe evolved into the hoof.
The advent of the Ice Age had impor-
tant effects on the development of the
HISTORY
horse. Probably the most important phase
of this chilling of the North American
If we trace the lineage of the horse back to continent was the lowering of the level of
its ancestral beginnings, we go back in global sea water caused bv freezing.
time 55 million years to a tv\^elve-inch-tall When the water level had been lowered
creature named Eohippus ("the dawn bv several hundred feet, a land bridge
horse"). This small, four-legged, horse- was formed between Xorth America and
like mammal with splayed four-toed fore- Eurasia. This bridge made it possible for
feet and three-toed hindfeet wandered the the primitive horses, which had devel-
forest floor of the Eocene epoch. oped in North America, to migrate to Eu-
rasia. Eventually, with the drift of the KNOWING YOUR SUBJECT
continental land masses and the melting
of the ice, the Bering Strait filled with
One of the most important rules for draw-
water, and the horses that had completed
ing and painting animals is that you
the long journey gradually spread over all
should understand your subject before
of Europe. The North American horse
you start, especially with the horse be-
then became extinct during the Ice Age.
cause it is so variable in its character, size,
Historians are not certain where or
and moods.
when the first horse was domesticated,
Knowledge of the anatomy of the
but apparently the nomadic tribes that
horse will enable an artist to paint all
wandered over the steppes about 2,000
types of animals, whether they are horses,
years ago were instrumental in capturing,
dogs, cats, or exotic animals from faraway
taming, and breeding horses from one
lands.
corner of Europe to another.
Precise attention to anatomy should
'
The Assyrian artists were among the
not, however, inhibit the style or manner
earliest to leavegraphic evidence that the
in which the artist executes the painting
horse had been tamed and was being rid-
or drawing. The artist may use a realistic
den.
style, such as in the outstanding oil paint-
Historians also have credited Colum-
ing "Saddling the Blue Roan" by Melvin
bus with being the first to bring cattle and
C. Warren (Figure 2.9), or a more stylized
good Spanish horses Santo Domingo
to
interpretation, as in the stylized woodcut
on his second voyage to America in a.d.
by Albrecht Dijrer (Figure 2.1) or the in-
1493, thereby completing the circle from — teresting ink drawings by Paul Brown
North America to Eurasia and back again.
(Figures 2.2, 2.8, and 2.14). Whether a
This animal still manages to survive
painting is realistic, stylized, or distorted,
in our modern, mechanized world, and
the basic fundamentals of anatomy still
there are today more than 100 breeds of
hold true for the subject matter.
horses .and ponies. They come in all sizes,
It is helpful to understand the bone
large and heavyweights and the
small, the
and muscle structure of animals, but cer-
lightweights, the working horses and the
tainly not to the degree that is required of
domestics, along with the innumerable
a veterinarian. It is more important to be
types of riding horses, the wild horses,
aware of the moods, actions, and attitudes
the horses that are caught up in the social
of animals since they are as individual as
world of polo, the sportsmen's matched
people. animals are the same. An
No two
bays, and the race horses with their bril-
understanding of the bone and muscle
liantly clad jockeys, just to name a few.
structure will certainly help you when you
Dictionaries generally describe this
are sketching animals, especially short-
beautiful animal with just a few brief
words: Horse A —
large, strong, her-
haired animals like the horse, dog, deer,
and antelope.
bivorous mammal {Equiis cabnlliis) with a
solid hoof and a long mane and tail, that
is used in the domestic state as a draft or

a pack animal, or one that is used for rid-

ing.
PHOTOGRAPHS
As childrenwe were all introduced to
the horse and the pony early in life, along The camera should be considered as a tool
with all the assorted cute pictures of kit- for gathering information. Photographs
tens, rabbits, and puppy dogs. We proba- should not be copied slavishly. You will
bly do not remember all of the glorious have a better drawing or painting if you
hours we spent riding rocking horses in draw from what you know exists and not
our wonderful world of make-believe. necessarily just what you see.
 ^^§Mktj^

Figxire 2.1 Figure 2.3

ALBRECHT DURZR (German, 1471-1528) FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
The Four Riders of the Apocalypse (woodcut). Frisky (scratchboard).
Courtesv of Dover Publications.

Figure 2.2
PAUL BROWN (American, 20th centun,')
From The Horse in Sport.
Courtesy of Sports Afield magazine.

s.
SCULPTURES as the idea evolved, the action was gradu-
ally changed. A Southwestern background
was introduced, and the back lighting of a
Sculptures make ideal models for the be-
blazing white sun with a vellowish sky
ginning painter of animals. It is very frus-
and clouds completed the painting.
trating for the artist to be all prepared to
make some sketches of a horse and then
have the model walk away. Sculptures do
hold still, and all of the preliminary stud-
ies —the pose and sketches — have been
made for vou. However, be sure that the
sculpture you are drawing is the work of
a master. None can be better than the
dramatic, realistic "The Fighting Stal-
lions," bv Anna Hyatt Huntington, who
was acclaimed for over half a century in
Europe and America for her portrayal of
animals and birds. (See Figure 2.4.) Her
sculptures are found in more than 250
museums, parks, and public gardens. One
of her most famous pieces is the eques-
trian statue of Joan of Arc, which can be
seen on Riverside Drive in New York
City, in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and in
Blois, France.
The of "The Appaloosa"
painting
(Figure 2.5) one of the few that I have
is

made for myself, just for the joy of draw- Figure 2.4
ing and painting a horse in action. The ANNA HYATT HUNTINGTON (American, 1876-1973)
model for this painting was a small plaster The Fighting Stallions (sculpture).
Courtesy of Brookgreen Gardens. Murreli's Inlet,
cast. Sketches were made first, and then. South Carolina.

Figure 2.5
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th centurv')
The Appaloosa (oil).
Courtes\- of Mrs. Fredric Swenev.

10
ANIMALS IN MOTION bucking bronco, the rider being tossed
from his saddle, or a horse leaping over a
fence all give the illusion of motion. The
All artists are illusionists, actors, or magi- first aspect of animal motion that we must
cians in that they give the feeling of mo- understand are the gaits of animals.
tion to animals and their attitudes and
All artists interested in painting
according to the situation they wish to drawing animals will treasure Animals in
portray. Motion by Eadweard Muybridge, originally
Artists use every device possible in published in 1899 and now available from
order to create action. Rhythm and sweep Dover Publications. This monumental
in your drawing or painting will create a photographic work illustrates, step by
feeling of motion. The background also step, the various gaits of animals. It ex-
plays an important part in creating this poses some of the inaccuracies in some of
motion. The sweep of clouds or a storm the early paintings of fox hunts and the
across the sky, grass being whipped by an fact that horses do not always run as de-
angry wind, clouds of dust raised by a picted.

Figure 2.6

SHOULDER BLADE OR SCAPULA

HUMERUS

RADIUS AND ULNA

FINGERS, DIGITS, OR
PHALANGES
OLECRANON PROCESS
HOOF

SCAPULA UPPER ARM BONE OR HUMERUS

RADIUS
ULNA

HUMAN ARM OLECRANON PROCESS OR ELBOW;' \ : }:-^};l

 The camera has demonstrated that ground and push off with its front legs

quadruf>eds use eight different systems of before the hind legs touch the ground.
fonvard motion on the ground: the walk, This is similar to showing the spring of a
the amble, the trot, the rack or pace, the rabbit.

canter, the transverse gallop, the rotar)

gallop, and the ricochet. Leaping or jump- SCHRECKENGOST, BROWN,
ing are variations of the normal gaits. AND WARREN
An important factor in the movement
of animals is the change of lead. If a horse V^iktor Schreckengost's accomplishments
is turning to the left, it"lead" with its
will reach into manv fields: painting, sculp-
left front leg, just as a boxer will "lead" ture, ceramics, stage design, graphics, wa-
with a left jab before delivering a power- tercolor,and the many aspects of design
ful right. When the horse leads with the for industrw The sculptor is shown at
left leg it is keeping itself balanced on that work on the "O'Xeil Memorial," with the
side. "A horse leads on the side that many sketches necessar\' to clarif\' forms
needs support." It is highly recommended for the st\lized head of the horse readily
that this important book by Muybridge be displaved on the panel for reference. (See
added to vour library. This is a study Figure 2.7.) This photograph is worthv of
within itself and cannot be covered in this studv. It is an excellent example of the
book. use of basics. Viktor Schreckengost is a
The drawings in Figure 2.6 illustrate sculptor with an inherent sense of design,
bone actions of the horse and the human. an understanding of structure, and the
The weight of an animal is also ver\- necessan- craftsman's skill for its comple-
imp>ortant. A gazelle should be drawn tion.
with nimbleness, so as to illustrate quick WTiether vou are sculpting, drawing,
movement, while the drawing of a horse or painting the horse's head, vou have to
coming over a high hurdle should show think "in the round." A painter, through
the impact when its hoofs touch the the use of perspective, values, color, and
ground. Be careful not to freeze the action knowledge of the animal's phvsical forms,
and make the horse look as if it is stand- gives the illusion of a third dimension on
ing on its two front hoofs. A horse land- a two-dimensional surface. The same
ing from a high jump will touch the principles applv to the sculptor's studies.

Figure 2.7
VIKTOR SCHRECKENGOST (American.
20th centun)
O'Sdl Memorial.
Cootesy ot Viktor Schreckengost and the
Oevvfand Mounted Pofce. Oevefand OMa

12
 Brown's placement of the darks to
emphasize the turning of the forms shows
a deep understanding of the location of
the bones and the joints. He obviously
knew the anatomv of a horse well and
thoroughly understood the manv gaits
and actions of his subjects. Most of his il-
lustrations dealt with the sophisticated
sports that use the horse, such as polo,
timber racing, steeplechase, and horse
racing.
Brown's black and white drawings
Figure 2.8
PAUL BROWN (American, 20th centvuy) were ver\- direct and accurate. (See Figure
From The Horse in Spcrt. 2.8.) Man\- were executed in ink and oth-
Courtesy of Sports AfieU magazine.
ers were handled in pencil, and he used
the vignette to great advantage. His tech-
nique was copied bv other illustrators.
with the final piece modeled in the round When artists draw or paint with a vignette
and the color applied with ceramic glazes. background, it requires a ver\- accurate
Paul Brown was one of the great foundation with good drawing, design,
American horse artists during the "Golden values, and color. A studv of Paul Brown
Era of the Illustrators" (the 1930s). His will be a real education in drawing.
drawings and paintings graced the pages of "Saddling the Blue Rpan" is a paint-
numerous national magazines, and he ing to be greatlv admired. It is a tvpical,
wrote and illustrated manv books. His st\'le authentic Western scene painted bv a real
is unique in its simplicity of design, so out- Western artist, Melvin C. Warren. (See
standing that it became easily recognized as Figure 2.9.) It is obvious that he knows
his trademark. horses well.

Figure 2.9
MELNTN c. w.ARREN (American, 20th centiin)
Saddling the Blue Roati.
Courtes\- of Mehin C. Warren.

13
 Melvin Warren paints peaceful pic- horse's bone and muscular structure, its
tures, not the violent, hard-riding ones actions, moods, and attitudes, and the
with the dramatic climaxes that pervade effect of the various planes and the ex-
many Western paintings. This is a well- pressions as we draw and paint them.
designed painting. The dark shed with I have chosen the American quarter
the weathered boards and posts provides horse as the model we will study, since
an interesting background for the light- that is our nation's most popular horse.
colored The other horses and the
roan. (See Figure 2.10.) The quarter horse out-
cowboy bracket the roan, which forces the numbers its nearest rival, the thor-
viewer's eye to the main subject. This is a oughbred, by four to one in annual
realistic, well-painted picture with a lot of registration (American Quarter Horse Reg-
feeling. —
istry annual registrations average more
than 60,000).
Let us take a close look at this horse.
It is good-looking, strong but also gentle,
ANATOMY OF THE HORSE yet rugged when working. The stance of
the quarter horse is one of its outstanding
It is important to learn the anatomy and features. Standing perfectly at ease with
parts of a horse in order to sensibly and the legs well under the body gives the an-
intelligently discuss and locate certain imal the ability to move quickly in any
areas, and in order to understand the direction, especially when working cattle.

Figure 2.10
Parts of a horse.

FOREHEAD

POI^NTOF BARREL
CROUP
CHIN
DOCK
POINT OF
RUMP

FLANK

LOIN

CHESTNUT
KNEE
HOCK
CANNON BONE
FETLOCK
PASTERN
HOOF

14
 The remarkable qualities of this horse pastern. In measuring the horizontal, the
may be divided into three categories. point of the shoulder D to line E should
First, ranchers will tell you that this is equal line AC plus one hand. A man's
without doubt the world's finest cutting hand measures four inches across the
horse, a great all-around working and palm. This is the unit used in measuring
roping horse. Second, the quarter horse is the height of a horse. A quarter horse
a great riding horse and show horse; and, may extend beyond line E because of its
third, it has no peer in sprint racing up to broad, deep, and heavy rear quarters.
— —
440 yards a quarter-mile the distance Line AB will equal the distance from
for which it is named. the point of the shoulder D to point F,
which will be in line with the tip of the
nose. It must be remembered that these
Proportions
units of measure are to be considered only
The starting point for measuring a horse as an average. Some horses may be over-
is a square. (See Figure 2.11.) This is to be sized and some undersized.
considered as an average since some The height of the American quarter
horses will project above the perpendicu- horse will vary between 14.3 to 15.1
lar or the horizontal of the square, as hands. (See Figures 2.11 and 2.12.) The
shown in the "point of the rump" area. A height is measured from the ground to
line from point A, the withers, to a line the withers. A thoroughbred will usually
under the heart, point B, is considered a be sixteen hands. Figure 2.12 shows the
good yardstick to use. Line AB equals line height of a quarter horse in relation to a
BC. Point C is at the middle of the human figure.

Figure 2.11

^ HA^_^f>^/'^-

15
 Figiire 2.12
Photograph CDoitesy of Miv V6d^ Sloat.

Planes of the Horse indicates the true color and texture of the
subject. The middle-tone may have a
Figure 2.13 is study of the light that
a wider or narrower band depending upon
would fall upon a horse from an overhead whether the plane has a gradual or more
source such as the twelve o'clock sun. In acute cur\'e. Xext in importance is the
order to have a solid form, your drawing core. This is the darkness that carries the

or painting should contain the light and a form of the object. In sketching, this is the
band of middle-tone, which is the area that darkness that the artist will create to show

Figure 2.13

16
 /

the location of the shadow area. Last, Nomenclature

show the reflected lights, which are the low
lights indicated in the shadows. The following short glossary will make
our discussion easier and will assist in lo-
1. The light —This is dependent on the cating areas that are being discussed.
direction that the light is coming from,

whether it is a top light, a side light, a

morning sun, or an evening sun casting Abduct: To pull a form away from the
its long shadows. midline. To pull the leg outward.
2. —
The middle- tone True color and texture Adduct: To pull or draw a form or leg of
belong to the middle-tone values and an animal inward.
only to the middle-tones. An excess of
Anterior: Pertaining to the front, such as
light weakens color and texture while a
the anterior part of an animal, nearer to
weak light darkens true color and also
the head.
weakens the texture by an absence of
light. Aponeurosis: A broad sheath of tendon or
3. The core —This indicates the direction of
ligament, especially for
such as the aponeurosis that covers the
a flat muscle,

the forms and is the darkest area on the

rectus abdominus muscle of the stomach.
painting.
4. The reflected light —This is the light within Articulation:The connection between
the shadow that lets you see into the bones that form a joint.
shadow. If this is not present, your Belly: Anatomically, pertaining to the
drawing or painting will be flat. fleshy portion of a muscle.

Pdwl Siio^vrt

Figure 2.14
PAUL BROWN (American, 20th cenhiry)
From The Horse in Sport.
Courtesy of Sports Afield magaziiie.

17
 Boue: A hard, dense, porous but rigid Inferior: The weaker part or area farthest
material that collectively composes the from the head or the lowest form.
skeleton. Insertion: The secHon where
a muscle,
Cartilage: A tough, elastic form of connec- through connective tissue (tendon),
its

tive tissue from which bone ossifies, also attaches to a part or bone that moves.
known as gristle. Internal: Refers to the inside of a form or
Concave: Curving inward. The inside cavit)', such as the lungs which are in-
curve of a bowl. The inside curvature of side the ribs.
a sphere. Interstices: The area betv\'een bones or ob-
Condyle: The large, rounded, polished jects, such as the interstices between ribs,
projection on the end of a bone that ar- particularly membranes and muscles.
ticulates within the another
cavity of Joint: A connecHon between two separate
bone, such as the lateral condyle of the bones.
femur (upper leg bone) with the patella
Lateral: Pertaining to the side or sides,
(knee cap).
such as the lateral section of the pelvis or
Convex: such as the
Cur\'ing outward, the rib cage.
surface of the earth or the convex form of
Levator: The muscle that causes a leg to
an egg.
be raised.
Crest: The ridge on the bone structure of
Ligament:The tendon that connects a
an animal, such as the iliac crest on the
muscle bone or a broad band that
to a
pelvis.
wraps around a group of bones, such as
Deep: Farthest from the surface, such as a at the wrist joint. A very strong fibrous
deep-set muscle or form that does not af- material.
fect the exterior form.
Longitudinal: Running lengthwise or ex-
Depressor: The muscle that lowers the leg. tending from head to tail.
The depressor neck muscle of an animal
Midline: Divides forms into right and left
pulls the head downward so that the ani-
sides, such as the midline of the chest or
mal can eat or drink.
body.
Muscles arranged like the fingers
Digitate:
Muscle: Bundles of elongated fibers that
of a hand; fingerlike process or projec-
are capable of contractions that produce
tion.
bodily movements.
Extensor: The extensor muscles straighten
Oblique: Running at an angle to the verti-
out the foreleg of a horse. Thev also
cal axis, such as the external oblique
straighten out an arm.
muscle on the side of the chest.
External: The exterior of a form; the exter-
Origin: The primar\' source; the begin-
nal planes of a shoulder.
ning of a muscle.
Fascia: A fibrous, flat connective tissue
Posterior: The rear or back section of an
that envelops muscular structures.
animal, the hindquarters.
Flexor: A muscle that bends part of a
body. The contraction of the flexor mus-
Process: An accessory prominence or pro-
jection bone, usually for movement,
on a
cles causes an arm or leg to bend.
such as the elbow (olecranon process of
Fossa: A
shallow depression for the artic-
the ulna).
ulation of one bone with another, such
as the glenoid fossa of the scapula (the Prone: The hand turned inward or the
shoulder blade), which permits the palm facing downward.
movement of the humerus (arm bone) Ramus: A platelike division of a forked
with the scapula. structure, such as the ramus of the man-
Head: The enlarged, rounded end of a dibula, also called the mandible (the
long bone such as the humerus (arm lower jaw).
bone) or the femur (leg bone) that inserts Rotate: To turn or cause to turn.
into the pelvis (hip bone).
The sawlike edge formed
Serrations:
Horizontal: At right angles to a vertical or where two muscles interdigitate, forming
upright axis. a woven appearance.

18
 Shaft: The main portion of a long bone. drawing and painting wildlife. This
Sphincter: A ring-shaped muscle that cir- knowledge will help the artist to "see" the
cles an opening or tube in the body and hidden skeleton of the animal that is
closes it. being sketched, particularly at a zoo, since
Spine: The spinal column of a vertebrate; zoo animals usually are on the move.
the backbone of a human; also any sharp Sketching animals in the wild is a lot
ridge or projection, such as the spine of more difficult and can be very frustrating
the scapula (the shoulder blade). for the beginner, because they will not
Superficiah Refers to a muscle, form, or pose for you.
part nearer to the surface or skin. The simplified drawing of the skel-
Superior: Higher grade, nearer the head, eton of the quarter horse in Figure 2.15
or the stronger area. will help you to see that it can be sepa-

Supine:The supine position of the hand rated into just a few units.
has the palm turned upward.
Suture: The interlocking of two bones at
Vertebral skeleton.not important to
It is

their edges, particularly in the skull. draw every it is important to

vertebra, but
simplify it into a workable, continuous
Symphysis: The joining of the right and
left sides, such as a joint, usually by a
form. Attached to the spine (which in-
cartilage, at the anterior or front section cludes the neck area) is the skull, the
of the pelvis (the pubic symphysis). thorax (the chest), the lumbar (the small
Tendon: A strong
connective ligament
of the back between the chest and pelvis),

that forms the origin or termination of a the croup (the pelvis or hip bone), and
muscle to the bone; a sinew. the tail (the sacrum or tailbone). These
Tensor: The muscle that tightens up a
units are known as the vertebral skeleton,
muscular form. and this is what we will study first. Also
attached to the vertebral skeleton are the
Transverse: Pertaining to forms across the
long axis or from side to side across the forelegs and the hindquarters, which we
long axis. will study later in this book.
Trochlea: A
smooth, pulley like surface or
The skeleton of the quarter horse in

spool that permits a smooth, effortless Figure 2.15 was purposely simplified,
motion of one part over another, such as since there are excellent books available
in the elbow joint. and most artists do not want to get too
Tuberosity: A
large, rough eminence or
involved with details here. I would sug-
bump on bone for the insertion or at-
a gest An Atlas of Animal Anatomy for Artists
tachment of a tendon or a muscle. and Atlas of Human Anatomy for the Artist

Vertical: Extending up and down or per-

as references, as listed in the Bibliogra-
pendicular to a horizontal plane. phy.
Referring to the drawing of the bone
structure, Figure 2.16, see the dotted line
that defines the area of the vertebral skel-
Skeleton
eton. Starting from the skull, which we
From an animal point of view^, the
artist's will study later in detail, we come to a
most important part of the anatomy is the very important part, the neck, which con-
skeleton. Know^ledge of bone structure, sists of seven vertebrae. Interestingly, all
particularly the construction of joints and animals, including the giraffe, have seven
their movements and limitations, is para- vertebrae. The difference is in their size.
mount. Of these seven, the first vertebra, the atlas
General knowledge of the shapes of (which supports the skull), and the axis
muscles, their origins and terminations, upon which the atlas rotates, are the most
and their actions is also needed. An artist important.
equipped w^ith this background should The next section of importance is the
not run into any serious problems while dorsal vertebrae, which consists of eighteen

19
 Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16

20
vertebrae. In other animals the number of Bcmes of the rib cage. The rib cage, also
vertebrae varies. For example, it ranges known as the thorax, is constructed of
from eighteen in the horse to twelve in bones and cartilage. It consists of three
the camel. (The human bodv also has parts, the dorsal or thoracic vertebrae, the
twelve.) These vertebrae support the ribs ribs and and the sternum.
their cartilages,
and also the sternum (breastbone), which It is designed to protect the heart and

encloses the lungs and heart. The lumbar, lungs and is also elastic and vielding,
also known as the small of the back, con- which is necessary for breathing. (See Fig-
sists of six vertebrae, although the Ara- ures 2.17 and 2.18.)
bian horse sometimes has only five. The The human thorax (Figure 2.18) con-
camel has seven. Xotice that the spinous tains twelve pairs of ribs, while the horse
processes have two peaks, one in the (Figure 2.17) has eighteen pairs of ribs. In
shoulder blade area and the other be- the human rib cage there are seven pairs
tween the lumbar and the pelvis. These of true ribs that connect directly to the
processes are important because thev help sternum, while the remaining five are
to define the contour of the back. called false ribs since they do not connect
The next and last section is the croup, directly to the sternum. Ribs eight, nine,
also known as the haunch. This also in- and ten are attached to the sternum bv a
cludes the tail vertebrae, which in the Common, cartilaginous strap, while the
horse number eighteen. These areas will lasttwo, called "floating ribs," do not at-
be studied individuallv. tach to the sternum.

Figure 2.17
RUDDER BOW

TIPOF STERNUM
sjer^UM OR KEEL OF A HORSE
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE KEELS OF DORSAL
AN AMERICAN CATBOAT AND A HORSE
CARINIFORM
CARTILAGE
PELVISREMO\ ED
SPINOUS LUMBAR
PROCESS VERTEBRAE

TOP VIEW OF PELVIS

TOP VIEW OF PELVIS AND SIMPLIFIED
RIB CAGE

21
 The has the same number of
giraffe
vertebrae as the human, the only differ-
STERNUM SCAPULA OR
SHOULDER BLADE ences being that those of the giraffe are
longer. The ox, camel, deer, dog, cat, pig,
and sheep all have the same number of
cervical vertebrae. The greatest difference
XIPHOID CARTILAGE RIB CAGE in the number of vertebrae in the animal
world will be found in the thorax, lumbar,
and pelvic areas.
The two most important cervical ver-
tebrae are the atlas and axis. The atlas is
attached directly to the skull and moves
PELVIS
with the head as it turns. It does not con-
form with the general shape of a vertebra
(Figure 2.17), as it consists only of a ring
with two, large, rounded, winglike trans-
Figure 2.18
verse processes. (See Figure 2.20.) These
two processes are just below the surface
The first eight ribs in the horse are and are a landmark in drawing, par-
true ribs while the last ten attach to the ticularly for short-haired animals such as
sternum by a continuous cartilage. There the dog, deer, horse, and cattle.
are no floating ribs in the horse. The axis, whose position is not visi-
Also note that the spinous processes ble on the surface, is also very important
of the horse are ver\' large, particularly to the artist, for it is the vertebra upon
those near the shoulder blades. The tip of which the atlas rotates. The atlas and the
the fourth vertebra is the junction point with the head, but the greatest
axis turn
where the neck line terminates as it enters movement will be between the second
the trunk line. and third vertebrae. (See Figure 2.20.) As
There is a decided variation in the you will notice in thephotograph, there is
construction of the sternum of the horse. a slight curve to the whole neck but the
It is called the cariniform cartilage. This car- greatest rotation is near the head. This ac-
tilage an extension of the keel of the
is tion must be understood in order to be
sternum that continues forward and up- able to draw or paint a convincing picture
ward, terminating roughlv near the height that will not look awkward to the viewer.
of the point of the shoulder when a horse
is in the standing position. This point is The skull. In order to draw or paint the
important in drawing because it is the ter- head of thorough understand-
a horse, a
mination of the neck. ing of the bone structure is an absolute
necessity. Copying a photograph is not al-
Bones of the head and neck. An important wavs the answer, as vou will have to cope
part of the vertebral skeleton is the head with such things as camera distortion and
and neck. (See Figure 2.19.) unsatisfactory' lighting. To the artist, the
It is important for the under-artist to photograph is considered only a means of
stand the construction of the neck because gathering information. The photograph of
it plays an important role in the move- the horse's head (see Figure 2.21) will help
ments and actions of an animal. However, you locate the planes, the mouth, eye
it is not necessary for the artist to draw structure, and the ears, but most damag-
the details of ever\' vertebra because thev ing to the artist who copies a photograph
should be considered as a simplified sin- exactly is the fact that the artist is not
gle unit, commonly called the "stalk of really expressing himself.
the neck." This stalk consists of seven cer- There are a set of photographs at the
vical vertebrae. end of each chapter that are to be used

22
 ATLAS VERTEBRAE

NUCHAL LIGAMENT

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

TEMPORAL BONE

Figure 2.19

BONY RIDGE OVER

THE EYE

Figxwe 2.20 NASAL BONE

Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

ZYGOMATIC ARCH
OR CHEEKBONE

NASAL PEAK

COMMON CARTILAGES

Figure 2.21
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

23
only as reference material. Photographs Pay particular attention to the con-
such as these will help you get started, struction of the alar cartilages, also known
but you should make your own studies as the comma cartilage of the nose. These
from them, and these should include the cartilages open and close the nostrils of
landscape or background as well. Assem- the horse when it is breathing heavily or
ble them into a pleasing composition and quietly. (See Figure 2.23.)
then paint your picture. You will be a lot Additional attention should be paid
happier with the result and you can then to construction of the nostril. Each
the
call it your own. nostril is divided into two sections: the
You will notice that the skulls of the true nostril, through which the air passes
horse and the human have the same through to the lungs, and the false nostril
bones. (See Figure 2.19.) The onlv differ- that is located above the head of the alar
ences are that in the horse the facial bones cartilage. This false nostril does not serve
are extended and the brain case is smaller. any particular purpose. When the true
There are also minor variations in bone nostril is fully opened, it tends to close
structure, depending on the breed. the false nostrO.
The skull of the horse consists of six Other important parts of the horse
sides, as does the human skull. (See Fig- include the mouth and the lips. \ot all
ures 2.19 and 2.21.) The top of the horse's animals eat the same way. The horse,
skull is the parietal bone and its ridge. The camel, sheep, and goat use their lips to
bottom is the base of
the occipital bone, eat. Thev use their incisors or front teeth
the skull, whichevident on the
is ver\' to cut or nip the grass. (See Figure 2.22.)
human but not on the horse since it is There are twelve incisors, six above and
deep within the neck structure. The two six below. Behind the incisors are the ca-
sides are formed bv the temporal bones that nines, two above and two below. These
encase the brain cavity, the zygomatic teeth will show when horses are fighting,
arches that form the cheeks, the maxillarxj biting, or whinnying.
and mandible bones that make up the sides The three centers of expression for an
of the mouth, and the frontal and nasal animal are the mouth, the eves, and the
bones that form the front of the face. ears. First in importance are the ears, with
In the lower left-hand corner of Fig- the mouth second and the eyes last. Most
ure 2.22 there is a small sketch of a kite. of the emotions of animals are expressed
This is the beginning framework for draw- with the ears. There are many shapes and
ing the horse's head. Line AB ser\'es as a sizes of ears, as well as many degrees of
center line and the cross line CD locates firmness. The general form of ear struc-
the eye line. The length of the eye line is ture is consistent with all breeds; the ob-
approximately one-half the length of the vious difference will be in its main form,
horse's head. Line CD is at right angles to known as the auricle. Some animals are
line AB and is approximately one-third prick-eared, such as horses, cats, and
the length of the center line. Keep in quite a few dogs (like the German Shep-
mind that we are dealing with perspec- herd). Prick ears usually indicate alert-
tive, so the center line and the cross line ness. Many dogs have ears that fall

should be foreshortened accordingly. forward, especially sporting dogs like

Square off the tip of the kite at point pointers, setters, spaniels, and retrievers.
B, and that will give you an approxima- Dogs with pendulous ears are considered
tion of the nose position. Draw another to have a gentle nature. Ears of this t\'pe
line parallel to eye line CD about two- will be found in beagles, bloodhounds,
thirds down center line AB, and that wOl and bassets.
give you the approximate position of the For simplicit)', the ear will be divided
end of the zygomatic bone, or cheek. In into three parts: the external ear, known
drawing a side view, the nose, eye, and as the auricula, which is a funnel-shaped
ear line up in a straight line. organ that collects the sounds and directs

24
 PARIETAL BONE
WING OF ATLAS
ATLAS FRONTAL BONE
AXIS

NASAL BONE

^\X MAXILLARY BONE

ZYGOMATIC ARCH OR
CHEEKBONE
PARIETAL BONE

FRONTAL BONE
^"^^
TEMPORAL BONE MANDIBLE

NASAL BONE

ALAR CARTILAGE
OF THE NOSE

Figure 2.22

Figure 2.23

NOSTRIL OPEN

NOSTRIL
CLOSED

NASAL BONE

NASAL PEAK
/ NASAL SEPTUM

TAIL

ALAR CARTILAGE
OF THE NOSE
 them toward the inner ear; the choncha
cartilage, also known as the auricular car-
tilage, which determines the shape of the
ear; and the subcutaneous muscles that con-
CONCHAL CARTILAGE trol the ear's actions. (See Figure 2.24.)
The which operate independ-
ears,
FAT BOWL FRONTAL BONE ently of each other, rotate on a ball-and-
socket joint that is formed by the fat bowl
WING OF ATLAS
of the concha revolving on the nearbv
parotid gland.
The muscles that control the move-
ments of the ear are many and complex. It
is not necessar\' for the artist to learn all
of these; just a few will suffice. The adduc-
ZYGOMATIC ARCH
tor muscles are used to erect the ear ver-
PROLONGATION COVERING tically and to turn it forward. These are
ATLAS VERTEBRAE ANNULAR CARTILAGE the scutularis (see Figure 2.24) and the
ADDUCTORS three adductors of the auricle. The de-
AURICLE
OF THE AURICLE pressor of the auricle and the obliquus cap-
OBLIQUUS SCUTULARIS itis superior pull the ear dow^nward and
CAPITIS backward. There are manv other small
SUPERIOR
muscles that are also involved in rotating
NUCHAL LIGAMENT the ear, but they are not visible and are
therefore of no importance to the artist.

Bones of the foreleg and hoof Animals with

DEPRESSOR OF
THE AURICLE hoofs belong to a large division called urt-
gulates, which include the elephant, rhi-
noceros, hog, and horse, as well as cud-
chewing animals {ruminants), deer, sheep,
Figure 2.24
goat, bison, camel, and giraffe. All of
these use their forelimbs and hind limbs,
which are restricted to forward and back-
Figure 2.25
This photograph shows the front view of the ear struc-
ward movements only, as a means of
ture. Remember that the ear can rotate forward and traveling from one place to another.
backward on its ball-and-socket joint.
Photograph courtes\' of Mrs. Ronald C\Til.
The bones of the forelimb of animals,
like those of the human arm, have four
parts: the shoulder blade, the upper arm
(humerus), the lower arm {radius and ulna),
and the hand section {pastern in animals)
consisting of the wrist, palm, and fingers.
(See Figure 2.26.)
In the human the shoulder girdle in-
cludes the collar bone, the shoulder blade,
and the coracoid process, which is a small
projection of bone forward
that extends
from the back side of the scapula (shoulder
blade) for the attachment of muscle. This
girdle is fully developed in birds and
lower mammals and is typical for the
horse, the ox, and the deer, in which the
forelimbs are used for support and loco-

26
motion, the coracoid process is reduced to
a minor projection, and the collar bone
does not exist. The absence of the collar
bone allows animals like the horse and
deer to jump great distances. One steeple-
chaser schooled (jumped) over a hurdle a
record distance of thirty-nine feet.
One difference between the construc- SHOULDER BLADE
w
\'

tion of the human forearm and the similar OR SCAPULA

section of the horse's lower limb is that
the human
forearm has two bones, the ra-
dius and the ulna, while in the horse the
radius and ulna are fused into one. Figures
2.26 and 2.27 explain the construction
from the wrist to the hoof. The cannon
bone is formed by the fusing of the five OLECRANON H
PROCESS ^^
bones that make up the palm of the OR ELBOW
human hand. The section from the ses-
amoid bones to the hoof corresponds to
human fingers. (See Figure 2.27.)

ULNA
Bojies of the pelvis. The skeleton of the
croup, also known two
as the haunch, has RADIUS
bones that form the outer prominences of HUMAN ARM ||4^
the pelvis and provide the hip sockets for
the hind leg bones. It also includes the
sacrum, which continuation of the
is a
/f^ y FINGERS OR DIGITS-
spine terminating with the tip of the tail.
The consolidation of these parts forms the
THE HORSE IS A DIGITIGRADE
pelvis, the solid platform of the hip area
ANIMAL— ONE THAT WALKS
that provides for the articulation of the leg ON ITS FINGERS
bones. (See Figure 2.28.) Figure 2.26

The human sacrum is the vestigial

trace of a tail, commonly known as the

tail bone. It usuallv consists of five to

seven caudal vertebrae. The tail of the
horse has eighteen caudal vertebrae. In a Figure 2.27
Photograph courtesv of Mrs. Richard Kuchicicki.
drawing, the pelvis can be simplified by
indicating the angle of the haunch and the
angle of the buttocks, with the center line
beginning wdth the angle of the croup and
terminating with the tail. SESAMOID
I BONES
Figure 2.29 illustrates the tilt of the i ;

croup when a horse is resting a hind leg.

Figure 2.30 is a back view of the horse
taken w^th a telephoto lens. It shows the
distortion of a photo, w^hich should be
corrected. The head, too large, should be
NAVICULAR BONE
drawn smaller so that it looks in proportion.

Bones of the hind limb. The bones of the COFFIN BONE

hind limb are the same as those in the

27
 SPINOUS CREST OF ILIUM human skeleton. Figures 2.28 and
(See
PROCESS 2.31.) From the pelvis to the knee cap or
HORSE PELVIS: patella, there is only one bone, called the
ILIUM BACK VIEW
femur. The next section is from the knee
cap to the heel joint, and consists of the
knee cap, tibia, and fibula. This section in
the horse is called the gaskin. The last part
HIP SOCKET consists of the heel bone, the cannon bone,
which is the same as the metatarsal arch of
the human foot (the final section of bones
FEMUR that make up the toes). In the horse this
section is known as the pastern and the
hoof. The drawing and photo of the hind
limb are self-explanatory (Figures 2.32 and
2.33) and will help you in your studies of
the horse.
ILIUM

Figure 2.30

HIP SOCKET HIP SOCKET

HUMAN PELVIS:
FRONT VIEW
Figure 2.28

Figure 2.29

28
 PELVIS

HUMAN LEG HIND QUARTER OF A HORSE Figure 2.31

Figure 2.32 rfff..^:'

Figure 2.33
Photograph courtesy- of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.
UP AND OVER
THE FENCE

RESTING THE
HEEL JOINT HIND LEG

UNDER PRESSURE THE ERGOT

WILL TOUCH THE GROUND

CORONET

PHALANGES

HOOF

29
 Figure 2.34

Muscles then indicate the prominent muscles that

are going to depict the action.
The names have purposely been deleted
from the scratchboard drawing of the
As you begin to understand the bone
muscular structure of the quarter horse.
and muscular structure, your drawings
will begin to improve. If you draw or
(See Figure 2.34.) Since we are going to
paint animals or figures and do not indi-
be studying the muscles individually, it is
cate the joints of the legs, the shoulder
not necessary at this time to label them.
blade, or the position of the hips and the
The muscle structure of the head will
knee cap {patella), your horse or figure
be studied separately. It must be remem-
will take on a rubber)^ appearance. The
bered that these are the superficial mus-
muscle study in Figure 2.34 is primarily
cles that will have the greatest effect on
for you to compare with Figure 2.35.
the form of a horse or any other short-
haired animal.
Tr\' to visualize what happens to the Muscles of the vertebral skeleton. Muscles are
shape of these muscles when the animal collections of fibers that, under the influ-
is under stress, such as when it is run- ence of the motor nerves, contract and
ning, stretched out over a hurdle, or produce the power for bodily movements.
pivoting with the weight of a cowboy who Aponeurosis or fascia are terms used to de-
is chasing a stray cow. It is not always scribe the sheath of tendonous material
possible to find a good photograph of that envelopes and protects these fibers.
such a scene. You should be able to Muscles are attached to bone by ropelike
sketch the pose wanted, however, and tendons. The firm, stable end of a muscle

30
 is called the origin, and the movable sec- TRAPEZIUS
tion is called the insertion or termination.
They may consist of a single muscle, such
as the masseter (Figure 2.35), or a split or
DELTOID
divided muscle, such as the sterno mastoid
muscle of the neck (Figure 2.35). Animal
Painting and Anatomy, by W. Frank Cal- SERRATUS
MAGNUS
deron (Dover Publishing), is highly rec-
ommended for advanced study of bone INFRA I
structure and anatomy. SPINATUS
DELTOIDUS
Muscles vary in size, shape, and vol-
ume. When they contract they may TERESV^ LATISSIMUS
^' DORSI POSTERIOR DEEP
shorten up to one-fourth their original MAJOR ^

PECTORAL TRICEPS BRACHII

length, depending on the amount of
DELTOID
power that is applied. When they relax
SUPRA SPINATUS
they lengthen to their usual normal size.
When painting or drawing animals and
birds, should be careful to show
artists
the muscles in their proper sizes and
shapes, whether they are relaxed or under

INFRA
SPINATUS
Figure 2.35
TERES
DEPRESSOR OF MINOR
|J
THE CARTILAGE /^-l TERES
OF THE EAR "~^
" M. SCUTULARIS MAJOR
M. SPLENIUS TRICEP
M. LEVATOR LABII
SUP ALAEQUE NASI

M CANINUS Figure 2.36

S PYRAMIDALIS
NASI
tension. If this is accomplished the work
will appear more realistic. A good exam-
ple is the human
arm. (See Figure 2.36.) If
STERNO bent and under power in order to lift a
MASTOID heavy object, the hicep, which consists of
two heads and one insertion, would be
short and bulging from the extreme pres-
sure applied, while the tricep, which has
ORBICULARIS
ORIS three divisions and one insertion and is
BUCCINATOR the opposite or opposing muscle, will be
M. MASSETER ORBICULARIS relaxed. If both muscles were under equal
OCULI pressure it would not be possible to bend
PYRAMIDALIS the arm.
STERNO NASALIS
MASTOID
Many plastic models of various ani-
ZYGOMATICUS
mals, including a plaster muscle model of
TRAPEZIUS ORBICULARIS a horse, are available for the The
artist.
ORIS
best way to use these is for perspective
TRIANGULARIS
and lighting. The models usually are in a
BUCCINATOR standing pose so that the artist can make
and apply his or her knowledge of muscle

31
forms according to wanted.
the action an artist will indicate when sketching the
Some of the best sources are photographs, head since it fills the jaw area and defines
keeping in mind that you may be working the zygomatic bone (Figure 2.19) and the
with pictures that have been taken with a lower plane of the jaw. The next two
telephoto lens. Out of my own personal muscles that hold our attention are the
file of animals (12,000 feet of movies), I leimtor labii superior alaeque nasi, which un-
have not found one frame that could be covers the canine tooth, raises the upper
copied. The only real purpose they served lip, and wrinkles the nose, particularly in
was to show me what size the animals the dog and other carnivora, and another
were and what the lighting was at the muscle with a long name, the caninus su-
moment. perior pyramidalis nasi, which is the "snarl-
The comparative scratchboard draw- ing muscle." The buccinator has two parts
ings of the heads of horses and humans but we are interested only in its outer
illustrate the similarity of their muscular portion. It is a superficial muscle and is

forms. (See Figure 2.35.) Each performs well developed. It adds fullness to the
basically the same actions. Some are lower jaw and is evident near the "bars"
longer and more fully developed, par- of the jaw. It is used to press food be-
ticularlv in the horse. It is important for tween the molars.
the artist to memorize their shape and The internal oblique is a fan-shaped
function and how they affect the surface muscle that covers most of the flank area.
contours. Its fibers are directed downward, forward,
It is necessary for an artist to know and inward toward the linea alba, which is
only a few muscles in the animal's head; a tendonous meeting of the aponeurosis.
too many muscles in an illustration tend It forms a seam along the median line of

to freeze the action. The first muscle is the the abdomen. It is not predominant in the
temporal. It is evident in the human but is horse but it is visible in the cow and the
covered by the scutularis in the horse. It is goat. This muscle helps arch the back.
the chief biting muscle. It is well devel- The rectus abdominis (see Figures
oped which is the main
in the carnivora, 2.37 and 2.38) is known as the "straight
reason why have well-rounded
cats muscle of the abdomen" of the horse,
skulls. The masseter is a very important which extends from the last five true ribs
muscle that affects the shape of the side of the thorax and the lower portion of the
of the head. It is the chewing muscle. It sternum. In the human it extends from
will probably be one of the first muscles the xiphoid appendage (the tip of the ster-

Figure 2.37 NUCHAL LIGAMENT

Muscles of the
COMPLEXUS
vertebral skeleton.

FLANK
AREA

CRURAL
AREA
INTERNAL
OBLIQUE
RECTUS ABDOMINUS

32
 Figure 2.38

RECTUS ^^ H EXTERNAL
ABDOMINUS OBLIQUE

INTERDIGITATION
OF SERR.ATUS MAGNUS
AND EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

num, or breastbone) to the anterior border tion we should understand is the nuchal
of the pubic bone. It performs the same ligament. (Again, I must stress that it is

action in the horse and in the human as a not absolutely necessar\- to learn all these
flexor of the spine. names; it is more important for the artist
The external oblique in the human to know their shapes and their actions.)
figure (see Figure 2.38) pulls the thorax The complexius is a large triangular
downward and also rotates the spine to muscle occupying the upper portion of
the opposite sides. U'hen both sides of the neck, from the nuchal ligament to the
this muscle are operating together, they cervical vertebrae. It is a deep muscle and
bend the thorax forward. is not visible. It helps extend the head.

The nuchal ligament (ligafneiitum The longissimus dorsi is a verv pow-

nuchae) important to the artist because it
is erful muscle of the back and is divided
defines the neck line. It is not visible but into three heads. As shown in the illustra-
it is ver\' important. This ligament helps tion, this muscle extends from the stalk of
support the horse's head and neck when the neck to the loins. Its shape rounds out
resting. It originates at the occipital pro- the back and the loins. In the loin area it

tuberance of the skull, extends down the isoften called the common mass. It is cov-
neck, and terminates at the withers. This ered with an aponeurosis from which the
ligament is a powerful, elastic, fibrous latissimus dorsi has its origin. In a well-
tissue whose principal action is to assist developed horse the longissimus dorsi
the extensor muscles in pulling the head will be higher than the spines of the lum-
downward so that the horse can eat and bar area (the vertebrae), thereby forming a
drink. The sphincter muscle, the orbicularis deep groove. It is a powerful extensor
not evident in the horse since it is
oculi, is muscle that helps straighten out the
small and covered by the skin around the spine.
eye. The round mus-
orbicularis oris is the
cle of the mouth and helps
form the to Superficial muscles. Figure 2.39 illustrates
mouth area. It is visible near the comers most of the important superficial muscles
of the mouth. These two muscles open of the horse. These muscles also appear in
and close the eyes and mouth. other animals, although there may be
The first set of muscles of the neck some variations. All of these muscles have
and thorax (Figure 2.37) are the complex- been discussed already, except for the tra-
ius, the longissimus dorsi, the internal pezius, the stemo maxillaris, and the mastoid
oblique, and the rectus ahdominus. In addi- humeralis.
tion, an important ligament whose func- The trapezius is triangular in shape

33
 SPLENIUS and extends along the center line of the
body from the second cervical to the tenth
TRAPEZIDS thoracic vertebra. It is divided into two
parts. The cervical portion arises along the
center line of the neck, converges on the
spine of the scapula, and terminates at the
STERNO MAXILLARIS
third thoracic vertebra, while the second
MASTOID part originates on the center line of the
HUMERALIS body, from the third to the tenth thoracic
CARINIFORM vertebra, and also terminates on the spine
(STERNUM) of the scapula. This part covers the with-
LATISSIMUS DORSI
PECTORALIS ers. Its action is to elevate the shoulder.
MINOR The first part scapula forward
pulls the
SERRATUS
MAGNUS while the second pulls the scapula back-
ward.
The stemo maxillaris, also known in
the human as the stemo mastoid (Figure
2.40), is a long fleshy muscle that, in the
horse, arises from the cariniform and ter-
minates on the back border of the lower
jaw. In the human it originates from two
GREAT OBLIQUE heads, the sternum and the collar bone,
and terminates on the mastoid process.
NOTE: This muscle flexes the head and neck and
CUTANEOUS MUSCLE
REMOVED inclines the head sideways.
The mastoid humeralis is a large
muscle that arises from the top of the
skull and terminates on the lower ex-
tremity of the humerus. It divides into
Figure 2.39 two distinct parts that unite at the shoul-
Superficial muscles illustrated.
der and then continue to a single termina-
tion on the humerus. (See Figure 2.39.) Its
action pulls the shoulder and the leg for-
ward and also assists in pulling the head
and neck to one side.
Figure 2.40

Splenius, small anterior and posterior serratus,

STERNO and great external oblique. The splenius is a

MASTOID widespread muscle that covers the upper
portion of the neck. (See Figure 2.41.) Its

origin is at the withers and from there it

TRAPEZIUS
expands into five fingerlike digitations
that terminate on the nuchal crest, the
mastoid process, the wing of the atlas,
and the transverse processes of the third,
fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae. This
RECTUS ABDOMINUS
muscle is well developed in the dog and
the other carnivora and is the reason why
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE these animals have full and well-rounded
necks.

34
 SPLENIUS
SMALL ANTERIOR
SERRATUS
SMALL POSTERIOR
SERRATUS
CRURAL
ARCH

Figure 2.41
GREAT EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

When all of the digitations operate (See Figure 2.42.) The bottom part is just
together, they elevate the head and neck. above the crest of the ilium and will be
If one side is operating alone, it will in- noticeable when the torso is bent side-
cline the head and neck toward that side.
The small anterior and posterior serratus Figure 2.42
assist in thebreathing process and help to
round out the fullness of the back. (See SUPRA SPINATUS
Figure 2.41.) They are covered by the tra- INFRA SPINATUS
pezius and the latissimus dorsi muscles LATISSIMUS DORSI
and the fascia that overlays the lumbar re-
gion.
The great external oblique covers a
large area, extending from the ribs of the
chest to the midline of the abdomen (linea
SERRATUS
alba) and the tendon located near the - MAGNUS
i
pubic bone. In addition, there is a series GREAT EXTERNAL OBLIQUlJ
of digitations that attach to the last four- INTEDIGITATION OF
teen ribs. This muscle is especially heavy SERRATUS MAGNUS
AND EXTERNAL
on the side of the bodv and it assists in OBLIQUE
PECTORALIS MINOR
the act of breathing. It also helps in flex- PECTORALIS
ing the trunk to arch the back. MAJOR
It is necessary to emphasize the im-

portance of the construction and muscula-

ture of the thorax, lumbar, and pelvis, as
the limbs are attached to it by their own
PECTORALIS
set of muscles, especially the forelimb. LATISSIMUS DORSI
MINOR
The splenius and the anterior and
posterior serratus are deep-set muscles
and do not have much importance in af-
fecting the surface area, but the great ex- EXTERNAL
ternal oblique does play a great part as a OBLIQUE
superficial muscle, and it is quite visible
on the human and on short-haired ani-
mals. On the human torso the external
oblique also assists in flexing the thorax.

35

I
vvavs. (See Figures 2.28 and 2.42.) This is the cannon bone and the platform joint,
called the flunk pad, while the upper sec- which is a hinge joint, may be considered
tion that carries the digitations is flat as as a fixed joint. It is held together by
compared rounded digitations of
to the strong carpal ligaments. This joint looks
the serratus magnus. (See Figures 2.38 like a rectangular box in a vertical posi-

and 2.42.) The abdomen, which is covered tion. has tapering ends, with each end
It

bv the rectus abdominis muscle, is the tapering into the tendons of the upper
most movable part of the human torso. and lower muscles.
This is also true in animals. Its function is The muscles that move the forelimb
to bend the thorax. The pelvis is a fixed are many. Some have their origin and ter-
platform and forms the fulcrum upon mination on the humerus; others originate
which the lumbar vertebrae rotate when on the scapula but terminate on the fore-
the bodv is being twisted. The trapezius arm. Another group originate on the fore-
muscle in the horse and in the human has arm and motivate the cannon bone and
the same action; it draws the head back- the hoof. Then we can add those that
ward and rotates it toward either side, originate on the humerus and also act on
while the sterno mastoid, the opposing the forearm, but itnot necessarv to
is

muscle, pulls the head forward and also learn all of these unless you are planning
rotates the head to opposite sides. advanced study. All of these muscles are
important but the number that the artist
will use can be simplified to just a few.
Muscles of the forelimb. Animals use their There are three extensors that the art-
forelimbs and hind limbs basicallv as a ist willbe interested in: the extensor carpi
means of locomotion. The main difference ulnaris, the extensor carpi radialis, and the
between the human arm and the forelimb extensor digitorium communis. (See Figures
of the horse is that the horse does not 2.43 and on the
2.44.) All three are located
have the capabilit\' to move the forelimb side of the leg. The extensor carpi radialis
sideways to the degree that the human may also be seen on the front of the leg.
arm can be held in a lateral position and This is the muscle that straightens out the
then raised and lowered. Most of the un- leg.
gulates have some lateral movement, such The extensor carpi ulnaris is a large
as stepping sideways, but this is very lim- flat muscle that is located on the lateral
ited. side of the ulna. It does not play an im-
We
must first consider the arrange- portant part on the horse. The extensor
ment of the bones of both limbs as me- digitorium communis originates on the
chanical devices and then the muscles that lower portion of the humerus (arm bone)
attach and bind them to a vertebral col- and extends to the hoof. It assists in ex-
umn. This same muscular SNStem applies tending the cannon bone and the hoof.
to the human as well as to most animals. The flexor carpi radialis is located on
Attention should be paid to the vari- the inside of the leg behind the radius. Its
ous joints in the forelimb. The joint be- action is to extend the olecranon process
tween the scapula and the humerus is a (elbow) and to flex the carpal joint. In the
ball-and-socket joint, the same as in the human the extensor carpi radialis longus ex-
human, while the joint at the elbow is a tends the hand and also acts as an adduc-
hinge joint that is capable only of forward tor.
and backward movement. The knee joint
is formed by two joints. The joint at the Muscles that attach the shoulder blade to the
end of the radius may be considered as a trunk. The back and shoulder of the horse
movable joint (the first hinge). Then, a present many depressions, flowing rounded
series of irregular bones, arranged in two forms, and prominences caused by the
tiers,forms a platform on which the ra- presence of many bony structures near
dius rolls. The next joint formed between the surface and the muscles that cross and

36
recross, which are visible when in action.
DELTOID M. PECTORALIS
For this reason the artist needs to know MAJOR
TRICEP
prominent landmarks such as the withers,
the cariniform process, the point of the
shoulder, and the olecranon process. BICEP
Movement is great in this area as the
shoulder blade slides over the deeper-set
EXTENSOR
muscles and the cage (thorax) of the trunk, CARPI
BRACHIO ULNARIS I EXTENSOR
which moves forward and backward, up RADIALIS .
\ CARPI
and down, as the legs flex and extend ^lij'jt -'0 RADIALIS
FLEXOR
themselves. In the human, the upper fi- EXTENSOR CARPI EXTENSOR
bers of the trapezius pull the scapula CARPI RADIALIS a DIGITORIUM
RADIALIS ' COMMUNIS
toward the spine and upward, while its
LONCUS
lower fibers pull the scapula downward. URIST
(See Figure 2.36.) By comparison the cer-
vical section of the trapezius in the animal
also pulls the shoulder blade forward and
upward, and the thoracic section pulls it
backward and upward.
The deltoid muscle of the human raises
the arm. Its anterior section pulls the arm
HUMAN RIGHT ARM:
forward and rotates it inward while its HAND ROTATED INWARD
posterior section pulls it backward and ro-
tates it outward. The same muscle in the Figure 2.43
animal, known abducts
as the deltoidus,
the upper portion of the forelimb and
flexes the shoulder.
The chest muscles in the human are
in two distinct parts. The largest of the Figure 2.44

pectoral muscles is the pectoralis major,

while the smallest is the pectoralis minor, M. EXTENSOR CARPI
but in animals this is reversed. The largest RADIALIS

pectoral muscle is known as the posterior

deep pectoral, and the smallest is the ante- M.EXTENSOR
rior deep pectoral (pectoralis major).
DIGITORIUM
COMMUNIS
The anterior portion originates on the
lateral surface of thesternum and the car- M. FLEXOR
OLECRANON
and terminates
tilages of the first four ribs
PROCESS
CARPI
RADIALIS
on the scapula. Its action is to adduct and OR ELBOW
retract the limb, and when the limb is ad-
M. EXTENSOR
vanced to a fixed position it draws the CARPI ULNARIS
body forward. This muscle is shaped like
a prism.
The posterior deep pectoral is shaped
like a fan. Its origin is the sternum, the
cartilages of the fourth to the ninth rib,
and the abdominal tunic. Its action is the
same as that of the anterior portion of the
pectoral muscle.
The latissimus dorsi performs the same
function in both humans and animals. It

pulls the arm or forelimb backward. It is

37

11
triangular in shape and covers most of the area where the greatest leverage occurs,
back and loins. (See Figures 2.36 and 2.39.) while the back view in Figure 2.46 will il-
This is a large and very strong muscle and is lustrate the muscular mass where its

visible on both humans and animals. strength originates. This

required to is

The triceps brachii of animals and the move the great weight of animals such as
triceps of the human are the extensors of the horse, the moose, the elk, the giraffe,
the forelimb and arm. Each consists of the elephant, and the rhinoceros.
three heads, one of which originates on Figure 2.46 shows the back view of
the scapula with the othertwo originating the quarter horse. The hindquarters are
on the humerus. They terminate on the very heavily muscled, both inside the leg
elbow. (See Figures 2.36 and 2.43.) and outside. The rump area is very broad
and heavy, and carries a feeling of great
Muscles of the hind limb. The greater move- driving power and strength.
ment of both animals and humans is The long vastus is a large crescent-
based on the pelvis. It is the mechanical shaped muscle that extends from the up-
axis of the body. Whether the animal is per portion of the femur and terminates at
running, trotting, rearing, or jumping, the the stifle. This muscle is quite prominent
greatest action is at the pelvic area. It acts on the hindquarters of the horse, par-
as the fulcrum point of the legs and the ticularly from the side view. This muscle
trunk. The spine, which is the support is an extensor and pulls the thigh back-

trunk for the forelegs, the neck, and the ward to straighten out the leg. It also acts
head, projects forward from the pelvis. It as an abductor of the whole leg. Some
islarge in proportion because of the task authorities include this muscle with the bi-
it has to perform. ceps femoris.
The approach to the study of muscu- The biceps femoris is a large triangu-
lar structure requires two different angles. lar muscle that originates on the sacral
The side view in Figure 2.45 shows the portion of the angle of the buttock and

Figure 2.45 SEMITENDINOSUS FASCIA GLUTEAU GLUTEUS MEDIUS

~
- •
GLUTEUS
MAXIMUS
M TENSOR
FASCIA
LATAE
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
ILIO TIBIAL
LONG BAND
VASTUS
,.\rFASCIA LATAE
BICEPS
FEMORIS
y
BICEPS
FEMORIS
GASTROCNEMII

EXTENSOR
DIGITORUM
LONGUS
GASTROCNEMIUS

38
terminates on the posterior surface of the
femur near the patella. If the long vastus
is included as part of the biceps femoris, it

would then have three parts. Having

M. GLUTEUS
three heads or parts creates a complicated MAXIMUS
action. LONG
The first part, originating near the VASTUS
sacrum and terminating near the patella, BICEPS
acts as an extensor, thereby straightening FEMORIS
out the leg. The next part divides into two
heads. It arises on the anterior portion of
M. SEMI TENDINOSUS
the ischium and terminates on the ante-
rior crest of the tibia. The middle section
extends the hip, and the posterior part of
this muscle assists in extending the hock GASTROCNEMII
(heel joint).
GASTROCNEMIUS
The general action of this group of
muscles is to extend the limb when the

body propelled forward, or rearing or

is

kicking, and to adduct the limb. In the HEEL BONE OR OS CALCIS

human, the bicep femoris adducts the leg,
flexes the leg, and extends the thigh back-
ward.
The tensor fascia lata (see Figure 2.45)
originates at the angle of the haunch (an- Figure 2.46
gle of the ilium). expands into a wdde,
It

triangular, fleshy mass that terminates in

a wide aponeurosis, which is about mid- process or tuberosity that is about one-
w^ay betv\'een the point of the hip and the third of the way down the femur. This is
stifle. It acts as a tensor of the fascia lata, a triangularmuscle whose action is to ad-
flexes the hip joint, and also extends the duct the limb, flex the hip, and add ten-
stifle joint. sion to the gluteus fascia {fascia gluteau). In
The fascia lata acts as a bracew^hen the human, same muscle extends the
this
an animal is standing. For example, w^hen thigh backward, provides tension, and ad-
an animal is trotting, one foot is on the ducts the thigh.
ground and the other is off the ground. The
gastrocnemii originates from the
The fascia lata steadies the pelvis and op- upper third of the femur by two
distal or
poses the action of the muscle on the op- heads and terminates on the point of the
posite side, so that during this alternate heel joint. Its action extend the heel
is to
action the pelvis remains practically level. or flex the stifle joint. impossible for
It is

This thin aponeurosis covers some of the these two actions to occur simultaneously.
underlying muscles and also strengthens The tendon of this muscle is quite promi-
the area. Some of the shapes in the region nent on the heel. It flexes the leg and will
of the patella are visible when an animal also point the foot. It is known on the

is in action. This aponeurosis is the same human as the "tendon of Achilles."

as the ilio tibial band in the human, which The extensor digitorum longus, also
has the same action. known as the long digital extensor, origi-
The gluteus maximus muscle has a nates on the upper, anterior portion of the
counterpart in the human, where it is also femur and terminates on the phalanges
known as the gluteus maximus. This mus- near the center of the coronet of the hoof.
cle arises from a portion of the lateral Its action is to flex the hock and extend
border of the ilium and terminates on a the digit (hoof)-

39
 As we progress through the demon- their packs and how they are tied onto
stration painting, it be necessar)' to
will the pack animals, the saddles, the cloth-
refer back to this chapter for anatomical ing worn in that particular area, and fi-

explanations. nally the type of landscape.

demonstration painting, 1 felt
In this
that the black and white pen sketch (Fig-
ure 2.47) would be sufficient since I had
DRAWING AND PAINTING my material for the landscape from color
THE HORSE slides and personal experience in country
of this type.
The next step was to research the
Research, Sketch,
cowboys' clothing and enlarge the sketch
and Composition
to the full size of the painting, which is
The generally accepted approach to a thirty-six inches wide and twenty-four
painting is to make a color sketch that will inches high. Enlarging is explained on
serve as your composition or layout. A pages 41-43. The next working procedure
composition is just a way to put your idea was to lay a transparent tissue, such as
down on paper so that others can visual- parchment paper, over the enlarged
ize it, and it is also a guide for working sketch and proceed to make a simplified
out the design, color, and values. It is not drawing of the horses and cowboys. This
wise when making paintings of this order sketch was then transferred to green pa-
to experiment on the finished art. Be sure per that was rendered in two parts with
your design is right, and then research charcoal and white chalk. The drawing of
the problem so that you will thoroughly the rider and the two pack horses (Figure
understand what you w^ll be working 2.48) was made first and the final drawing
—
with the type of horse that will be used. (Figure 2.49) was made last.

Figure 2.47
 Figure 2.48

Figure 2.49

Four ways to There are

enlarge your sketch. sketch and lay out a series of squares,
four ways to your sketch: by
enlarge horizontally and vertically. These squares
using squares, with the opaque projector, may be of any size, such as one inch, for
by photostat, or by projecting 35mm example. The size of the squares depends
transparencies. upon the size of your sketch. In the exam-
The most convenient methods are the ple, I drew the squares over the photo-
squares and the opaque projector, if one graph of the first rider so that you could

is available. Figure 2.50 illustrates the use easily follow the instructions.
of the squares. Lay transparent tissue, Take another sheet of tissue and
such as parchment paper, over your draw the same number of squares on it.

41
 X;
^f*
m^v2
f
1?^
jA

^%i ^
k^f9^
; m
^^
.^^

1!
^ Jkk flL '^1
1

i'^

;p
W ^
Figure 2.50

Figure 2.51
enlarging the squares to the size that you sketch by 500 percent. Your sketch may
want the final drawing to be. (See Figure suffer. Take time to study it. If it seems
2.51.)Then, match the same basic lines of weak, strengthen the lines and use bold,
vour sketch. These squares may measure vigorous strokes so that vou will regain
two to three inches in size, depending on the verve and power of the original
the size of the final painting. sketch.
After the enlarged sketch has been
drawn, refine the them onto
lines, trace Locating the most importmit point within your
charcoal paper, and then proceed to make composition. A
valuable device for an artist
vour final study for the finished painting. is to locate the most important point
If vou have an opaque projector available, within a rectangle. This system was used
use it in place of the squares. Be sure to to locate the best point to place the lead
keep your sketch small so that it will fit rider of the pack train, who is the point of
the enlarger. The photostat method, if interest in the painting in Figure 2.52. In
that ser\'ice is available to you, will take addition, horses "look" toward the
the
longer. rider, the other riders point to the lead
The use of the 35mm transparency is rider and his horse, and, finally, the main
the method I prefer since I have the time lines of the landscape also point in that
available to wait for the return of the direction.
transparence This method makes it possi- To locate this point, after the size of
ble to adjust to various sizes until you are the has been decided upon,
rectangle
satisfiedwith the proportions of the de- draw a diagonal from the lower left corner
sign. Then, trace the design onto a paper to theupper right corner. (See Figure
of your choice and complete your studies. 2.52.) Xext, on the line just drawn, con-
One of the difficult aspects of enlarg- struct a right angle line to the upper left
ing is maintain the spirit of the sketch.
to comer. Where these two lines meet is the
Drawings look completely different when most important point within this rectan-
they are blown up to a larger size. Some gle. This system will work on an\- size
enlarge easily and some do not. If you rectangle. It also may be used to locate a
have a sketch that is three inches high horizontal line, such as the horizon. If
and four inches wide, and you enlarge it you draw these lines from opposite cor-
to fifteen inches high and twenty inches ners, the point of interest w^ill be on the
wide, you are increasing the size of vour right-hand side of the rectangle.

Figxire 2.52

43
 Figure 2.53

Rhythm in your art: making your paintings When I was in art school, I felt that it

move. Again, photographs are being used was necessar\- to use a large palette. was
I

in place of therough sketches that would learning about paint and how to use it. As
normalh- be used at this stage in develop- the vears progressed, somehow the pal-
ing the drawings and composition for a ette kept getting smaller, the painting
painting. started to look a little better, the colors
The rhythm lines are ver\' important were not so garish, and the palette now
to a design. (See Figure 2.53.) These lines consists of a ver\' workable grouping of
tie the painting together and prevent it colors.
from falling apart. The design, in addition
to values and color, establishes a solid
Ultramarine - Blue
continuity . All of these units, when bal-
Viridiaii = Green
anced, create a pleasing illustration or
Cadmium yelloic
painting.
= Warm yellow
So as not to destroy vour original
Cadmium barium
sketch as you tr)' various arrangements of orange = Warm orange
your subjects, lay a clean tissue over vour Cadmium barium
enlarged sketch and then freely draw the red light= Warm red
rhythm lines. Play with the drawing; have Burnt umber = Brown
a good time rolling the rhvthm lines until Raw umber = Earth color, tones
you are satisfied with the results. ranging from
greenish and yel-
lowish to a violet
Painting the First Stage brown
Burnt siena = Burnt red ochre
This the fun part of a painting. Your
is
Raw siena = Ochre-like in color
idea and composition have been estab-
Yellow ochre = Dull yellow
lished, the research is out of the wav, the
Ivory black - Black'
sketches have been made and enlarged,
rhythm lines are firml\ entrenched within
your mind, the canvas has been stretched, In Figure 2.54, after the necessar\' sketches
and you are ready. Now comes the color were made of the horses and the riders,
palette. the\' were transferred to a previously

44
 Figure 2.54

Stretched canvas that had two coats of a The Halfway Stage

white gesso. The outlines of the rocks and
canyon walls were lightly indicated since The painting of the pack train and its
they would be painted freely and might be riders was only half finished. The details
changed as the painting progressed. would be painted after the rest of the
The pack train was painted first since painting was nearly completed. First, the
it is the point of interest and it was felt landscape areas were painted. The sky
and val-
necessar}^ to establish the color and clouds, distant mountains with their
ues. —
The rest of the painting the land- ice fields, and the darks of the canyon
—
scape and sky would be keyed to the walls were next. Particular attention was
pack train. paid to establishing a value scale in these

Figure 2.55

45
darks, running from a dark foreground to were rubbed on with a brush. Here again,
a lighter distance. These darks and the vou will have to exp>eriment with various
persp>ective of the river add depth to the brushes. Highlights were scrubbed out
landscapH?. with turpentin e to give the effect oT
The texture of the rock\- wal ls was in- broken rocks and rubble.
dicated next. This texture was patted ont o After all of this dried, the golden
the canvas with paper napkin s (you have color was washed on the canvon walls
to experiment with various ones to find that were not shadow, and li^ht rav s
in
the texture that works well for you), rags, were scrubbed ou t with a firm, round,
and brushiinrk. Figure 2.55 shows the p ointed -bristle brush The palette knife
.

painting at the halfway stage. was then introduced to loosen up the

painting and to add additional texture to
the rocks, the S£ra\ from the water dash-
ing agai nst the rock s, and the^ hoofs of the
Completing the Painting horses. Final touches wer^ added to the
The shadows were next, with an indica- pack train and its riders. The evergreens
tion of the rough water and its eddies. were added, highlights were indicated to
Then the water in the sunlight was the sunlit wate r with an mpasto whitish
i ,

painted. paint (if you jint your whites with a touch

At this stage the painting was ap- of \eUow, thev will look better), and now
proaching the finish. As the various parts the painting was finished. (See Figure
dried out, especially on the rocks, glazes 2.56.)

Figure 2.56
FREDRic svsTNEY (American, 20th century)
White-Water Trail (oil).
Courtes\' of the Ain«ncan Western Collection.

46
PRACTICE SUBJECTS ings. These photographs should be en-
larged, possibly reversed in their posi-
These photographs of horses in various tions, or combined to make a pleasing
poses and the dry brush drawing of a grouping for a pastoral scene. The artist
bucking bronco (Figures 2.57-2.64) were then should research an appropriate back-
made particularly for artists to copy and ground and follow the working procedure
use as models in creating their own paint- that was explained for "White-Water Trail."

Figure 2.57
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

Figure 2.58
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki,

Figure 2.59
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

47
 Figure 2.60
Photograph courtesy of Mrs Richard Kuchdcki.

Figure 2.61
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Ronald Cyril.

LK-^'* Figure 2.63

' ^ ^ Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

S^.l^

Figure 2.62
Photograph courtesy of Mrs. Richard Kuchcicki.

48
Figure 2.64

49
CHAPTER THREE

The dog

The dog is probably the most widely made friends with the people, or pups
known of all domestic animals. There are may have been captured and then slowly
many hundreds of breeds today, ranging domesticated.
in size from the Irish Wolfhound (which The dog's ability to hear sounds and
weighs a minimum of 120 pounds) to the to identify the scents of approaching peo-
smallest, which you can hold in your hand. ple or animals long before the hunters
Everyone seems to love dogs, whether they could was soon recognized. In addition,
are working animals or family pets. its capability to track animals made it a

valuable hunting companion.

HISTORY
ROUSSEAU
Dogs were the first ancient domesticated
animals to develop a close companionship Percival Rousseau began his artistic career
with human beings. Their origin is still rather late, at the age of thirty-five, at the
being investigated and has yet to be posi- Academie Julian in Paris. His early paint-
tively established. There are many theo- ings showed the influence of the French
ries about how dogs first approached Barbizon School.
prehistoric people. They may have scav- The Barbizon School sought a new
enged campsites for leftovers and slowly approach to nature and landscape paint-

50
Figiire 3.1
PERcrvAL ROUSSEAU (American, 1859-1937)
Best in the Field —-English Setter.
From the archives of and cop\Tight Brown and Bigelow, St. Paul, Minnesota.

ing and wished to emancipate artists from The lineage of the modern grey-
the restraint of the academic tradition of hound can be traced back to the vear
art,although they never really broke away 4,000 B.C. The first signs of the dog came
from this bondage. from the valley of the Nile in Egypt. Sur-
Rousseau eventually freed himself prisingly, the Saluki, the Afghan, and the
from the Barbizon style of classical paint- Irish Wolfhound all belong to the grey-
ing and soon developed his own natural hound family. Under the long coat of the
technique. His handling of abstract de- Afghan you will find the same graceful
sign, his use of color, and his thorough outline as that of the greyhound.
understanding of the anatomy and natural All three of these dogs are among the
poses of dogs soon made him America's few that hunt by sight and not by scent.
finest sporting dog painter (see Figure Formerly, greyhounds were used for
3.1). coursing hares, but in recent years they
have been used mainly for racing. Pos-
sessing great speed, a flexible body, and
ANATOMY OF THE DOG the grace of a swallow, the greyhound is
excellent for studying, drawing, and
The greyhound has been selected as the painting.
best example for the study of bone and There is great variety in the sizes and
muscle structure since it is a slender, bone structures of the various breeds of
smooth-coated animal with excellent con- dogs. As an example, the differences in
formation. conformation and size between the grey-

51
 Figure 3.2

hound and thedachshund may be seen in The figure described as being so many
is

Figures 3.3 and 3.22. The same bones are heads long, so manv heads wide, and so
present, but they differ in size and length. many heads high.
In most dogs, it will be possible to use the The artist must pay close attention to
same approach in establishing proportions differences in head structure and, also,
as was used in sketching the proportions hair formsand directiorf. Obser\'e, for ex-
of the horse. The English bull, with its ample, whether the dog is smooth-haired,
square, blocky shape and short legs, will long-haired, or curly coated. You will still

be an exception to the rule. For this dog, have to indicate first the skeleton, par-
the length of the head is used as a ruler. ticularly the joints, and the body form.

52
Figvire 3.3 Figure 3.4
Greyhound. Greyhound.
Courtes\- of .\ls. \anc\- KeUv. Courtesy of Ms. N'anc)- Kelly.

Figure 3.5
Forelegs and toes (front view).
Courtesv of Ms. N'ano' Kellv.

Figure 3.6
Hind legs and toes (back view).
Greyhound courtesv of Ms. Xanc\- Kellv.
 'S

Figure 3.7
Greyhound.
Courtes\- of Ms. \ancv KeOv.

Then, sketch the hair, paying attention to are drawing or painting from a live
its direction and to the way the folds of model, because dogs do not always hold
the hair of long-haired dogs indicate the still. This is one of the most formidable

form underneath. A good working proce- and frustrating aspects of animal art tr\'- —
dure is to sketch a simplified drawing of ing to get good sketches of an animal that
the skeleton and form first, put a tissue practically refuses to hold still, unless you
over the top of the sketch, and draw the are lucky enough to catch the animal
hair folds and directions. This is the tissue asleep. Here is where your knowledge of
that you will trace over onto your canvas anatomy will pay handsome dividends,
or paper. because you will be able to make sim-
The simplified scratchboard drawings plified action sketches followed by solid
of the greyhound's skeleton and muscle studies, with the basic bones and muscles
structure in Figure 3.2 illustrate the basic indicated, all proper places. You
in their
knowledge of anatomy needed for making should keep several drawings or sketches
the studies and drawings for a painting of going at the same time. As the dog moves
a dog. If it is necessary- for additional around, keep adding to the sketches that
identification nomenclature, you
about have similar poses until you have enough
may refer to the many
anatomical draw- studies for the painting you wish to make.
ings of the horse in Chapter Two because The amateur is bound to get discour-
the bones and muscles are the same as aged but will soon get the knack of mak-
those found in the horse. The only differ- ing quick sketches. The experienced artist
ences are in sizes and shapes. knows how to solve the problem of draw-
The photographs and drawings of the ing an animal that refuses to hold still. It
greyhound in Figures 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 is important for the beginner to maintain
will help you in sketching these forms. a good frame of mind when sketching.
The bones and joints are well defined, Approach your drawing with enthusiasm.
and the hair directions on their legs are Big dogs and working dogs are more
indicated. You should make individual apt to hold still than small dogs par- —
studies of the photographs of the legs so ticularly puppies that somehow manage to
that you understand them thoroughly. be in a dozen places at one time. Dogs
naturally tend to have ner\'ous tempera-
ments and will not hold a pose for long.
The best dog to practice on, if you own
DEALING WITH YOUR MODEL one, is your own, because you probably
know all of its idiosyncrasies and behavior
As was the case for the horse, a working patterns.
knowledge of the dog's anatomy is ex- As the word gets around that you are
tremely valuable, particularly when you a good dog portraitist, you will probably

54
get requests some. The new
to paint ences to make their final studies before
model will be a complete stranger to you. Busy people do not
starting the painting.
Take time to get acquainted with the dog, have the time to sit through long poses;
and, to be fair, give the dog a chance to neither do our animal friends. This axiom
get acquainted with you. Do not force holds true for wild animals as well as do-
yourself on the animal by trying to make mestic ones. Obtain as much reference
it hold a pose that you want to paint. Pa- materialon your subject as necessar\',
tience with animals pays off. make your studies, and then paint your
Today, we are fortunate to have good picture.
camera equipment available for making The sketch and painting of the Ger-
quick-reference studies. Contemporar\' por- man short-haired pointer (Figures 3.8 and
trait artists use the camera for preliminarv' 3.9)were handled in this manner. I accu-
work. The\' use their photographic refer- mulated as much material as possible first.

Figure 3.8
Full-size sketch of a German Short-
haired Pointer, later enlarged for the
painting.

Figure 3.9
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th centur\')
German Short-haired Pointer.
Courtesy of Ralph Wilhelm, D.V.M.
then took photographs of the dog, and This painting was begun with a small
composed a pleasing pose. After making ink sketch (Figure 3.10). A photograph
the sketch and studies of the quail, I had was made of the dog's head (Figure 3.11),
the dog brought to my studio so that I and the large charcoal drawing was
could check the markings and color. A sketched on a tissue. Note that the posi-
final check was made later, to get the ap- tions of the front legs in the sketch were
proval of the owner. changed because they froze the action
(Figures 3.12 and 3.13). The same palette
was used as for the horse painting "The
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING White-Water Trail" in Chapter Two. The
sky was painted first; then the reeds and
It is early morning, with the wind begin- water were blocked in. The dog and duck
ning to freshen as a late fall storm swings were laid in with a general coloring, and
in over the lake. Biting cold nips the air, their forms were indicated. The skv was
and the surface of the lake is beginning to completed and then all of the reeds, in-
get choppy. Ducks appear in small groups cluding the ones flat on the water, and fi-
making their swift passage against the nally the dog and the duck were finished.
strong wind. A Labrador is retrieving a A palette knife was used on the reeds and
fallen duck and comes splashing to the the water in order to loosen up the paint-
hunter with the bird. ing. (See Figure 3.14.)

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

56
Figiire 3.12

Figure 3.13
Eager Beaver.

Labrador retriever and mallard duck

tvN'O-thirds completed.

57
 Figure 3.14
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
Eager Beaivr (Black Labrador retriever).
Courtesy of Wild Wings, Inc

58
59
PRACTICE SUBJECTS be covered up. If you decide to paint this

particular one, you still should sketch out

the body, especially the bone structure of
The accompanying photographs (Figures the legs and their positions in relation to the
3.15, 3.16, 3.17, and 3.18) may be used for body in order to get all four feet on the
a practice painting. You should pick one, floor. Do not try to take a short-cut by

not all of them, at this time. sketching the outline of the dog and its hair
The Yorkshire terrier will probably be structure and then hanging the legs and
the most difficult to do since it is a long- feet on it; it will not work out and you will
haired dog and much of the anatomy will be cheating yourself.

Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16

Poodle. Schnauzer.
Courtesy of Mrs. D.D. Stoun. Courtesy of Mrs. D.D. Stoun.

Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18

Irish setter. Yorkshire terrier.
Courtesy of Ms. Nancv Kelly. Courtesy of Mrs Edward P. DriscoU.

^,f^
k
7^^^^^
^^Km^^^^^ 1
b
^^^B^^^^^^^^^K

p^
^ «w-^
-^v^v^^^^^^^^l

^^C!^
P
^'
 .

The borzoi is a wonderful animal to teresting painting. It will require some re-
paint because it is so aristocratic in ap- search on the structure of the legs and
pearance. The background in Figures 3.19 paws, which are hidden in the blades of
and 3.20 obviously needs to be redesigned the grass. You also may want to paint a
into one more fitting for a dog with this more pleasing background, possibly an in-
patrician bearing. Select your landscape terior scene.
with care, for it will affect the mood that It will be necessary to sketch the
you wish to depict. anatomy of both the borzoi and the
The dachshund also will make an in- dachshund.

Figure 3.19 Figure 3.20

Borzoi, Russian wolfhound. Borzoi, Russian wolfhound.
Courtesy of Ms. Nanc\- KeU\ Courtesy of Ms. Nancy Kelly.

Figure 3.21 Figure 3.22

Dachshund. Dachshund.
Courtesy of Mrs. Williain Lowe. Courtesy of Mrs. Williain Lowe.

MAMIE DOUD li -d 61
PUBLIC LiBRrtRY
BROOMFiELD, COLORADO
CHAPTER FOUR

The cat

Artists and sculptors are attracted to one of which was the felids, the cats that
cats,wild and domestic, not only because we know todav.
of the beautiful colors and fascinating pat- Cats belong to the group of mam-
terns of their coats, but also for their abUitA mals, including humans, that are consid-
to twist and turn their bodies into unusual ered to be hunters or animals of prey.
positions and graceful movements. Cats Eagles, hawks, and owls eire also in this
can quicklv turn a peaceful pose into a category . The eyes of these animals are lo-
fierce and \iolent action. cated at the front head. (Their
of the
—
potential \'ictims such as the deer and
—
the rabbit whose eyes are located on the
sides of the head, must be able to see for-
HISTORY
ward, upward, and especially backward
for their protection.)
About 60 ago the mammals
million years The painting of "Cardinal .AJbrecht of
slowly evolved from insect eaters to meat Brandenburg as St. Jerome" by Lucas Cra-
eaters known as the "miacids," the true nach the Elder (see Figure 4.1) is a prime
ancestors of the carnivores. These even- example of a painting by an artist who
tually di\ided into ten separate families. has veered awav from his natural talent of

62
 y

painting portraits, landscapes, secular and

religious subjects, and nudes. Cranach
was most famous as a painter of sensuous
nudes, but his animal and bird subjects
lacked the craftsmanship, anatomical de-
tail, and feelings that his other subjects

imparted.

ANATOMY OF THE CAT

There are small cats, big cats, wild cats,

tame cats, cats with long tails, cats with
short or kinky tails, cats with short hair
and long hair, and, finally, there is the
common alley cat that makes up ninet)^-
nine percent of all domesticated cats.
For all these variations, the anatomy
isbasically the same. Furthermore, if you
compare the bone and muscular structure
of the cat (Figure 4.3) with the physical
structure of the horse in Chapter Two,
you will see that there is little difference.
We should direct our attention to the
character and physical variations that dis-
tinguish the cat from other animals.

Figure 4.1
Luc.\s CRAXACH THE ELDER (German, 1472-1553)
Cardmal Albrecht of Brandenburg as St. Jerome (oil on
wood).
Couites)- of the John and Mabte Ringiing Museum of Art,
Sarasota. Florida.

Figiire 4.2

63
 Figure 4.3 (bi'lovv and opposite)

DIGIT OF CAT
1. FIRST PHALANX
2. SECOND PHALANX
3. THIRD PHALANX
4. HOOD OF CLAW
5. ELASTIC LIGAMENT
6. PHALANGEAL PAD

CLAW EXTENDED CLAW WITHDRAWN

 ^

65
 In general, cats are extremely grace- high sp)eed, which can be up to sixty miles
ful. They have rounded heads, and their an hour over a short distance. Its flexible
eyes are toward the front of the head. back is like a coiled spring that snaps its
They must turn their heads in order to see bod\ forward.
sideways because their eyes are in a fixed There are many variations within the
position. Dogs can roll their eyes to see felidae familv. A cheetah is completely
sideways, but a cat must turn its head. different from a leopard. The cheetah
A cat's feet are generally small in hunts by day, singly or in pairs, and bv
comparison to its body size, although sight, running down its prey with tremen-
lions and cougars have large feet. Cats are dous speed. The leopard is a night hunter
blessed with retractile claws, which they and hunts by itself. A leopard has round
keep sharp by scratching wooden posts or pupils just like the other big cats, but the
trees. A dog's nails touch the ground, so smaller cats have pupils that contract to
they get worn down. vertical slits.Leopards hunt by sight and
Another distinctive feature of the cat stealth. Their ic\' green eyes have remark-
is its long whiskers, which it uses to feel able vision at night, and their homes are
its way around in the dark. If a cat's in the trees.
whiskers pass through an opening freely, You should make a complete check-
then its body will also clear the same list of all the known facts about the ani-
opening. mal you wish to paint: its physical
Cats do not chew their food. Thev features, habits, family life, and
hunting
use their teeth to hold their victims and to any other facts that will enable you to
tearand chop their food. Their heads are paint an authentic portrait of the animal.
rounded because they use their temporal Then go ahead and enjoy yourself; the
muscles, which are attached to the lower hard work is behind you!
jaw, This muscle is
as a biting muscle. The painting of the charging jaguar
heavily developed and, consequently, will help illustrate the problem that all an-
rounds out the upper portion of the head. imal painters eventualh' face: Do you
The color of a cat's coat might be paint the pattern first and then fill in the
light or dark, striped or spotted, and in a background color of the fur, or do you
beautiful range of colors. An artist will paint the fur, with its lights and darks,
have to be discerning in the choice of pig- and then the spots? As shown in the
ments. small sketches (Figures 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6),
The cheetah is unique in the family you probabh- would choose to paint the
of felidae. It has doglike characteristics fur without any pattern, let it dr\', and ei-
that are not found in other members of ther freely paint the pattern or trace it

the cat family.The cheetah's legs, which onto the dr\- painting of the fur and then
are unusually long and extremely strong, paint it, paying particular attention to the
have been designed by nature for great perspective as the rosettes (in this case the
bursts of speed and sudden turns when jaguar's coat) and the values of the pat-
chasing prey. In addition, the powerful tern change as it goes from light to dark
legs and claws make the cheetah lethal in to reflected light.
a fight. Cats have more fur than any other
The cheetah's feet are unusual in that animals. Of the three well-known cats,
they are constructed like a dog's foot. The the cheetahs have single spots only, the
pads have hard edges, instead of soft leopards have a pattern of rosettes con-
pads. Its claws are blunt and onlv partlv sisting of spots in a circular pattern with-
retractile. The head of the cheetah is small out a spot in the center, and the jaguar
in proportion to its body, and the eyes are has rosettes formed by a circular pattern
set high in the skull. One of its outstand- of four or five spots with a spot in the
ing features is its fast acceleration and center.

66
 Figure 4.4 (right)
The sketch of the jaguar represents the feeling of the ac-
tion of a charging cat, with its legs extended and claws in
position to grab the victim. (A sketch visually iUustrates
your thinking. It is not meant to be a finished drawing.)

Figure 4.5 (below) ,^5-»

This is a study of form and its lights and darks. The next
step in developing the drawing is to enlarge it to painting
size and then establish the light direction and the result-
ant core and reflected light.

Figure 4.6 (right)

This is head and claws. Care should be exercised
a detail studv of the
in draunng the action of the leg positions and espedallv the claws. If
the jaguar were jumping a stream, the claws would not be extended as
thev would be if it were running down pre\'. The ears are shov\-n laid
back because the animal is on attack. If the jaguar were hunting, the
ears probably would be turned forw ard in order to pick up the sounds
of an intended victim.

Figiure 4.7 (below)

FREDRic SWEXEY (American, 20th century)
The Jaguar (oil).
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING Trail" in Chapter Two. This is a very
workable and easy-to-use palette.
The design of the sketch is based on
C^Hi^ji. puma,
catamount, panther, or triangles. The pose of the cougars and the
mountain lion — no
matter by what name rocks form one of the triangles, the angle
it is called, it is a ver)' elusive cat. It is an of the rocks in the foreground from the
animal of the mountains, the desert, the leftborder to the right border form an-
South American jungle, and as far south other triangle, and the distant mountain
as the tip of South America. "Felis con- with the snow field and glacier form the
color" is North America's wild lion. It has third triangle. Using a combination of
been verv much maligned and misun- geometric angles of this tvpe produces a
derstood. very strong design. Triangles have a solid
The cougar is my favorite animal and base and will not fall over.
one that I really love to paint. If you see The charcoal study of the cougar in
one in the wild, you are ver\' fortunate, Figure 4.9 was made on a tissue in the ac-
for itseldom seen. It may be watching
is tual size that would appear in the paint-
you, but vou will probably not see it or ing, w^hich is on canvas. The final size of
hear it. the painting was thirty-six inches wide by
After many sketches and ideas about twenty-four inches high. A second study
how the cougar
should be portrayed, I of the reclining lion was made on a sepa-
chose a scene with a pair of cougars si- rate tissue in order to be able to arrange
lently watching an intruder approaching the composition of the two tissues into a
their territory', possibly a pack train, a pleasing design.
hunter, some backpackers, or a family The rocks and mountains were
camping in the valley below. In any sketched in lightly since they would be
event, the cats would avoid "The Out- painted freely and did not need separate
sider" but would keep a careful watch of studies. The was
local color of the rocks
the activitw brushed in The darks were
quickly.
The sketch of "The Outsiders" was
oil added, and their edges were softened
painted on a canvas panel (Figure 4.8) with a sable brush and a rag. The rough
using the same palette as for the demon- texture was indicated next, using wadded-
stration painting of the "White-Water up paper. The paint was spread on lightly

Figure 4.8
Oil sketch for The Outsiders.
onto a palette and the balled-up paper Stippled combinations of color will
was used to pick up the paint from the create a pleasing rocky texture. Figure 4.11
palette and then carefully stipple it onto illustrates the general brushwork that was

the rocky areas. used before the details were added.

Figure 4.9
Charcoal sketch for one of the
cougars.

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

69
Figure 4.12
The Halfway Stage proceed with the sky and the mountains
until those were about eighty percent
Both of the cougars were painted next,
complete.
with special attention given to the sim-
The on the cougars and rocks
light
plified anatomy and the light and dark
was handled in the "Rembrandt" style of
forms of the animals. This work was car-
illumination, with the light coming from
ried forward until it was about eighty per-
the right side, which the animals were
cent finished. The final details were
facing. Light coming in from the side pro-
completed after all of the canvas had been
duces a very effective shadow on the
painted. My usual working procedure is
main subject. It dramatizes the cougars
to paint the sky first, then the distant
and gives a theatrical feeling to the scene.
mountain, next the middle ground, and,
finally, the foreground, but in this case I
felt it was important to paint in the forms Completing the Painting
of the cougars and rocks first, and then
The last stage of the painting is where the
important details are added. Beginning
with the sky, additional colors were put in
with a soft sable brush, the overall colors
leaning toward a neutralized blue. The
clouds were painted next, with the edges
softened so that they bled into the sky.
Here again, warm colors were glazed into
the clouds so that they would not be too
bold.
The distant mountain, with its snow^
cap and glacier, was the next part to be
completed. These forms were painted
with a more solid technique. The edges of
the snow were kept soft but the rocky
w^alls were painted in a more blocky fash-
ion.
Next, the heavily wooded mountain
and its trees were painted with slight de-
tail so that the background remained in a
supporting role and did not weaken the
animals. Attention was then turned to the
two cougars. The hair structure and its
direction were carefully dry-brushed. The
oil paint was thinned down with turpen-
tine and a touch of painting medium. The
strokes were dry-brushed from the back
of the animal toward the front, in order to
give the effect of overlapping hairs. As
the painting progressed near the heads of
the animals, the detail was tightened in
order to force the viewer's eye to the cen-
ter of interest.

Figure 4.13
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
The Outsiders.
Courtesy of the American Museum of American
Wildlife Art, Lake City, Minnesota.

71
 there was a slow build-
In addition, As you draw and paint a variety of
up of the whites on the head and chest. animals and birds, you will find that each
The texture of the paint was kept to a one becomes a separate problem. This
heavA' opaque to increase the feeling of prevents you from falling into the trap of
thick fur. After this heavy paint dried it repeating the same working procedure,
was given a fine glaze of a warm, light which in time can become monotonous.
yellowish Whites look better if they
tint.

are slighth vellowed to take away the

rawness. There are no dead whites in na-
ture but they are bound to pick up some
reflected color, in this case a warm
PRACTICE SUBJECTS
color
from a low sun.
The final painting of the rocks with a These photographs are for the artist's use
stipple and brushwork was softened with in composing a painting. Individual taste
a palette knife and paper that was slightlv dictates the artist's preference. Some pre-
twisted. After this work dried it was given fer to paint only domestic cats and their
a variet\' of colorful glazes that would be kittens, while others prefer painting the
found in rocks. When these glazes were wild members of the Felidae family. The
dry they also received a thin glaze of raw background should be redesigned into a
siena. A glaze of this t\'pe, when painted more pleasing composition. Animals, and
over all of the rocks, helps pull them to- cats in particular, do not like to hold a
gether into a solid unit. This stabilizes the pose for any length of time, which makes
foreground and completes the painting it difficult to get the cat and a suitable
(see Figure 4.13). background in the same photograph.

tar's toVMVk'VaA**** ^^H Figure 4.15

Courtes)' of Mrs. Rose Forgie.

Figure 4.14
Courtesy of Mrs Alice NkOeon.

72
 .

Figure 4.16
Courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. Fredric Swene\

Figure 4.17
The Bengal riger is the largest of the li\ing cats in the world. These tigers
weigh bet^\ een 400 and 600 pounds, are three feet high at the shoulders, and
extend thirteen feet when stretched out.
Photograph by Fredik Swene)-. Couites>' of Woodland Park Zoological
Gardens Seattle, Washington.

73
CHAPTER FIVE

The hull, the ox,

and the cow

We must trace back into the mists of time domesticated about 6,500 years ago, and
to the Neolithic period when the domesti- the last one, a female, died on a Polish
cation of animals and plants began. With preserve in 1627.
the cultivation of certain plants and the When asked to describe some of the
domestication of animals that could provide animals that belong to the cattle family,
food, clothing, and work power, humans most people would probably think of the
were able to put down their roots in one various milk cows, the bull, and beef cat-
place. Thus began the advance of civiliza- tle, but they would ignore the wild buf-

tion and its culture. falo, such as the African Cape buffalo, the
gaur of southern Asia, the musk-ox of the
Arctic tundra, and the American bison,
HISTORY just to name a few. All of these animals
belong to the genus Bos. Some of these
It has been generally established that of animals are of a gentle disposition, while
the five animals useful to humans, the others, such as the Cape buffalo, are con-
sheep, the dog, the goat, and the pig pre- sidered to be among the world's most
ceded the cow in the domestication proc- dangerous animals. The fighting bull has
ess. The huge Ice Age ox, the auroch, been bred for four centuries into a beauti-
which probably originated in India, ful but lethal wild animal. The term "cat-
roamed Europe 250,000 years ago. It was tle" covers hundreds of the genus Bovine.

74
With cross-breeding, the specialized cattle
of farms and ranches do not even re-
motely resemble the cattle sketched by
Cro-Magnon on cave walls.
Cattle belong to the group known as
ruminants, which means that they are
large animals that chew their cud. They
also belong to the ungulates, the hoofed
mammals, which includes other animals
such as the elephant, the horse, and the
hog. Domestic cattle are divided into two
types: those that have humps, such as the
Brahman and the European breeds such
as the Shorthorns, Hereford, Jersey, Aber-
deen Angus, and Guernsey.
There is a continuous parade of new
breeds, like the Santa Gertrudis that was
developed at the King Ranch in Texas and
thrives on the damp Gulf Coast. This
breed was developed by crossing a Brah-
man bull with a Shorthorn cow. Other
cattle, such as the Charolais, Normande,
and Limousin, are being introduced from
Europe in experiments aimed at develop-
ing a better breed of beef cattle.
Drawing and painting cattle can be
interesting and not as frustrating as
sketching animals that are continuously Figvtre 5.1
on the move. There are many interesting PAULUS POTTER (Dutch, 1625-1654)
Cattle Resting in Landscape (oil, prior to 1978 restoration).
breeds to draw, from the farm and ranch Courtesy of the John and Mable Ringling
cattle to the exciting rodeo cattle. There Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida.

are five standard events in a rodeo, and

Figure 5.2

75
they all present an opportunity,' for sketch- keep in mind that caged animals lack the
ing cattle as well as horses. Three of them alertness that an animal has to have in the
feature riding bareback and saddle bronc, wild in order to sur\ive. Rembrandt's
and bull riding, which is the most dan- sketch of a male lion's mane is too full for
gerous. The other tAvo are calf roping and a wild lion. The mane of an African lion is
steer wrestling. usually quite thin, because as the lion
passes through thorn bushes the hairs are
pulled out. Zoo studies are great for de-
tail, but if you are painting action pictures
NOTEWORTHY PAINTERS the look of the wild has to be built in.
OF CATTLE Other artists worthy of study are
Rubens for his swirling animal actions and
The painting of the resting cattle with a the English painter Edwin Landseer who
simplified background by Paulus Potter is excelled as an animal painter. The "Mon-
more like a posed portrait. (See Figure arch of the Glen," a portrait of a stag, is

5.1.) This photograph of the painting be- hismost famous pjainting. Other painters
fore restoration shows the true technique worthv of studv are Theodore Gericault
of the artist. It demonstrates his drawing and Eugene Delacroix. Both were from the
ability-, but, interestingly, this painstak- Romantic era of painting.
ingly executed painting is lifeless. Unfor- And, lastlv, we owe a world of
tunately,the artist's career as a painter thanks to the great animal anatomists
covers a span of only ten years. At this W . Ellenberger, H. Baum, and H. Dittrich,
same Rembrandt van Rijn, Peter
time, and George Stubbs, for their wonderful
Paul Rubens, and Albert Cuvp were also detailed plates on the animals, and to
making their mark as animal artists. Rem- Eadweard Muybridge for his outstanding
brandt's studies of animals are unsur- series of animals in action.
passed. His sketches were made at the The painting by Rosa Bonheur in Fig-
zoos of traveling shows that \isited ure 5.3 is excellent for a stud\" of oxen
Amsterdam, and he probablv did not see plowing a field. She is known worldwide
his subjects in the wild. Artists should for her animal paintings.

Rgnre 5.3
OSA BONHEUR (French. 1822-1899)
Ltboun^es Saxmds (oil).

Courtes;^ of ifae Mn and MaUe Ki^^

Ierf Art. SijjwMa rinrtilj

76
 Plate 2
HARRY CURIEUX ADAMSON
(American, 20th century)
G\/rfalcon (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings.

Plate 1
LARRY TOSCHIK (American, 20th century)
Wlnstling in — Mallards (oil).
Courtesy Mr. and Mrs. Ralph B. Feffer Jr. Collection and Wild Wings.

(<'h-

X^r%^-

'Ki ; .

^*'^-/^/

Plate 3
FREDRIC SWENEY (American, 20th century)
Sunset — Bobwhites (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings.
 Plate 4
ROBERT BATEMAN (Canadian. 20th century)
Great Blue Heron (oU).
Courtesy o^ Robert Batenvan and VNIld VSIngs.

Plate 5
TERRILL KNAACK (American,
20th century)
Cedar Waxwings (oil).
Courtesy o( Tarill Knaack and Wild Wings.

Plate 6
OWBM GROMMEJ. < American,
20th century)
Wintertime (oil).
Courtesy of Owen ). Groanne and Wild Wings.

Plate 7
ROBERT K. ABBETT (American.
20th century!
Second Season (oil).
Courtes>- o( The King CaUer>- New York G»y.
 Plate 8
MELVIN C. WARREN (American,
20th century)
Remnants of the Herd (oil).
Courtesy of Melvin C. Warren,

.' '^^^.•^'rf'
1
^'t^-

Plate 9
FREDRIC SWENEY (American, 20th century)
Early Winter Sfomi — Pheasants (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings,

Plate 10
DAVID A. MAASS (American, 20th century)
Abandoned Orchard — Ruffed Grouse (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings
 Plate 11
JAMES KILLEN (American, 20th century)
Open Water— Canvasbacks (watercolor).
Courtesy o( Wild Wings.

Plate 12
FREDRIC SWENEY (American, 20th century)
The Fall Guys — Canada Geese (oil).
Courtesy of Robert I. Carlson and Wild Wings.

Plate 13
GARY W. MOSS (American, 20th century)
Family of Swans (oil).
Courtesy of Gary W. Moss and Wild Wings.
 Plate 14
ROBERT BATEMAN (Canadian, 20th century)
m Winter Sage (oil).
Coyote
Courtesy of Robert Bateman and Wild Wings.

Plate 15
RICHARD PLASSCHAERT
(American, 20th century)
Moonan Marsh —Mallards (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings.

Plate 16
FREDRIC SWENEY (American, 20th century)
The Outsider — Cougars (oil).
Courtesy of the American Museum of Wildlife Art.
 Plate 17
ARTHUR M. COOK (American. 20th century)
The Traveler Rests — Arctic Tern
(watercolor).
Courtesy ot Arthur M. Cook and Wild Wii«s.

Plate 18
NIAYNARD REECE (American, 20th centun)
The Valley— Pintaib (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wiitgs.

Plate 19
FRANCIS GOLDEN
(American, 20th century)
Canadas and young
(watercolor).
Courtesy ot Wild Wings.
 Plate 20
DAVID A. MAASS (American, 20th century)
North Shore — Coldeneyes (oil).
Courtesy ot Wild Wings.

Plate 21
FREDRIC SWENEY (American, 20th century)
The Hedgehoppers — Bobwhite Quail (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings.

Plate 22
DAVID HAGERBAUMER
(American, 20th century)
Last Leaves of Autumn —
Ruffed Grouse (watercolor).
Courtesy of David Hagerbaumer and Wild Wings.
 Plate 24
OV\'EN J. GROMME
(American, 20th century)
Yellowheaded Blackbird (oil).
Courtesy ot Owen Gromme and Wild Wings
I

Plate 23
WILUAM GILLIES (American. 20th century)
Locked in — Brittany (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings.

Plate 25
MICHAEL SIEVE (American, 20th century)
October Snowfall — Wliitetail Deer (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings

Plate 26
LEE LeBLANC (American, 20th century)
McCollums Flooded Timber-
Mallards (oil).
Courtesy ot Wild Wings.
ANATOMY OF THE BULL, The first variation is in the number of
THE OX, AND THE COW ribs. The horse has eighteen while cattle
and oxen have thirteen ribs. These ribs
are much longer and wider than those on
If we
study the simplified skeleton of the the horse, making the cattle longer in the
cow in Figure 5.4 a few variations from lumbar. The next difference is seen in the
the horse will be noted. portion of the contour of the area between

Figure 5.4

BACK VIEW SIDE VIEW

77
the termination of the neck and the begin- wild animals have horns, while others,
ning of the chest. The ox, which is one of such as the deer and elk, for example,
the working cattle, has what is known as have antlers.
the incipient hump. This hump is in front Dictionaries describe horns as a hard,
of the spinous processes of the ribs and is bonelike growth of epidermal tissue that
caused by the wooden yoke of the ox occurs in pairs and projects from the
teams. This area becomes enlarged and heads of animals. These horns are usuallv
hardened so that it forms a protective curved. Antlers are a deciduous out-
pad. This condition will be noticed when growth (shed at certain times of the year),
the ox is used as a draught animal and for usualh' branched, and are found on vari-
plowing. ous members of the deer family.
The Brahman, the sacred cow of In- Horns belong to sheep, goats, cattle,
dia, also has a large hump at the base of bison, and antelopes as well as the rhi-
the neck. This hump consists mainly of fat noceros. These animals do not shed their
and if the animal is well fed and in good horns. They grow throughout their life-
condition it will be erect. If drought con- time. If they are damaged by an accident
ditions occur and the animal is not in or in combat, they do not grow back.
good condition, the hump will partially Horns have an extremely hard outer core
dr\' up and tend to fall over. In addition, and are porous inside. The Pronghom is

this animal has a heavy dewlap, the pen- the only homed animal in the world that
dulous folds of skin that hang under the sheds a part of its horn. This occurs an-
neck and project a short distance toward nually when the new horn pushes off the
the rib cage. The Brahman was crossed old horn.
with a Shorthorn to produce the well- Antlers belong to deer, elk, moose,
known Santa Gertrudis of the Gulf States. and caribou. They are shed annually.
It was also crossed with the Aberdeen Antlers are true bone. They are solid
Angus to produce the Brangus. when mature and do not have a marrow.
Another feature of which the artist When we think of cattle, we usuall\'
should be aware is where the line of the think of the Longhorn, which roamed the
neck connects with the horn ridge at the open ranges of the Southwest. They are
top of the skull. The neck should project sturdy animals and their horns reached a
to the base of the horn ridge, not in line span of six feet. The Longhorn's opposite
with the top of this ridge. Finally, the is the Black Angus, which is a polled, or
hoof is split into two parts. It is not a naturallv hornless breed (Figure 5.6).
solid hoof as is found in the horse. Figure 5.7 shows the wild African
The basic muscle structure is the Cape buffalo bull, an aggressive ox with
same for the cattle and the horse. Ob- wide, hea\y-based horns that sweep out-
viously, the bull is going to have heavier ward, then backward, and finallv forward.
muscle structure, depending on the breed. They travel in large herds and are ex-
The Hereford bull is a very heaw beef an- tremelv dangerous. The Cape buffalo has
imal, as illustrated in the lower right cor- probably killed more big-game hunters
ner of Figure 5.4. than any other animal.
The bull raised for the arena (Figure
5.8) is considered to be a domesticated an-
A Potpourri of Horns imal on ranches of Spain, Portugal, and
Mexico as long as it remains in the herd,
Drawing and painting animals with horns but by itself in the arena, where it pits its
is fun. Cattle have a great variet\' of strength and cunning against the matador,
horns, as illustrated in Figure 5.5, so there it becomes a ver\' clever and dangerous

is a veritable potpourri of horns in the wild animal. Thirty-five percent of the

bovine family. There is a difference be- matadors that face this animal are either
tween horns and antlers. Cattle and manv killed or crippled for life.

78
 EAST AFRICAN
Figure 5.5 CAPE BUFFALO

ERSEY

Figure 5.6
Longhom.

Figure 5.7
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
Cape Buffalo.
Courtesy of the Fall River Group, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

The cape buffalo is a large and dangerous animal and should be

respected. It is very agile and clever and is prone to attack, par-
ticulariy when injured. It is usually caked with mud in order to

protect itself from the bites of insects and flies.

79
 Figure 5.8
Tow. the Brave Bull (scratchboard drawing).
Bred for the arena.

Figure 5.9
VIKTOR SCHRECKENGOST (American,
20th centur>')
Bovine (glazed terra cotta).
Courtesy of the artist and the Cleveland Museum of
Art. Cleveland, Ohio.

The third example of the bull (Figure ket overfamous trails such as the
5.9) is the beautiful sculpture from the Shawnee, which was the first to open in
collection of the Cleveland Museum of the 1840s from Brownsville, Texas, to Kan-
Art. This piece shows the great physical sas City and St. Louis. The Chisholm Trail
strength of the bull even though it is was the most used. It carried half of the
highh' stylized. It is a sculpture worthy of cattle that were moved from Texas to rail-
serious study. heads at Abilene and Ellsworth in Kansas.
Spanish sea captain named
In 1521, a The painting of "Three a.m. and All's
Don Gregorio de Villalobos unloaded a Well" illustrates how the cowboys told the
cargo at a port in Mexico that is now the time at night bv the angle of the two
well-known city of Veracruz. This cargo points of the Big Dipper in its rotation
included a black bull, just like those used around the North Star. The sketches in
in the arenas in Spain, and a cow that Figures 5.10 to 5.12 were some of the
was the milk, meat, or work animal of the many that were made preliminary' to
16th centur\'. painting this night scene of the bedded-
These two were the progenitors of down Longhorns on their long trail to
the Texas Longhorns that trudged to mar- market.

80
 ^n.v

Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11

Figure 5.12

Figure 5.13
FREDRic SWENEY (American,
20th centunO
Three a.m. and All's Well.
Courtesy of Joel R. Rachlin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING Figure 5.14

Not allanimal paintings are of the usual

animal and landscape concept. "A Friendly
Conversation" was painted to demonstrate
the use of an architectural background, in
this case the portico to the church and con-
vent of Santa Isabel la Real in Granada,
Spain. It portrays a quiet conversation be-
tween a priest and a peasant.
The priest, with a pole that was used
to guide the yoked oxen, is standing in a
two-wheeled cart called a carreta. The car-
reta's wheels were cut from a solid piece
of oak or made of sections of wood that
were criss-crossed in a rather loose fash-
ion and held together with wood pegs.

81
An eight-inch hole was roughly cut out traced lines without disturbing them. The
for the axle, which was very seldom lubri- door was also toned at this time with a
cated. The squealing of this contraption as dark, reddish brown.
the wheels rotated could be heard for a The upper portions of the walls on
mile, adding much discomfort to the both sides of the entrance were also rubbed
nerve-weary traveler (Figure 5.16). with a lighter tint of raw umber and raw si-
ena. The bottom sections then received a
greenish gray tint of color. The tree was
next, quickly brushed in with a dark, red-
The Halfway Stage
dish brown.
The lines were first sprayed with a fixative With all of this preliminary work out
so that they would not smear when painted of the way, my attention was then di-
over. Next, the wall behind the architec- rected to putting in the detail of the por-
tural detail of the portico was toned by rub- would be the most tedious to do.
tico; this

bing a mixture of raw umber with just a After this was executed, the priest, car-
touch of viridian and raw siena in order to reta, oxen, and peasant were painted.
warm it slightly. These colors are all trans- This was carried to the eighty percent fin-
parent so they could be rubbed over the ished stage.

Figure 5.16

"^
'•'.'-WC'

Figure 5.15
I A^^'^f
^f-i3
Figure 5.17
Two-point perspective was used in projecting the architec-
tural detail necessary for the portico. Because the building '"^ ^'
^ \..Q^
is shown atan angle and not a straight-on view, it is nec-
essary to show the depth of the decorahon as well as the
" ^ •
^^
height and width.

--^.

82
 "HWPf^
f-4,,11.^
'^-s'

/,

Vv^

Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19

A separate tissue of the flower vendor and the priest talk- A separate tissue was made of the patient oxen. Each ox
ing to the nuns of the convent was also necessar\-. This was sketched separateh', and then all were compiled onto
sketch was made on a separate tissue so that it could be a single Hssue. You cannot draw one ox and use it for the
moved about on the canvas to add to the composition. other one as well because the distant animal is slightly
smaller.

Figiu^ 5.21
A Friendly Conversation.

Priestand peasant and the portico of the Convent of

Santa Isabel La Real, Granada, Spain.

Figiire 5.20
The final tissues were traced onto a canvas that measured
twent\'-four inches wide bv thirt\-tvv-o inches high. The
architecture was the first to be traced, then the priest and
oxen, and finally the flower vendor. The tree was just in-
dicated.
 —

After the main parts of the picture After the painting was dr\', glazes were
were established, the tiled roof was applied to enhance the colors and also to
painted to completion. The dappled sun- adjust the values, esp)ecially in the fore-
spots on the rough wall in back of the ground. This adjustment should not be
flower vendor and tree were textured with too prominent as it would weaken the
an impasto. In this case, a palette knife main subject matter, which is the priest
was used and then it was finished with a and peasant. The portico sets the scene so
brush. When this area had completely it should remain in the background.

dried, the cast shadows were carefully

painted in.

The dirt road was filled in with a

PRACTICE SUBJECTS
sandv color and textured with a palette
knife. Cast shadows were indicated next
to carr)' the eye to the main subject and These photographs of cross-breed cattle
also to illustrate the perspective of the are for the artist's benefitand are to be
ground. The ground was painted with a enlarged and used in practice paintings. It
combination of palette knife and brush. is suggested that working tissues be made

The door, nuns, and flower vendor of the bone and muscular construction in
with her colorful flowers were next to be order to obtain a better understanding of
finished. Finally the priest, peasant, oxen the animal that is going to be used in a
and carreta were carried to completion. painfing.

Figure 5.22
Charolais Brahman cross.

Figure 5.23
Brangus, a Black Angus —Brahman cross.

84
 :

Figure 5.26
—
Charolais Brahman cross.

Figure 5.27
Charolais —Brahman cross.

b^.^-^^^^^^W4 ^^to
fc"

1* iiie
wSSkMJib-^.it«

^'^^ <"'...^™
,„ iir-MlrMTiii^^ JS53? Sl*f^r
S?? :^:^-?t- I'iS^.^s!^!!^^!!!^
 The dry-brush drawing of a cowboy The grip on the may vary with
bull rope
riding aBrahman bull (Figure 5.28) should individual riders. Some have handholds
be enlarged to a workable size. The artist and some do not.
is to put in a suitable rodeo background.

Figure 5.28

^' * //

86
CHAPTER SIX

The deer

Three types of deer are found in the northward. The Coues and the Key deer
United States: the white-tail, the mule, and and other similar white-tail deer are all
the black-tail. Of these three the white-tail subspecies. The Virginia white-tail deer,
and the mule deer are the true members of which is the prototype, and its subspecies
the ver\^ exclusive family of the American are found in all forty-eight states.
deer. The others that are frequently seen The Rockv Mountain mule deer,
are subspecies. which is the prototype for the mule deer,
has seven subspecies. This deer and its
subspecies are not found east of the
HISTORY Mississippi River, except for a few black-
tails that were transplanted to Tennessee.
The native American deer has an ancestral The range of the black-tail, which is a
lineage that goes back to the Pliocene era coastal deer, extends from Alaska to Cal-
of ten million years ago. The deer that is ifornia.
common today in America evolved about It is ver\' important for the artist who

one million years ago. There are thirty ispainting a white-tail or mule deer to be
subspecies of the white-tail deer that in- aware of the common terrain of these ani-
habit the North American continent. Of mals so that the appropriate background
these, seventeen are found from Mexico and landscape can be maintained.

87
Figure 6.1
KEN CARLSON (American, 20th century)
Stillwater Passage (oil).
Courtesy of Wild Wings, Inc., Lake Cit\', Minnesota.

Other members of the deer family are

Figure 6.2 the elk, the moose, and the caribou.
Deer are exquisite, dainty animals
that have learned to adapt themselves to
an exploding civilization that is encroach-
ing upon their territory. They belong to
the herbivorous, ungulated, ruminant ani-
mals. In other words, they feed on vege-
table matter, are four-legged with cloven
hoofs, and they chew their cud.
They have survived many other ani-
mals that could not cope with civilization.
Ithas often been said that there are more
deer now than there were at the time
when the Europeans came to settle this
land. estimated that there are approx-
It is

imatelv nineteen and a half million deer in

the United States. This is quite a come-
back when you consider that during the
late 1880s they were almost annihUated.
iN^
Deer adapt readily to changing conditions
and with the help of applied conservation,
their future will be secure.

88
Figure 6.3
GARY SORRELS (American, 20th century)
Pwnghom Range (oil).

Courtesy of Wild Wings, Inc.,

Lake City, Minnesota.

Figure 6.4
FREDRic swENEY (American,
20th century)
Mule Deer (oil).
From the archives of and copyright
Brown and Bigelow, St. Paul, Minnesota.

This spattering of white polka-dots on a

ANATOMY OF THE DEER reddish brown coat and the fawn's ability
to lie perfectly still when danger ap-
Figure 6.6 shows the muscular structure proaches make it practically indistinguish-
of a white-tail in a jumping position. able among the grasses and weeds where
Rather than illustrating the muscular it hides.
forms of a static animal, it is better for the When drawing fawns, accent their
artist to think of them as living, vibrant delicate bone structures. They are long-
animals in which the muscles are contract- legged and knock-kneed at an early age.
ing and stretching according to the action. When sketching the adult white-tail, be
Many animals have the same skel- sure to indicate their angular look. They
eton and muscular structure as the deer, are very graceful, slender, and rhythmic
such as the American Pronghorn Antelope in appearance. The buck has a much
and the many varied species of the deer- stockier body as compared to the doe. The
likeanimals of Africa and South America. muscles are blockier and the neck much
Fawns are born with a spotted coat. thicker.

89
 WHEN PLANNING THE
ACTION OF AN ANIMAL,
THINK OF IT AS ALIVE
WHEN YOU INDICATE
THE SKELETON.

FAWNS HAVE
HIGH FORE-
HEADS AND
SHORT
MUZZLES.
META-
TARSAL
GLAND

Figure 6.5

Three definite areas ser\'e as a means bly be a combination of the two adult spe-
of identification as to whether deer are cies.
white-tail, mule, or black-tail: the tail, the The metatarsal gland, which is found
metatarsal gland, and the antlers. Facial about halfway between the heel joint and
markings can also play an important part the hoof, is probably the truest means of
in identification but they can also be ver)' identification. This is a very important
deceiving, particularly for the cross-breed. area that the artist should not ignore
The normal markings of the tails of the when painting deer. The metatarsal gland
three deer are illustrated in Figure 6.5. of the black-tail is approximately three
The tail markings of a hybrid will proba- inches long, including the hair tuft. The

90
 BARREN GROUND
CARIBOU

metatarsal gland of the mule deer is five are not true glands but are basically scent
inches in length, while the metatarsal glands.
gland of the white-tail is round and one The scratchboard drawings of the
inch in diameter. simplified skeleton and the action pose of
The tarsal gland is located on the the white-tail deer are self-explanatory
hind leg of the fawn and is an area of still (see Figures 6.6 and 6.7). It is more im-
another gland that should be indicated in portant to indicate the flow of the muscles
drawings and paintings of deer. It is as they blend into one another than to
marked by a large, dark, tufted patch of treat them as individual little maps with-
hair. This gland and the metatarsal gland out any form.

91
Figure 6.7
This is an exact-size sketch of the arrangement of the white-tail deer used in
the demonstration painting. It was not necessarN" to make a detailed study of
the deer at this time since it would be carefull\- drawn on the canvas, and the
necessary- lights and darks sketched in to indicate the light direction and the
forms. This sketdi was made with a Thinrite pen on parchment paper.

Antlers and Horns when they are shed and replaced with a
new pair.
For centimes people have been fascinated The first sign of antlers in a young
with the glamorous adornment of the buck willbe in the second summer of its
antlers and horns of animals. Deer do not life, and these are called spikes. These
have horns, they have antlers. As was spikes are usually straight, although at
discussed in Chapter Five, according to times they will grow with a pronounced
dictionaries, "horns" are hard, bonelike, curxe. They project straight up from the
permanent gro%vths of epidermal tissue top of the skull. With each successive
that occur in pairs (except in the rhi- summer, the white-tail buck will develop
noceros) and project from the heads of a main beam and from this a series of un-
various hoofed animals, such as cattle, branched tines will develop. The antlers of
sheep, and oxen. (The horn of the rhi- the white-tail project further forward over
noceros is not made of a homy substance, the face while those of the mule and the
neither is it bony, but consists of con- black-tail project upward from the head
gealed hair.) Horns are continuallv groAv- and their tines branch and then branch
ing and they are never shed. If they are again. These are called bifurcated tines.
damaged or broken, the animal lives with During the growth of these tines they are
them that way the rest of its life. covered with a skin that looks and feels
The American pronghom antelope like velvet. At this time the deer are spo-
has the distinction of being the onlv ani- ken of as being "in the velvet." Since
mal in the world that sheds onlv the outer these antlers \vill not solidify until autumn
covering of its horn. The old black outer into a solid, bonelike form, they are soft
sheath is slo\vly pushed off as the new- and extremelv tender and are subject to
sheath grows. damage.
Antlers belong to deer, elk, moose, Generally, these antlers grow larger
and caribou. They are deciduous, which and more massive each year, and new
means that they are shed each year and tines or points are added until the deer
are replaced with a new set. If antlers are reach maturity. After a buck reaches its
damaged, the animal lives with the prime, the number of tines will remain
damaged antler until the end of the rut. the same. Depending on its diet, a mature

92
eight-year-old white-tail will have a beau- Andes. Adult stags are about the size of a
tiful set of antlers. small terrier. They are covered with a
A mature white-tail buck in the thick fur, have slender but strong legs,
prime of its life from
will generally carry and their antlers are mere spikes.
four to six tines on each beam. To count
the tines you would count the tip of the
main beam, plus the tines that project
from the main, plus the brow tine, so that
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING
if you had the tip, three tines on the main

beam, and the brow tine you would have With the warm-colored rays of the
a total of five tines on a side. Adding the autumn sun touching the trees and the
other side, which usually has the same trunk of the giant oak, and a small stream
number of tines, you would then consider moving swiftly, almost inaudibly, through
the buck to be a ten-point deer. That a cleft in the rocks of the forest, a buck
would be quite an impressive set of white-tail pauses briefly in the thick cover
antlers. to test the clean, crisp morning air with
During old age a deer will begin to his black, moist nose. His ears are swung
lose the massiveness of its antlers, and backward, listening for forest sounds that
the tines wUl decrease in number until it would spell danger to the does and him-
degenerates to a set of spikes at the prob- self as he pushes them ahead into the
able old age of twelve years. sanctuary of the deeper forest. He was a
The scratchboard drawings in Figure giant among the giants of the virgin for-
6.6 illustrate the members of the deer est. This is the scene that I wished to
family thatare found in the United States. paint.
The largest member of the deer family, The sketch in Figure 6.8 has already
1
and one of the largest of the hoofed
also been projected onto the correct sized can-
animals, is the moose. Its antlers, also vas, and the forms of the deer have been
known as the "rack," will have a spread indicated. The next step is to paint the
greater than six feet. The tiniest member sky. A light tint of orange and yellow
of the deer family is the pudus, which ochre was applied and rubbed into a soft
lives in the temperate forest zone of the tapering value to the top of the trees.

Figxire 6.8
A separate sketch was also made of the forest landscape on parchment paper,
and then the two were combined to form the completed composition. This
final sketch is shown in its actual size, which was then projected with an
opaque projector onto a two-foot by three-foot canvas mounted on a
stretcher.

93
 Figure 6.9
The halfway point.

Figure 6.10
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
The Virgin Forest (white-tail deer, oil).
Next, the dark in back of the giant oak and raw siena. They were applied in a
was painted using a combination of raw sketchy manner, almost a watercolor tech-
umber and burnt siena. The trunk was nique.
painted next, taking care to keep the light The rocky wall and its drooping ferns
area of the trunk white, as this would be were lightly painted. The reference mate-
painted with clear glazes of raw umber for rial on the rocks, moss, ferns, and small

form, and burnt siena and cadmium or- branches and twigs came from a set of
ange for basic color. All of these colors transparent color slides. These slides were
were applied as a glaze in order to en- not copied exactly, but were used to gain
hance the brilliance of the sun. It is sug- an understanding of the general ap-
gested that you study J.M.W. Turner and pearance.
Maxfield Parrish for this technique. Finally, the deer were painted with a
The forest floor with the fallen log, local color overall. A word of caution to
brushy areas, grasses, and sunlight were artists: Deer in their summer colors are
next to be indicated with oils thinned with more reddish, which isknown as being
turpentine and medium. The colors were "in the red," while the winter colors are a
a combination of raw umber, burnt siena. more grayish brown. This color phase is

known as being "in the blue." The deer

were eighty percent completed at this
stage. The final details were added at the
very end.
The phase was begun by com-
final
pleting the distant woods. Remember that
all trees in the fall of the year will proba-
bly be a combination of greens, reddish
browns, brownish yellows, and deep
reds, depending on the species and vari-
eties of the trees. The forest was painted
from back to front, from a light back-
ground to a dark foreground, so that the
brush strokes and attention to the now
critical values could be controlled.
As the painting neared completion,
texture was added to the rocks. This was
handled by using paper towels and alumi-
num foil that were rolled up into a small
ball and pressed into the oil color that was
spread upon the palette and then stippled
using a combination of various colors until
the desired effect was achieved.
The depth of the trees also was
painted by using an opaque paint mixture
and overlapping the branches and leaves
in front of the tree trunks. Remember to
paint a tree that has leaves in front of and
behind the trunk, as well as those that are
to the left and right; in other words, a
four-sided tree will look much better.
The and the stream were
forest floor
carried to completion. The final step was
to use the palette knife in order to loosen
up the painting, which is now finished.

95
PRACTICE SUBJECTS that they want to use in an advertisement
or a magazine story that they want to il-
I chose not to use photographs of deer to lustrate. The technical research is up to
be copied although there are plenty in my you.
movie and clip files. The artist can use Give yourself a reasonable time frame
these sketches as an advertising or maga- for thework. Pick your own medium, one
zine art director uses a sketch of a pose with which you will be comfortable.

Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12

The buck deer lives in the humid forests along
black-tail This action sketch of a buck mule deer is an interesting
the Pacific coast. It is not as large as the mule deer that one to use for a painting. Mule deer are the largest deer
occupies the same area. Its antlers usually do not have the in the United States. They have a strange gait, an
same number of points, and its coat is darker. This sketch adaptation that permits them to escape in a rocky country:
was made from a photograph taken in Washington's Na- They bounce stiff-legged instead of running. They are
tional Forest. found throughout the West. The largest ones are found
on the Kaibab plateau on the north rim of the Grand Can-
yon in Arizona.

Figure 6.13
The elk, or wapiti, as the Indians called it, is the grand Figure 6.14
sultan of the deer family. Some bulls have collected huge This quick sketch of a female black-tail deer shows the
harems and may have as many as ixity or more mates. In deer to be gentle and delicate. These deer's tails are al-
the fall, its challenging call to other bull elk as it proceeds most a duplicate of those of white-tail deer, black on top
to keep adding to its harem can be heard for great dis- and white underneath. They are not rop>elike like a mule
tances. Large elk herds remain in Canada, in Yellowstone deer's tail, even though they are a subspecies of the
Park, and on the Olympic Peninsula. "mulev"

96
CHAPTER SEVEN

The hear

As CHILDREN, we Were introduced to the couver Island. Its subspecies are the
bear byway of the Teddy bear, which was cinnamon bear found in the Rockv Moun-
named our twenty-sixth president,
after tains, the glacier bear found in the glacial
Theodore Roosevelt. Then, to add to our regions of the St. Elias Alps and as far
knowledge of bears, we were told the stor\' southeast as Glacier Bay. It has a beautiful
of Goldilocks and the Three Bears. Our im- blue-white pelt. The small Kermode bear
pression of bears by this time was that they is a striking pure white bear from the is-

were cute and cuddly. lands and coast of British Columbia.

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is
the only true carnivorous bear. Its range is
from northwestern Alaska to as far east
TYPES OF BEARS
along the Alaskan coast and islands to
Labrador, which includes the shores of
The following are the members of the the Hudson Bay region. Its main habitats
genus Ursidae that are found on the are the circumpolar ice fields that are at a
North American continent. great distance from the mainland. The
The black bear (Ursus Americanus) is polar bear is on the mainland for only a
found only on the North American conti- very brief time during the vear. Sur-
nent, in Newfoundland, and on Van- prisingly, it is not found in the Antarctic.

97
 —

Figure 7.1
FRANK HOFFMAN (American, 20th centun)
King of the Hill — Grizzly.
From (he archives of and copyright
Brown and Bigelow, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Finally, we have the grizzly, which blackish, through the reddish browns, to
was classified at one time as "Ursus hor- beige and an almost light yellowish cast.
ribilis." It is a member of the brown bear The long hairs of the pelt have whitish
group that also includes Alaskan
the tips, hence the name "grizzly" to denote a
brown bear and the Kodiak bear, which grizzled color.
are subspecies of the grizzly. The grizzly The largest carnivores in the world are
bear is a solitary animal, ver}' aggressive the Alaskan brown bear —a coastal bear
and ferocious, with a distinctive hump at and the Kodiak bear that lives on Kodiak
the shoulders and extremely long and Island. When standing erect, they reach a
sharp toenails. height of ten feet.
The brown bear also has the hump.
Its coat has many color variations, from

SIZE AND BEHAVIOR

Figxire 7.2
Polar bear.
A bear is a plantigrade animal, one that
walks on the sole of the foot, not on the
finger tips as do the hoofed animals,
which are called digit igracie.
Bears are classified as being car-
nivorous, but they are actually om-
nivorous in their diet, which includes a
wide variety of vegetable matter such as
berries and nuts. During the great salmon
runs in the Northwest and Alaska, they
subsist mainly on fish.
Bears are massive in size, weighing
from 200 to 300 pounds for an average
black bear, 500 to 700 pounds for an aver-

98
Figure 7.3

THE BEAR IS A
PLANTIGRADE
ANIMAL— WHICH
MEANS THAT IT
WALKS ON THE
SOLES OF ITS
FEET.

GRIZZLY BEAR

99
 DEMONSTRATION PAINTING

This portrait is of Nanook, the great white

bear of the frozen northern seas, one of
the most interesting and romantic animals
on the face of the earth. The polar bear
has adapted itself to a nomadic, lonelv ex-
istence in a land of cold, jagged, drifting
A/ ice. This painting shows the great bear on

the ice floe, looking at the aurora borealis

as it pulses snakelike in the still Arctic
night. It is a fitting tribute to a great ani-
mal. The only study that was necessars-
/ was a sketch (Figure 7.5),
for this painting
which was projected onto a twentv-four-
inch by thirty-six-inch canvas. After the
bear was traced onto the canvas, it was
ver\' carefully drawn, particularly the
bone structure. It is ver\' important for the
Figure 7.4 bone structure to be indicated, especiallv
The Alaskan brown bear is listed with the world's most

dangerous game animals. It is ver\' powerfullv built, with

the joints. Draw all of the leg bones, in-

thick muscles covering an exceptionally strong skeleton. It cluding those on the far side, so that the
can break a steer's neck with one blow of its paw. Animal
legs and feet are in their proper locations.
exjjerts say that no bear is to be trusted.
The individual muscles do not show
through the thick fur. Treat the muscles
age grizzly, and 1,600 pounds for an aver- as great masses to depict strength. The
age Alaskan brown bear and polar bear. muscular forms do affect the light and
The record weight for a polar bear is 1,700 darks and the hair direcrions as they
pounds. In most cases, it is next to impos- curve around these forms.
sible to weigh a huge bear. This is espe- The rough contour of the pack ice
cially true of a polar bear since thev live was sketched in lightlv next. Attention
on the Arctic ice fields. There is a per- was paid to the serpentine path of the
petual argument over which animal is Arctic water as it winds its way through
larger, the brown bear or the polar bear. the ice field toward the open water ahead.
Knowing the sizes of these animals, an This path leads the obser\'er to the north-
artist should pay attention to the scale of ern lights and finally to the star-gazing
and rocks, and whether
objects like trees bear. The angle of the bear's feet on the
they should be drawn from eve level or a sloping ice directs the eve toward the
worm's-eve level in order to give a feeling water and the process starts all over
of massiveness and weight. again.
Polar bears are exceptionallv strong The first section of the painting to be
swimmers and have been seen as far out executed was the skv and the aurora. The
as 200 miles at sea, far from the circumpo- colors of the aurora were first applied
lar ice where thev spend most of
fields with a brush and then the edges were
their life Arctic. The male polar
in the rubbed with a soft cloth. Next, the color
bear does not hibernate, but the female on of the northern night sky was painted
the mainland does hibernate like other with a wide brush, taking care to keep the
bears. The male is constantlv hunting for paint thin as it neared the edges of the
food, in winter and summer, with the seal aurora. Finally, the two edges were
as its major supplv. blended with a wide sable brush. The au-

100
Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6
The halfway point. It very important for
is

the emotional and visual effect to be created

at this stage. Bad starts do not result in out-
standing paintings.

rora received a final thin glaze of colors in look white against the night scene. On a
order to enhance the brilliance of the value scale of ten, with white as zero and
northern lights. black as eleven, the final painting of the
The next step was to paint in the bear was in number six, seven, and eight
bluish green colors of the ice field. This is values; glazes were applied over them
a very tricky lesson in values, with the lo- with the colors of the aurora and the
cal colors being neutralized with the col- night sky.
ors of the night sky. I chose to paint the The bear has purposely been sil-

ice in a low value, remembering to keep houetted against the ice field, which is a
the edges rounded to indicate the melting lighter value. The sides of the bear are on
of the ice at the water's edge. The final the shadow side, away from the light of
color of the ice was glazed with a thin tint the aurora. Attention was paid to the re-
of the reflected colors of the aurora and flected colors of the ice underneath the
the night sky. bear, which are necessary to show form.
The warmish color of the polar bear Remember that to achieve form you must
was painted next. Actually, a polar bear is have a highlight, a middle-tone, a dark,
not dead white but more like a thin raw and a reflected light.
siena or a yellow ochre in color. In the Final glazes were applied and the
wild, white fur becomes stained; museum necessary details of fur direction, eyes,
and zoo animals White picks
are whiter. nose, and feet were painted, and the por-
up the surrounding local colors, so strict trait of the polar bear was completed. This
attention must be paid to the colors and is a difficult painting to execute but one

their values in order to make the bear that an artist can really learn from.

101
 h^^^
.^-

Figure 7.7
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
—
The Star-Gazer Polar Bear.

102
103
PRACTICE SUBJECTS graphs give you a choice of a young
Kodiak bear, an older female Kodiak bear,
and a polar bear. Make sure that you have
The photographs of the bears show some the correct background. The Kodiak is
pleasing positions and actions for you to found on coastal Alaska while the polar
enlarge and draw. Make certain to indi- bear is found on the ice floes of the north-
cate the bone structure and make a value ern oceans and seas and seldom on land.
study for the lights and darks that are Landscape plays a very important part
necessary to indicate forms. The photo- here.

Figure 7.8
Young Kodiak bear.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington.

104
Figure 7.9
Polar bear.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington.

Figure 7.10
Kodiak bear.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington.

^Jtti*''
CHAPTER EIGHT

Qoats and sheep

As WE BEGIN OUR STUDY of goats and sheep mestic cousins, but are covered with hair\'
we suddenly become aware that most of us coats quite similar to those of the deer
have had some incorrect notions about family. In addition, goats have
wild
these animals, especially the wild ones. beards, and sheep do not. The wild goat
that lives inNorth America is closely re-
lated to the European Chamois, which is
the intermediate link between the wild
goats and the antelope.
TYPES, BEHAVIOR,
The bone and muscle structure of
AND ANATOMY goats and sheep is almost identical to that
of the deer. When drawing any of these
Mountain goats look and act like goats but animals vou can safely sketch the anat-
they really belong to the antelope family. omy of the deer.
Goats and sheep are very closely related; The living species of wild sheep,
the main distinguishing characteristics be- which were the successful mammals of
tween the two species are their horns. the Ice Age, are the mouflon (which is the
The wild sheep have massive, spiraling smallest), the urials, the snow sheep, the
horns; goats do not. Strangely enough, thinhorn, and the bighorn, which includes
the wild Rocky Mountain Bighorn sheep the desert bighorn and the giant argalis.
do not have coats of wool like their do- The argali (Ovis ammon) is the Eurasian

106
species that also includes the Marco Polo the Cape buffalo and the elephant are
sheep, named in honor of the great Vene- more dangerous, but the odds for a suc-
tian explorer. cessful sheep hunt are not very great on
The sheep of North America are di- account of the lung-bursting physical
vided into four classifications. The desert strain of the high altitudes and the biting
bighorn, which is a subspecies of the cold, in addition to the windy areas hunt-
Rocky Mountain bighorn, is found in the ers must traverse with their icy, narrow
Southwest. The Rocky Mountain bighorn ledges and vertical drops of hundreds of
is found in the western mountain areas, feet. This is a tremendous challenge that

particularly in the Sierras, Rockies and faces the sheep hunter and, also, the na-
Cascades. The stone, which is a sub- ture photographer and artist as they wait
species of the dall, is found in western for that moment when they sight a ram
Canada and Alaska, and the dall, which is with a beautiful, spiraled, full-curled pair
entirely white with golden-colored horns, of horns.
lives in Canada and Alaska. The wild goat, which is easier to see,
Many hunters consider sheep to be is more placid, does not show great fear
the greatest game animal. Animals like of humans, and is interesting to sketch

Figure 8.1
HARRY cuRiEUx ADAMSON (American, 20th century')
—
The Upper Gorge Argali Rams (oil).
Courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. John H. Batten.

^v^-

107
 SKELETON OF A
DOMESTIC SHEEP

SKELETON OF A
DOMESTIC GOAT

SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES
OF THE DOMESTIC GOAT

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3
This is the sketch of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep.
When drawing wild sheep, pay particular attention to the
overall span of the horns.

108
Figure 8.4

ROCKY MOUNTAIN
BIGHORN SHEEP

ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT

109
and photograph. The wild goat, the dall
sheep, and the polar bear are the onlv
large game animals in the North American
continent that are completely white year-
round. The goat is found in the mountain
ranges Montana,
of northern Idaho,
Washington, Oregon, British Columbia,
and the Yukon.

USE OF THECAMERA
FOR ANIMAL AND BIRD ART

There are many misconceptions among

artists about the use of the camera in re-
search for a drawing or painting. Some
neophytes seem to feel that artists are
cheating if they use a camera in the pro-
duction of a painting. In animal and bird
art the camera has proved itself man\-
Figxire 8.5
times over as a useful tool for the artist,
just as a triangle and T-square are valua-
ble to an architect. Actually, all I wanted to know was how
Edgar Degas did not hesitate to study big the bird or animal is, its head con-
action photographs of Muybridge horses struction, and its general color at that mo-
as they ran and trotted before his bank of ment, whether it was in a shadow, in
cameras. Jan X^ermeer used a camera bright sunlight, or on a cloudy day. From
obscura, possibly the portable t}^pe that that point, I preferred to be an artist and
was the innovation of the 17th centur\', in to impart my own feelings for that bird or
his scenes of Delft. Canaletto, or Giovanni animal. Use the camera, but do not let the
Antonio Canal, is also suspected of using camera use vou.
the camera obscura in his scenes of \'en-
ice. It was used as a point of departure,

not as the means to an end. These artists

used the camera obscura well, just as a
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING
portrait artist today uses the camera to
make studies first, and then, with very se- The original concepHon of this painting
lective taste, sketches the pose and the was be a portrait of dall sheep high up
to
features, compiling them into a basic in the mountains, above a fog bank that
study. Then the model is called in for cor- was slowly engulfing the distant ridges
rections and approval and thev proceed (Figure 8.6), but as I gathered my material
with the final portrait. and researched the material that was
My own personal mo\ie and still file available 1 decided it would be more char-
of animals and birds is quite extensive. acteristic to show the rams assembling for
Out of all the thousands of frames from their annual summer "bachelors' club."
my picturesof animals, particularly of Hence, the new composition. (See Figure
bears and other dangerous animals, I have 8.7.)
not found one frame that I could trace. Ei- This grouping of rams would make it
ther the legs were in the wrong positions possible to illustrate the various age
or the lighting was not what I desired. groups. Age is indicated by the length of

110
 Figure 8.6

the curl of their horns. The ram on the The Halfway Stage
left of the painting is an adult in the
prime of The full curl develops when
life. After the sheep were traced onto the can-
the ram is approximately seven to eight vas and the general shape and contours of
years old and continues growing until the the mountains and the cloud between the
animal reaches the end of its life, which is mountains were indicated, the planes of
about twelve to fourteen years. The the snow and the ice-covered mountain
youngest ram is shown on the right, with above the cloud were begun. A paint-and-
his horns beginning to curl. He is proba- scrape technique was used, painting the
bly only a few years old. planes of the rock and snow areas in just
The rest of the rams belong to vari- a few values and then using a palette
ous age groups. When the ram's horns knife to scrape off the paint, leaving just
develop a curl that interferes with its an indication of the distant mountain.
vision, it will rub the tips on rocks. This is Minor touch-ups are left until the later
known as "brooming," and it wears the stages of the painting.
horns down until the ram is able to see Next, the clouds and the lower sec-
better. tion of the mountain were painted with

Figure 8.7

< ^^^^^k

% 111
 Figure 8.8
FREDRic swE>fEY (American, 20th cenhin')
The Top of the World^Dall Sheep (oil).
Courtes>- of Ira Milton Jones.

actual brush strokes using only a mini- Completing the Painting

mum of paint-and-scrape technique. The
snow, the rock, and the grassy areas of The three-quarter phase of the painting
the foreground were next. This was car- has been completed. The next step is to
ried to three-quarters complete. The fore- give the painting a light spray of a re-
ground was indicated so that the values of touch varnish. This brings up the dull col-
the white sheep could be established. Af- ors, such as the umbers, so that the
ter the painting of the forms of the sheep painting has an overall briUiance. Some
was completed, the details of horns, eyes, colors have a brilliant appearance while
nose, and mouth were indicated. others look dull. This retouch varnish not

112
 ^ ik0

only corrects this problem, but it also til the proper effect was achieved. The re-
binds the new layer of paint onto the flected color of the sky on the rocks was
older paint film. You do not have to wait next, along with the small touches of
until this varnish is dry to continue with snow among the rocks on the cliff and
your painting. foreground. The final hair indications on
The minor touch-ups of the moun- the sheep were dry-brushed onto the
tains were next; then, the final stages of bodies.
softening the edges of the clouds were After the painting was completely
finished, using a softcloth and paper dry, glazes were applied, values were ad-
towels. The cloud edges were rubbed un- justed, and the painting was complete.

113
Paintings of this type are very interesting and it is up to the artist to research the
to do, because they combine your knowl- animal, sketch out the simplified skeleton
edge of landscape and animal art. and the head and hoof structure, and
then enlarge the anatomical sketch to a
larger size, indicate the necessary back-
PRACTICE SUBJECTS ground, and complete the painting. A
small color sketch would be helpful as a
The sketches of the Rocky Mountain guide, particularly with the landscape. Re-
bighorn sheep, the dall sheep, and the member that if you are painting the dall
mountain goats are for your use. These sheep, you should not place them against
have not been completed on purpose. a light sky. You need a darker back-
They are similar to an art director's sketch ground in order to make them look white.

Figure 8.9

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT WHEN

SKETCHING ANIMALS THAT
THE DARKS ARE DESIGNED
WELL, SINCE THEY CARRY
THE FORM.

THESE SKETCHES WERE MADE

^ Z DARK TO ILLUSTRATE USE OF THE
VALUES. ESPECIALLY THE USE OF
"DARKS"— THE HIGHLIGHTS,
MIDDLETONES, DARKS. AND
REFLECTED LIGHTS— ALL ARE VERY
IMPORTANT IN DR.AWING FORM.

114
 The photograph mountain goat
of the sary muscular indications, then the hair
is for the artist who does
not want to use structure, and finally the value study in
the small sketch. This also requires an an- order to indicate light direction. By the
atomical sketch. When you are drawing time you have completed these steps you
animals you usually draw from the inside will have a very good working knowledge
out. In other words, the action sketch of the animal.
comes first, then the skeleton and neces-

Figure 8.10
Mountain Goat.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo,
Seattle,Washington.
CHAPTER NINE

:/

Small animal

For centuries, humans have had a fond Many of these tales were beautifully
affection for the small animals that inhabit illustrated,such as the German folklore
this world. Unfortunately, some of them that was and published by the
collected
are still used to feed and clothe people. brothers Grimm. Other writers of animal
As children we were made aware of small stories were Hans Christian Andersen,
animals at an early age. Many nights we Lewis Carroll (author of Alice's Adventures
drifted off to sleep while listening to fan- in Wonderland), Beatrix Potter (for her out-

ciful folklore, fables, and tales about small standing stories and illustrations of fanci-
animals and birds that somehow assumed ful animals dressed in human clothes),
human characteristics. and, of course, we give special mention to
Not all of the tales and stories were Walt Disney, who was able to put animal
about the happy-go-lucky rabbit that out- stories on the big screen and on television
smarted the crafty old fox in the brier for all to enjoy.
patch. Some of the earliest fables that are
still to Aesop
read today are attributed
TYPES, BEHAVIOR,
(619-564 B.C.), Greek slave. His
a freed
stories generally had morals. They were a
AND ANATOMY
method of teaching standards of right and
wrong. Some were derived from ancient Volumes could be written on the thou-
oriental sources. sands of small animals that populate this

116
 ^ l^' Figure 9.1
LAWRENCE A. MAY,
(American, 20th century)
JR.

Squirrel (ink and watercolor).

Courtesy of the artist.

world. To illustrate all of their bone and Figure 9.2

muscular forms would be an impossible

task. Many small animals, however, do fit
into general categories.Woodchucks and
ground squirrels include the woodchuck,
the marmot, the prairie dog, and the
ground squirrel. The next workable cate-
gory would be chipmunks and squirrels.
These include the gray squirrel, the chip-
munks, and the interesting flying squirrel.
These animals spend their days living
aboveground, as compared with the mar-
mot, which spends a lot of time under-
ground and deep inside rock piles. Next
would come the many "chisel-teeth" ani-
mals, such as mice, gophers, rats, bea-
vers, and porcupines. Members of these
groups of animals have the same basic
skeleton that can be used as patterns for
bone and muscular structure. Finally,

117
 -•-^.^

Figure 9.3
The rabbit will serve as the model for the small animals, which include the
leaping mammals, such as rabbits and hares. Here, the bone structure and
actions are more important to the artist than the muscles, since the latter are
covered by a thick fur. All of the leaping mammals and the rodents, which
includes more than 5,000 species of the living mammals, have basically the
same bone and muscle structure.

thereis the bat, which is the only mam- PROBLEMS OF PAINTING AND
mal with wings. There are approximately DRAWING SMALL ANIMALS
2,000 species of bats in the world. Most of
them are tiny (one is only two inches
long), and the largest is the bat found in When sketching, drawing, or painting
the East Indies that has a wing span of small animals, more so than with birds,
slightly more than four feet. The bat has a the artist must analyze what type of bone
different skeleton from those of most ani- and muscle structure is to be used as a
mals. Its arms and legs are imprisoned pattern. As an example, the western jack
within a winglike membrane. The bat's rabbit's bony structure is similar to but
hands (the thumb terminates with a claw) definitely not the same as that of the bea-
and feet are of little use except for hang- ver. This is a case where the artist must
ing itself upside-down from the ceiling of have a discerning eye.
a cave or in the dark recesses of buildings Drawing the family pet, such as a cat
like barns. or dog, is very easy since they are usually

118
nearby for study; there are also excellent
reference plates that are easily obtainable.
But drawing the anatomy of a wolverine,
for example, which is a vicious animal of
the northern woods, is another matter.
There are not any plates of this animal
readily available. You have to locate
caged, live specimens at zoos, mounted
specimens in museums of natural history,
or excellent photographs. Naturally, you
willchange the pose that is in the photo-
graph; copying a photograph will not help "^n
you very much and is generally frowned
upon. -V,
One of the problems of drawing
small animals is to establish a unit of
measure so that the viewer will be able to
know how small the animal is. The three
ink drawings in Figures 9.5, 9.6, and 9.7
Figure 9.4
all have yardsticks so that it is easy to vis-
This is a charcoal study of a gray squirrel. All that is nec-
ualize the size of the adult raccoon. The essary is an interesting composition that shows the salient
characteristics of the animal, its action, and the necessray
leaves of the tree and the baby raccoon lights and darks. This was made near the actual size of
establish that yardstick. the animal on parchment paper.

Figure 9.5
CHARLES w. SCHWARTZ (American,
20th century)
Raccoon.
From Wildlife Drawings by Charles W. Schwartz.
Copyright 1980, Missouri Conservation Commission.
Reprinted by permission.

119
 Figxire 9.6
CHARLES w. SCHWARTZ (American, 20th century)
Cotton-tail Rabbit.
From Wildlife Drau'ings by Charles W. Schwartz. Copyright 1980,
Missouri Conservation Commission. Reprinted by permission.

Figure 9.7
The fleeting cotton-tail rabbit in Fig-
CHARLES w. SCHWARTZ (American, 20th century) ure 9.6 is silhouetted against the grass
Eastern Chipmunk.
From Wildlife Drawings by Charles W. Schwartz. Copyright
and the small leaves in the foreground,
1980, Missouri ConservaHon Commission. Reprinted by which establish the scale, and the direc-
permission.
tion of the windblown grass also helps by
adding action to the drawing.
,^^^
< The drawing of the eastern chipmunk
and the moth in Figure 9.7 has great ap-
peal. The curiosity of the chipmunk sil-

houetted against the dark leaves as it sits

up and looks at the moth clinging to the
branch will interest the viewer. The com-
mon moth establishes the scale for the
drawing.
Another important factor is the angle
from which the viewer sees the animal,
whether from human eye-level, looking
down from a bird's-eye view, or looking
up from a worm's-eye view. Another
problem is whether to show a dark animal
against a light background or a light ani-
mal against a dark background. It all de-
pends on whether the same animal is
dark against a light background or
whether it is in full sunlight. It is up to
the artist's sense of design to capture the
viewer's interest. People appreciate a
well-balanced composition, in which the
placement of the lights and darks and the

120
Figure 9.8
These small sepia-tone watercolor sketches were made as compositional stud-
ies for a painting of the short-tailed weasel, commonly known as the ermine
in its winter dress of white.

correct values are all in harmony. This ap- Figure 9.9

This is a quick pen-and-ink perspective study that was
plies to black and white art as well as to made for the demonstration art. It locates the main forms
color. of the beaver.

These three drawings are well worth

study, not only for the ideas described
above but also for their draftsmanship and
pen technique.

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING

The simplified sketch of the beaver (Fig-

ure 9.9) was enlarged after the composi-
was completed.
tion of the overall scene
This scratchboard drawing was made in
order to show the watery habitat of the
hard-working beaver as it is cutting a
fallen tree into smaller pieces with its

chisel-shaped teeth. The beaver is the

121
 Figure 9.10
This small sketch represents the rhythm
of the composition. The rolling lines
give motion to the scene.

Figure 9.11
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
The Beaver Pond (scratchboard).
world's first engineer. It is also one of the tissueand the position of the beaver was
world's largest rodents. The capybara of then indicated. Four different planes were
South America is the largest. Thousands to be drawn next: the distant shoreline of
of years ago the giant beaver that lived in trees surrounding the beaver pond, the
North America was longer than the black location of the beaver lodge, the island to
bear. Including the tail, it measured seven the left of the beaver, and, finally, the im-
and a half feet. mediate foreground with the fallen trees
The compositional sketch was en- and the beaver, which is the main subject.
larged to seventeen inches wide by eleven Indicating these planes gives a slight aer-
inches high. Next, the small sketch of the ial view of the pond and adds depth to
beaver was roughly blown up to seven the drawing.
and one-half inches wide. The rhythm A was made of
separate small tissue
lines were sketched onto a transparent the beaver's lodge and the other beavers.
This was then positioned on the tissue.
As the drawing developed, the wind
direction was sketched with a series of
lines into the sky. This also added aerial
perspective and made the skyline of the
woods a little less stark.
A
second tissue was placed over the
first rough tissue and was very carefully

redrawn, with special attention to the bea-

ver house and the adult beaver in the
foreground.
A graphite "carbon" was made by
taking a graphite stick and rubbing onto it

a full sheet of tissue until it was as dark

as possible. It was smoothed out by
squirting cigarette lighter fluid and, while
it was still wet, rubbing it smooth with a

wad of cotton. The fluid dissolved the

graphite, which, when
was placed dry,
under the working tissue, face downward,
and the tracing of the working tissue was
transferred onto the white scratchboard
that had been mounted onto a firm piece
of mounting board.

Completing the Drawing

After the final tissue has been traced onto
the prepared scratchboard, should be it

touched up with a pencil, and important

edges such as the head, tail, and feet
should be redrawn.
Now comes the final cutting of the
scratchboard, which is new
a comparatively
medium. It is similar to a wood engraving in
appearance. In simplified terms, it is created
by cutting through a black ^gating that has
been placed upon a special_chalk-coated-
board by blackening the areas with India

123
ink, or it mav have been printed black on the on the water are next. The last part to be
chalk surface by the manufacturer. Using cut is the adult beaver in the foreground.
sharp tools, it is then cut through the black Care must be exercised when cutting so
to reveal the white underneath, which gives that you do not cut too deeplv into the
the effect of a woodcut or a wood engraving chalk surface; this is next to impossible to
if it is finely done. Personally, I prefer to correct.
work on a white-surfaced scratchboard.
The solid areas in this particular
drawing, which are to be painted in with
the black ink, are the distant lower por-
tions of the trees, the individual trees on
PRACTICE SUBJECTS
the island, the beaver house and animals,
the beaver in the foreground, and some of There is no practice page for this chapter,
the foreground. The black ink is applied which would normally carrv photographs
with a watercolor brush. Be sure to wash or sketches. You probably have your own
the brush after using it. preferences for small animals or birds that
Some of the fine work can be drawn you would like to draw. Any photographs
in with pen and ink. After the ink has in the other chapters may be used for
thoroughly dried, the cutting or scratching practice. Do not tr\' too large a drawing
can begin. The distant trees, the sky, and for your first attempt unless you are an
the fine details are first to be cut; the bea- experienced artist, for these can be ver\'
ver house and beavers and the reflections frustrating.

124
CHAPTER TEN

Exotic animal

According to the dictionary, exotic is EXAMPLES OF

defined as belonging by nature or origin EXOTIC ANIMALS
to another part of the world, or strangely
and fascinating. There are hun-
different
dreds and hundreds of foreign animals One of the interesting animals for the art-
and birds that interest the artist very' ist to paint is the leopard. (See Figure
much, not only because they are from a 10.3.) It most widely distributed of
is the
strange and interesting land but also be- the wildcats. is found throughout Af-
It

cause of their general appearance, such as rica, Asia Minor, Persia, India, and as far
the horns of some animals and the bril- as China. The leopard has rosettes, as
liantand interesting colors of some birds. does the jaguar, which is found in South
The head of the kudu was a class America and not in Africa as many people
demonstration drawing bv Paul Travis, believe. The main difference between their
who was my figure instructor and an ex- rosettes, which are the spots or markings,
cellent draftsman. (See Figure 10.1.) He is that the leopard does not have a black

taught with great enthusiasm and inspired spot in the center of the rosette as the jag-
my interest in wildlife art. His stories uar does. Both have scattered spots on the
about his foot safari into the pygmy coun- lower parts of their bodies and legs. The
try of Africa sparked my own desire to leopard is the smaller of the two cats and
see the animals of Africa. is not as stockily built as the jaguar. The

125
 Figure 10.1
PALX TRAVIS (American, 1891-1975)
Charcoal drawing of kudo.
Courtesy oi Sirs. Paul Tra\is-

Figure 10.2
Monkev.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo. Seattle. Washington

126
Figure 10.3
OWEN J. GROMME (American, 20th century)
Hanging Loose —Leopard (oil).
Covirtesy of Wild Wings, Inc., Lake City,
Minnesota, and Owen J. Gromme.

127
melanistic phase of the leopard is called gazelle native to South Africa, does not
the black panther. It is quite common and differ from the skeleton of the antelope,
isnot a separate species as often believed. which is a member of the deer family. The
Their habitat ranges from the jungle springbok has an unusual habit of jump-
through the grasslands to the semideserts. ing high into a vertical leap with its tail
Another fascinating animal for the (fan) extended, all four legs and hooves
artist to draw is the wallaby, a member of held tightly together, back arched, and
the large grouping of marsupials that are head held downward. This is known as
found throughout Australia, New Guinea, "stotting" or "pronking."
Tasmania, and some of the outlying is- The gibbon will serve as the model
lands. This is a case for which it probably for some of the monkeys. The scratchboard
would be difficult to find material on skel- drawings in Figures 10.7 and 10.8 show
etal structure. It is up to the artist to use the natural gait of the gibbon. Since these
his or her own judgment. There are animals are tailless and generally arboreal,
plenty of magazines that have good pho- they travel by using their versatile limbs
tographs for reference. It is suggested that to swing from branch to branch through
a simplified skeleton be sketched and spe- the trees. This swinging motion is called
cial attention be paid to the head struc- brachiation. The gibbon is the smallest of
ture, forelegs, and feet. the apes. When gibbons find it necessary
Another great animal to paint is the to come down from their aerial homes,
giant panda. The panda is actually not a they walk upright with their arms bent
bear; it is the Asiatic member of the rac- and held to their sides quite like a human
coon family. Here again, the same prob- who is holding a balancing pole while

lem presents itself to the artist of whether walking a tightwire. The gibbon's arms
to base the skeleton of the panda on that are approximately twice as long as its
of the raccoon or the bear. If it is possible trunk, and its hands are long and thin
to find photographs that show the side with hooklike fingers. The gibbon is con-
view, then you can approximate the sim- sidered to be the most intelligent of the
plified skeleton, probably based on the anthropoid apes. Gibbons are extremely
bear since that bone structure is more clean and live in small families. The sim-
readily available. plified sketches should serve as a model
The skeleton of the springbok, a for their anatomical bone structure.

Figure 10.4
Wallaby.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo,
Seattle, Washington.

128
Figxire 10.5
LAWRENCE A. MAY, JR. (American, 20th century)
Panda Bear (watercolor).
Courtesy of the artist.

Figure 10.6
Springbok.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo,
Seattle, Washington.

129
 Figures 10.7 and 10.8

130
»4 '5; Pi-'

' • •'• ' -,—^=4; - '• /

'Qm\^^
^u. •^^''^ ''* >'
l
f .,,11

131
 Figure 10.10

eluded the guide, the hunter, gun-bearers,

camp personnel,
trackers, a skinner, a cook,
five horses and twelve pack camels, and
myself.
The landscape played a ver\' impor-
tant part in the material I wanted for
paintings (see Figure 10.10). We were in
the high country, not the African jungles.
The charging elephants were done from
pencil sketches that were later developed
in the studio. You do not stand and make
sketches in front of a charging elephant!
Hence the necessitv of knowing the basic
anatomv of an elephant. The tree behind
the elephants the baobab, the "upside-
is

down looks like the roots are in

tree." It

the sky instead of the leaves.

The scratchboard drawings are of
some of my favorite animals. It may inter-
est you to draw or make paintings of
Figure 10.9
The few of the many animal pictures
filmstrip contains a
them with the proper backgrounds.
that I have taken withmy camera for
background material There are five distinct types of gi-
and action scenes. The 35mm camerais used primarily for
raffes. Their color patterns vary according
landscape and details of birds and animals. My movie
camera is reserved for the action scenes, such animals in There are minor varia-
to their habitats.
various modes of locomotion and close-up shots of differ- tions depending on whether they are from
ent angles of head movements, as well as for many bird
flight attitudes that are valuable for authenticity. coastal, forest, savaniiC^, or other small
areas of Africa. The reticulated giraffe dif-
fers from the common by its jagged,
giraffe
An African Safari
The common
starlike pattern, as illustrated.
Figure 10.10 is an oil sketch that I made giraffe's pattern is more rounded.
after mv safari trip into Africa. I do my The African elephant, with its huge
hunting with a camera. We traveled as far ears as compared to the Indian elephant
north from Nairobi, the capital of Kenya, up whose ears are smaller, is an outstanding
to Ethiopia. The members of the safari in- animal to paint.

132
 TARSIUS

Figure lO.U

GIRAFFE

133
Other Exotics two humps. It is found in the wilds of the
Gobi desert. History records the domes-
tication of theArabian camel as far back
The horned animals such as the kudu and as the 11th century in Palestine. The camel
the ibex are also interesting to draw and is an animal whose two toes are united by

paint. The ibex are the mountain animals a thick web of skin. Nature has given the
of Europe. They range from the Alps, camel a nostril that can be closed and eyes
through Spain, Portugal, the Caucasus, with long lashes that can also be closed
and Persia, all the way to the Himalayas. against the strong blasts of the desert
Their horns are very heavily ridged. sandstorms. The hump is a reserve stor-
The blackbuck of India is a very age area for fat that is used for energv
graceful animal and should be interesting when needed. When drawing this animal,
to paint. The sable antelope of Africa, pay attention to the angle of the eye; it
which carries the most awe-inspiring set does not match the slope of the mouth.
of horns in the animal kingdom, also The camel has a deep chest, long legs,
should make a striking subject. Its five- and very small hindquarters. The sketches
foot scimitarlike horns are greatly feared, of camels were made during my trip into
even by the mighty lion. Africa. (See Figure 10.12.) Camels have a
—
The koala the pert, tubby, and tail- very arrogant attitude and their bite is
less —
Teddy bear of Australia is a great very dangerous. Be careful not to carica-
animal to draw and paint. ture the camel. The anatomical sketch
There are two types of camels. One is shows the skeleton with one leg that has
the Arabian camel, which has a single been tied up. (See Figure 10.13.) This is
hump and is also known as the drome- done to prevent the camel from wander-
dary. It is found in Africa, Syria, Af- ing, not only in the market areas but also
ghanistan, and northern India. The other in lion countrv where they become easy
camel is known as the bacterian and has prey.

Figure 10.12
DEMONSTRATION PAINTING

The concept for this painting developed

after an exciting and very interesting trip
into Morocco, traveling from Tangiers as
far south as Marrakesh, then westward to
Casablanca and north to Ceuta, a Spanish
enclave in Morocco. The camels that are
seen in Morocco are working camels, and
there are very few wild camels.
Rather than paint another picture of
charging, wild elephants and cape buffalo,
the idea to show a camel caravan entering
the gates of a typicalMoroccan town be-
came very In addition, I had
intriguing. Figure 10.14
plenty of 35mm transparencies from the
trip, so mv material was authentic and it
also gave me the opportunity to incorpo-
rate the people, the gate, the old walls,
and a view through the stone gate of a
few typical shops.
The rough sketch was all that was
needed to jot down the idea. (See Figure
10.14.) This rough was then enlarged to
the finished size of the painting, which is
thirty-six inches wide by twenty-four
inches high. This enlarged sketch was
made on a single sheet of tracing paper in
the actual size of the painting.
Individual studies were next. All of
these studies were kept quite simple. It

was more important for their sizes and

Figure 10.15
proportions to be correct. These individual
studies were of the gate, each camel, the
figures, the shops, brassware in the fore- This study was fixed with a fixative so
ground, and, finally, the wall, the that it would not smear. (See Figure
minaret, and the dome of the mosque. 10.15.)
The sketches were trimmed so that they Using a graphite carbon, the final
could be taped into position on the en- study was then traced over onto the pre-
larged tracing paper, forming a pleasing pared canvas (Figure 10.15). This canvas
composition. had three coats of a white gesso, the last
Since I was working from individual coat being sanded with a fine sandpaper.
35mm transparencies, it was necessary to It is important, particularly when you

correct the perspective. This was done by are working with figures, for hands, faces,
placing another tissue over the enlarged and feet to be carefully redrawn. Usually
one with the taped-on studies, then lay- the tracing will not have sharp lines and
ing out a horizon and very carefully draw- they need to be cleaned up.
ing each study over again and correcting Here is where the fun begins. All of
the perspective as each study evolved. the preparatory work had been produced
After these tissues were completed, a and a small but quick color sketch was
final value study was made in charcoal. made to be used as a guide. The first area

135
to be painted was the sky. This was car- and values of the shops as seen through
ried to about a two-thirds finish. The wall the gate. The values had to be correct,
was next to be toned in. The overall color otherwise the shops would not appear to
and values were laid in but no details be farther away from the entrance.
were added yet. The radius point for the The usual halfway photograph was
arch was located. The spaces between the not made, since it would not mean much
stones were slightly tapered so that the with the working procedure this painting
arch would not appear to collapse. Some required. In words, the painting
other
engineering was necessary for this par- —
was begun at the extreme distance the
ticular gate; then the general tone of the —
sky and slowly progressed to the imme-
gate was brushed in. diate foreground. Nothing was detailed.
The next phase was to paint the color All that was accomplished was an overall

Figure 10.16
FREDRic SWENEY (American,
20th century)
Moroccan Caravan.

136
feeling of the color and the general scene. the eye from wandering out of the pic-
Now the painting was ready for the ture.
next phase. Usually, my plan is to work The wall received its detail. A palette
in three phases. The first is the general knife was used to paint the sections of the
toning in, the second is enhancing the wall where the outer covering over the
various areas, particularly the designing of stones had chipped away. Stains were
individual areas, and all necessary detail added to the ancient walls, and the rugs
work comes last. that were hanging on the walls and the
The clouds were purposely directed one in the upper left corner of the paint-
toward the awning in the shopping area. ing were completed.
This tied the two areas together optically. The shops were finished except for
The vertical tower of the mosque stopped minor details, and then the camels were

137
done, including the rider and escorts. A PRACTICE SUBJECTS
sign-painter's striping brush was used in
painting the ropes and reins for the cam-
els. The ground shadows of the caravan Here are a set of animal photographs that
were next, and then attention was turned present great possibilities for interesting
to the merchant, his beautiful brassware, and intriguing paintings. Naturally, the
and the two women who were admiring correct habitat will have to be researched
their silks. as these are obviously zoo backgrounds,
Finally, the camel lower right
in the with the animals in open pens so that
of the painting and all details were com- they may move about freely.
pleted. This concluded phase three. After Today, lions are found mainly in cen-
the painting was completely dry, it re- tral and southern Africa. The zebra roams

ceived its final glazes in order to enhance a wide range in Africa, south of the Sa-
the colors and to correct minor value hara. The zebras are the type found in the
changes. It was a pleasure to paint this southern part of Africa. They have a more
picture, not only because brought back it brownish stripe. The gorilla is the coastal
fond memories but also because I enjoyed species found in the equatorial forests of
the challenge. Africa.

Figure 10.17
Lioness.
Photographs by Fredric Sweney. Courtesy of Woodland
Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington.

Figure 10.18
Zebra.
Photograph by Fredric Sweney.
Courtesy of Woodland Park Zoo,
Seattle, Washington.
Figure 10.19
M:&' ,1

GoriUa.
Photograph by Fredric Sweney. Courtesy of Woodland
Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington.

139
CHAPTER ELEVEN

13irds

As WE WATCH THE FLIGHT of birds in the air tiles because they have certain reptilian
or the soaring of an eagle as it travels features, such as an egg tooth and similar
through the invisible updrafts, we assume eggs and structures. The outstanding fea-
that they always knew how to fly, but birds ture that separates them from all other an-
have to learn how to fly. Their ability to fly imals and reptiles of the world is the
is the culmination of millions of years of feathers. All birds have feathers and no
gradual changes and modifications from other creatures or animals, including the
the first birdlike reptile, Archaeopter}'x, bat, possess them.
which dates back to over 100 million years
ago. This first bird found out how to glide
from tree to tree. Its clawlike wings enabled
it to climb to the great heights of one tree
EXPRESSIONISM,
IDEALISM, REALISM,
and then glide to the next one.
Of all the higher forms of life, birds
AND IMPRESSIONISM
are the most beautiful, the most admired,
the most melodious, and the most pro- There are four artistic traditions for the
tected and defended in our world today. artist to use in painting birds: expression-
They found from the Arctic to the
are ism, idealism, realism, and impression-
Antarctic and in everv countr\^ throughout ism. Probably the oldest form of art is the
the world. expression istic, which belonged to the most
Birds have been called glorified rep- primitive of humans. This type of art has

140
continued from the cave drawing era to a half heads high. This is known as the
contemporary times. The watercolor by academic figure. Fashion artists will go to
Viktor Schreckengost in Figure 11.1 is an extremes, designing a figure that may
outstanding example of today's expres- measure up to ten heads high. This device
sionistic art. The painting is very well de- is used to glorify the figure and to give a

signed and is symbolic of the rooster, sleek look to clothing.

hen, and chicks. It maintains the character Realism in art means exactly what it

and proportions of the leghorn chickens says. The artist strives to paint the abso-
but it certainly does not represent the re- lute reality of the subject. In this particu-
alistic style of art. lar case, if the subject is a bird, it means
Idealism in art means that after the that the proportions,color, and exact
artist selects the subject, he or she then feather count of the wings are correct, es-
designs, simplifies, and stylizes it, while pecially if the wings are in an extended
still maintaining its physical form, into a position. It also means that the tail feather
very decorative and interesting painting. count is correct for a particular species.
The idealistic art form dates back to the There is variety among the different spe-
Greek period and is still used today, espe- cies. Attention is also paid to the bird's
cially in human and animal art. It is fre- head which includes the pro-
structure,
quently seen in fashion art. Using the portion of the bill, the eye structure, and
human head as a unit of measure, the the anatomy of the foot. People love to
average figure is approximately seven and see detail in paintings.

Figure 11.1
VIKTOR SCHRECKENGOST (American,
20th century)
Leghorns (watercolor).
Courtesy of the artist.

141
 Some artists prefer to paint in an ex- what the eye sees rather than what the
pressionistic manner, others like idealism, mind knows exists. The work of Claude
and others prefer to paint in detail. Monet is an outstanding example of pure
Diego Velasquez painted in a realistic impressionistic art.
manner, but with his powerful, broad Whether the artist prefers to paint
technique and his analytical mind, his art birds or animals in the expressionistic,
achieved a very high level and was pro- idealistic, realistic, or impressionistic man-
pelled into the impressionistic art style. ner, all are acceptable. It just depends on
bfif>ressionism means that the artist paints the individual.

Figure 11.2 (left)

FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
Siiou^ Geese (oil).
Courtesy of Sports Afield magazine.

Figure 11.3 (below)

JIM SPRANKLE
Hooded Merganser —Drake (wood carving).
Courtesy of the Wildfowl Art Museum of
the Ward Foundation, Salisbur\', Mar\land.

swKt

Figure 11.4
FREDRIC SWENEY (American,
20th century)
Wood Dwc-its'(oil).
From the collection and courtesy of
Mrs. Colef Coughlin.

142
 Figure 11.5
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
American Goldeneye Drake, Canvas-back Drake,
and Wood Duck Drake (oil).

ANATOMY OF THE BIRD 3. Nape —

Upper division of the neck, lo-
cated directly below the base of the skull;
The parts of a bird are as follows: the occipital portion of the skull.
4. Hind Neck —Posterior or rear section of
1. Crown —Upper section head above
of the the neck.
a line formed by the ear opening and the 5. Side of Neck —Lateral or outer section of
eye. the neck.
2. Ear —Organ of hearing, located directly in 6. Back —Upper area of the body, located
back of the eye and covered by a group- between the base of the neck and the
ing of feathers known as the auriculars. rump; the dorsal region of the spine.

Figure 11.6

PARTS OF A BIRD

PARTS OF A FOOT
 7. Pelvic Area —The lower section of the 18. Throat —Anterior upper section of the
back; the hip section. neck.
8. Upper-Tail Coverts —Grouping of feathers 19. Chin —Area located on the undersection
overlaying the base of the tail. of the skull, at the base of the lower
9. —Posterior extremity' of the body.
Tail mandible.
10. Under-Tail Coverts — Feathers located un- 20. Cheek—Side of the head located between
der the base of the tail. the eye and the chin.

11. Flairk —Posterior area of the sides of the 21. Nostril —

External opening located on the
body. upper area of the mandible or bill.
12. Belly —Abdomen area. 22. Sail —Raised section located on the tip of

Tarsus and Toe — Located between the heel

the mandible.
13.
and the tip of the toes. 23. Bill —Term applied to mandible, beak, or

14. Side —Area covering the lateral portion of

mouth.
the rib cage; the area between the back 24. Forehead —Front of the skull.
and the breast.
15. Breast — Section between the belly and the The skeleton of a bird contains:
chest; the breastbone or sternum section
1. Mandible or bill
of the rib cage.
16. Chest —Area
between the lower division
2.

3.
Skull
Xeck
of the neck and the breast.
17. Foreneck —Anterior or front portion of the 4. Clavicle or collar bone
neck between the chest and the throat 5. Sternum or breastbone (keel)
area. 6. Knee or patella

Figure 11.7

SKELETON OF A BIRD

144
 7. Os calcis or heel 3. Tertials —The secondaries (trailing
inner
8. Toes or phalanges edge of the wing, nearest the body);
these feathers form a canopy between
9. Shin (tibia and fibula fused into one)
the wing and the body.
10. Thigh or femur
11. Pelvis
4. Scapulars —The feathers of the shoulder
region, nearest the back.
Ribs
12.

13. Shoulder blade or scapula

5. Coverts —Any one of the special feathers
that cover the bases of the quills of the
14. Humerus or upper arm bone wing and the tail; these are called the

15. Forearm (radius and ulna combined) lesser, middle, and greater wing coverts.
16. Thumb (spurious wing, location of the 6. Bend of the Wing —
The curve that is
winglet) formed by the junction of the primaries,
17. Digits (first two fingers of the human the winglet, and the forearm section.
hand and the stump of the thumb fused 7. Wing Bars —Found on the greater wing
into a single wing bone) coverts (top of wing only).
8. Under-Wing Coverts —The under, anterior
The following are parts of the wing: portion of a wing.
9. Winglet —The thumb from which three
1. —
The Primaries Ten feathers (curve away feathers project.
from the body). 10. —
Speculum or Chevron Color patch on the
2. The Seavidaries Twelve— feathers (curve wing; found on the upper wing second-
toward the body). aries.

Figure U.8

TOP VIEW:
WING OF A BLUE-WING TEAL

PARTS OF A WING AND FEATHER

2

UNDER VIEW:
WING OF A BLUE-WING TEAL
 The Folding of a Wing secondaries, and they in turn slide under
the tertials as the wing continues to fold.
It is important for wildlife artists who
ver\'
Upon completion of the folding process,
specialize in bird art to thoroughly under-
the wing is held tightly to the body. This
stand the folding of a wing. This folding
is shown in drawing number three. To
action is so rapid that the eve does not
complete the folding action, the tertials
see it. I have slow-motion movies of a
are covered by a grouping of feathers lo-
mallard duck landing on the water, and at
cated directly over the shoulder blade, the
the instant that the duck's body touches
scapulars. Their purpose is to help
the surface of the water the wing-folding
streamline the wings to the bod\' shape
process has been almost completed.
and to protect the opening between the
This folding of a wing takes only a
folded wing and the body from weather.
fraction of a second to complete. Thou-
The final step is for the side feathers to
sands of small muscles that control the in-
cover the wing.
dividual feathers are brought into play.
The following are parts of the feather
Each muscle rotates the feathers and also
structure:
controls the positions of the indixidual
wing segments as they are quickly 1. QuUl
brought into action. It is a complicated
Shaft
process and should be understood by the
Vane
wildlife artist if the wing is to be illus-
Soft barbules
trated in a painting. This folding process
Barbs
is showTi in Figures 11.9 and 11.10. The
unfolding process is just the opposite ac- Barbules

tion. Barbicels

The folding of a bird's wing is quite a

simple action. It consists of four basic mo-
tions. The shows the wing
first illustration
The Colors of Feathers
being pulled toward the body from an ex-
tended position. The primaries are mov- The various colors of feathers are pro-
ing toward the body so that they pass duced bv three different means. The reds,
underneath the secondaries. In position oranges, browns, yellows, and grays are
number tvvo, the primaries slide under the pigmentary colors. These colors are opaque.

Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10

HAND 1. PRIMARIES
2. SECONDARIES
3. TERTIALS
4. SIDE FEATHERS

FOLDING COMPLETED

3 4 2

HALFWAY
FOLDING STARTED SIDE VIEW
 The iridescent colors seen on the copy of Birds of America, published by
speculum of a duck's wing and also on Garden City Publishing. This book has 106
the wild turkey's neck and wing, to name plates in full color and is illustrated with
a few, are structural colors. These are the watercolors by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, a
greens, blues, bronzes, violets, and also master of bird drawings.
white and black. While studying the actions of birds
The third group of colors are the through the telescope, I allowed myself
combinations of the pigmentary and struc- fifteen seconds a sketch, knowing that I
tural colors. could check the details from Audubon
Iridescent colors are composed of re- plates, and from the colors of mounted
flective cells orprisms in the barbs of the specimens at the Cleveland Museum of
feather. These cells break up light rays, Natural Historv.
the same condition seen in rainbows and On weekends I spent many hours in
oil on water. The only effective way I the field watching wildlife. My
sketching
have found to paint the iridescence is to time by now was reduced to about five
glaze the colors over a white ground. You seconds. The medium that was used was
are dealing with light rays and not pig- dry-brush, w^hich is a combinarion of a

ments. split-haired brush and India ink. 1 soon

The following are the parts of the learned, for example, that small birds re-
foot: quire thick underbrush in order to protect
themselves from preying animals and
1. Hind toe —one joint birds, hawks and owls, and
particularly
2. Inside front toe — two joints also from storms and windy weather.
3. Middle front toe —three joints My interest soon turned toward ad-
4. Outer front toe — four joints vanced study of the anatomy of birds and
5. Web animals. I had completed a course in art
6. Claw school in human anatomy, which was
quite valuable to me. Another thought
7. Tarsus
that crossed my mind was that it was nec-
essary for me to become a realistic land-
scape artist. This led to the advanced
study of the great landscape painters: Jean
APPROACHES TO Corot, George Inness, Albert Bierstadt,
PAINTING BIRDS
John Constable, the Dutch landscape
painters, and the Impressionists, par-
When you decide that you want to be- ticularly Claude Monet, just to name a
come a wildlife artist, probably the first few. Museums where I could study the
questions to enter your mind will be: original paintings have meant a great deal
Where do I begin? Do I approach it by to me.
drawling mounted birds in a museum? Do When I started selling small drawings
I begin by copying another artist's paint- to nature and outdoors magazines, my
ings from a book? Or do I begin bv study- confidence kept building. One of the edi-
ing the anatomy of birds and animals? tors asked me why I only drew birds. He
One of the first things that I did was needed drawings of animals and fish as
to teach myself to make quick action well, so my field quickly broadened to a
sketches. Birds and animals do not hold variety of wildlife. Artists never stop
still for you! studying. The day you quit learning, you
I improvised my outdoor study by will find yourself in the doldrums and will
sketching another artist's paintings and by not advance in your chosen field.
training myself to draw while studying The acrylic of the woodcock in Figure
any available bird through a telescope 11.11 is the study for a painting. The com-
mounted on a tripod. Fortunately, I had a plex pattern made it necessary to make

147
 Figure U.n
\Noodcock.

Figure IL12
JIM SPRAN-KLC
Black Duck (wood carving).
CtuKtesf ot Ibe VfUSte Maseum of die Wad
Rmi idjlion- Safeboiv. Maryland-
this study first. The beautiful wood carv-
ing by Jim Sprankle (who used to be a
pitcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers and the
Cincinnati Reds) is a masterpiece in this
interesting phase of fine art in the wood-
carving field. (See Figure 11.12.)
The painting of the red-bellied wood-
pecker (Figure 11.13) was one of a series
that was made for a manufacturer and
was used as a point of sales for one of its

products. As your name becomes better

known as a wildlife artist, you will proba-
bly be kept busy making drawings in your
specialized field.
It is impossible to illustrate examples
of all birds since the number of species is

generally estimated to be over 8,500. We

all have certain birds that interest us.
Some like the parakeet; others may be lost
in the world of the hummingbirds. Proba-
bly the greatest interest is in the game
birds. In my particular field, game birds
and animals are my specialty. They are
Figure 11.13
the most common, particularly in the fall Red-bellied woodpecker.
when thousands upon thousands of ducks
and geese travel south in their yearly mi- acteristic of ducks and swallows in par-
gration. At this time of the year, people ticular.
take to the country in droves — ^bird clubs, This section is not a treatise on flight
hunters, photographers, and certainly but is directedmore to the anatomy of the
wildlife artists —
in order to get additional bird. Some knowledge of anatomy is nec-
information and inspiration for their next essary in order to understand the various
projects. attitudes of the wing when its function is

A wildlife artist's paintings are seen necessary for all of the positions required
by thousands of critics when his or her for flight,such as side-slips, stalls, high
work is published in books, magazines, forward slow flights, and fast
speed,
and calendars. There is a saying: "There turns. One of the great reference books on
are thousands and thousands of hunters flight is Prairie Wings by Edgar M.
and all of them are experts." These are Queeny, illustrated by Richard E. Bishop,
your critics, those who read the nature, and published by J. B. Lippincott. You
outdoor, and hunting and fishing maga- may want to add it to your librar\^
zines and books. These people know their The aquatint etching of the flying
birds and animals and they are your canvasback ducks by Richard E. Bishop is
potential market. authentic in every aspect of flight and
should be carefully studied. (See Figure
11.14.) When you look at a painting, or in
Flight
this case an etching, try to analyze the
There have been innumerable books writ- flight. In this picture the ducks are begin-
ten about a bird's most characteristic ac- ning to turn to the left. The wing posi-
tivity —
flight. The infallible camera sees tions of the three ducks tell you what is
the split-second wing beats and the pi- happening: the left wings are in the
nions' adjustment as the bird sets its downbeat position and they are pulling
wings for a soft or sizzling landing char- the bird into a left-hand turn.

149
Figure 11.14
RICHARD E. BISHOP (American, 20th century)
Down from Manitoba (etching).
From the archives of and copyright Brown and Bigelow, St. Paul,
Minnesota.

Figure 11.15
FREDRic swENEY (American, 20th century)
Canada Geese (oil).
Courtesy of S;*)r/s Afield magazine.
 Figure 11.15 illustrates a flight of Can- lards literally fly off the water with a
ada geese about to land. Their feet are downward thrust of their wings against
being lowered and a few are approaching the water. They vault off the surface,
a stall as they kill their flying speed. heading downwind and then turn quickly,
facing into the wind in order to increase
Climbing flight. Figure 11.16 shows a se- their lift. This maneuver is performed in
quence of normal climbing flight executed one-flfth of a second. It is so rapid that
by a surface-feeding duck. Surface-feed- the human eye cannot see it.

ing ducks, such as the mallard, vault off

the surface of the water. Ducks that dive Dropping-in flight. This is one of the most
for their food, such as canvasbacks, run exciting and exhilarating aspects of flight.
off the surface of the water. The legs and As the bird drops down, its wings are
feet of diving ducks are further back on thrust forward and cupped in order to kill
their bodies than on river or surface-feed- its flying speed. The bird lands just like

ing ducks. an airplane; its body is tipped into a near

Usually, a bird takes off heading into vertical position, and the wings are spread
the wind, but there are occasions when it into an open position and cupped. (See
is necessary to take off downwind. Mal- Figure 11.17.)

Figures U.16 and U.17

THE DUCK ILLUSTRATED

IS NOT OF ANY PARTICULAR
SPECIES BUT IS SYMBOLIC
OF FLIGHT.

151
Sketches The quick pen sketch of the duck's
landing is an example of how the birds
Figures 11.18, 11.19, and 11.20 are a few of
are designed into a single unit by having
the quick, abstract sketches that I usually
their wings overlap each other. (See Fig-
make when I am searching for an idea.
ure 11.21.)
Here where you look for story-telling
is

ideas and a design for the overall picture.

Use your imagination. Think back to
your field trips. It is good practice not to
look at clippings or pictures while com-
posing an idea. Once you have seen other
work it is very hard to be original in your
own art.
After you have your idea established,
make a small color sketch and use a field
guide book for the general color and con-
formation of your birds. If at all possible,
keep the values very simple at this stage.
One light value, one dark, and two gray
values will be sufficient now.

Figure 11.18

Figure 11.19

152
 —

DEMONSTRATION PAINTING This is the scene I wish to paint.

Whether you use a gun or a camera, the
A layout or sketch is to be considered a thrill will still be the same. The most im-
visual representation of an idea; the portant thing to do at this time is to get
graphic design is the window of an artist's the idea down on paper while it is still

mind. It is the visual creation of a past ex- fresh in your mind.

perience, in this case the sketch of a flock Reaching began
for a sketch book, I

of Canada geese preparing to land among to jot down small marks and rhythmic
a set of decoys. (See Figure 11.23.) shapes. An abstract pattern began to ap-
Brief thoughts cross your mind. You pear. My enthusiasm quickened as the
sort them out, discarding the ones that doodles took on a semblance of forms
will not lend themselves to a pleasing and the placement of the abstract shapes of
interesting composition. You think of the the reeds and grasses, the triangular pat-
being out in the weather
chilling elation of tern of the flight of geese, and the sweep
near the wind-whipped waters of a salt of the clouds.
marsh, of snuggling deep into the blind to The sketch had now developed into a
keep out of the cold wind, of your duck series of wavelike forms; the picture
boat that has been pulled into a safe har- moves. This is all that we need for a
bor among the reeds, of your dog and sketch. (See Figure 11.23.)
your companion if you are hunting. Theoil layout was made on illustra-

As the first streaks of daylight crack tion board that had a matte fixative spray
the gray wall of clouds on a cold winter on its surface. This ensures that the paint
morning, the restless geese rise, their will not spread over the surface of the pa-
appetites satisfiedand their craws full of per. The color scheme has been worked
the scattered grain from the harvested out, the studies of the geese have been
fields where they spent their usual moon- made (Figure 11.22), and the next step is

light feeding period. to enlarge thedrawings and transfer them

Out over the water, near the distant to the prepared canvas.
shore, a thin wavering line of gabbling After the geese, decoys, and duck
geese slowly drifts toward your side of boat were traced into position, the out-
the bay. A well-executed goose call quick- lines of the water and the reeds were
ens their flight as they come to investigate added. The canvas was then sprayed with
the seductive sound. a fixative so that the pencil lines would
In a matter of minutes the great gray not be destroyed by the oil paint.
V sweeps in high over the marsh and My working procedure on this par-
passes over a small finger of reeds where ticular painting was to do the sky first,
well-placed, goose decoys
stiff-looking then the geese and landscape. Using a
float quietly on wind-rippled waters. The reasonablv wide brush (bright), the sky
geese continue on after carefully looking and clouds were blocked in, working from
over the decoys and land in the center of the distant background and overlapping
the bay, far away from the reedy shores. the edges of the paint to the foreground,
A fast-moving north wind drives thereby gaining aerial perspective. The
clouds over the water. The stiffening wind soft edges were achieved with a combina-
quickly whips the bay into wild white- tion of sable brushes, cloths, wadded pa-
caps. As the wind strengthens, it bends per, and the thumb.
the tall reeds downward. The geese grow The sky was practically completed at
and are soon airborne, their wings
restless one sitting. (See Figure 11.24.) I did not
hammering against the driving storm. The trim around the birds at this time but
flockwheels into an arc as they prepare to brushed the paint directly across them.
land. Their wings make a hissing sound This preserves continuity in the sky area.
as they brake against the wind. The paint on the birds was scrubbed from

153
 ^

Figure 11.22
Charcoal study for the flight of geese.

Fipre^ll,23

154
Figure 11.24

them with a round pig-bristle brush and ping a small sable brush into turpentine,
turpentine. wiping it nearly dry, and very carefulh'
The color of the reeds was painted dragging it along the contours of the wing
next. Xo detail was added vet.The gen- forms. This took awav the undesirable
eral forms of the geese were also added, hard look.
working from the back bird forward to the I highlv recommend that you study

lead bird. The palette consisted of ultra- the edges of round objects that have been
marine blue, viridian, cadmium yellow painted bv the Dutch painter Jan Ver-
light, cadmium barium orange, cadmium meer.
red light, yellow ochre, raw umber, burnt I have also painted a value scale on

umber, raw siena, and ivor\' black. the bodies of the geese, from light on the
With all the major forms and values leading bird to a darker value on the trail-
established, the painting was now begin- ing birds. These are approximately a quar-
ning to take shape, and the feel of the ter to a half in range between each goose.
outdoors was evident. Painting grass and reed stalks will
The sky was nearly complete except make you feel liberated and free. This can
for some final adjustments to the values. be a lot of fun. Do not sketch out the in-
These values are ver\' critical, especially dividual stalks and blades. If vou can
the aerial ones that separate the wings of draw them separately on a lavout or
the geese. Particular attention is also paid sketch, you can do it on the finished
to the divisions of the wing and the painting. Keep in mind which way the
proper feather count. wind is blowing.
Other sections of this painting that Previouslv, I painted the darkest
received special attention were the edges value of the reeds and grass with a red-
of the wings. These were softened by dip- dish brown, softening the edges with a

155
brush. I also scumbled (softened or Now I turned mv attention to the
blended) some of the contours with a dr\' painting of the Canada goose decovs, be-
brush. Working from back to front, I casu- ginning by painting the distant ones first,
ally indicated the blowing stalks and keeping in mind that 1 must darken the
blades to show wind direction. Remember values of the rest of the decoys as I ap-
that birds land into the wind. proach the foreground. (See Figure 11.25.)
After finishing the shape of the reeds Decoys must look like wooden birds and
against the sky and also the ones on the not live ones.
lake side, began painting toward the
I The distant shoreline has some small
foreground. The grasses and reeds in the indentations to indicate that there are little

intermediate planes were painted with a waterways winding back into the marsh.
lighter value, while changing some of the Care must be taken not to overwork this
colors —some tannish, some greenish, area.
some and so on. At this stage the
reddish, The darks and waterwav
lights of the
palette knife was introduced in order to in the foreground are indicated by var\'ing
loosen up the art. Using the edge of the shades of neutralized blues and greens,
knife and the flat of the blade, a series of keeping in mind that there is a mud flat
casual strokes were made. down the center of the inlet. The inlet
The final phase was done after the was painted with a generous amount of
painting was dr\' so that I could take ad- raw umber and juicv purple paint for top
vantage of the texture of the previous lighting. Blown-down stalks of reeds were
day's work and have a rougher surface to indicated Iving flat on the water at various

play with. Longer strokes were made with angles. These were done mainly with a
the knife, keeping in mind the size of the palette knife, and the blades of grass were
stalks as governed bv the rules of per- indicated with a round sable brush.
spective. The painting is now approaching the

Figure 11.25
Details of the painting.
Figure U.26
FREDRic SWENEY (American, 20th century)
The Fall Guys (oil).
Courtesy of Mr. Robert J. Carlson.

final stages and more attention is being be renewed during the spring moult.
paid to the fine detail that a student of With the head pointing downward,
nature would expect. With the wings dry, the goose is looking for a suitable landing
I could proceed with the final glazing of place. The feet, which have been tucked
colors, especially the reflected colors from under the tail, are now brought forward
the sky and water. in preparation for the landing. The wing
Whites, such as the chin strap on the position and the tilted tail indicate that
head, and the light tannish grays of the the bird turning slightly to the left and
is

body take on a blue or green reflected cast that the body has been rolled so that the
as the bird approaches the water's sur- belly will show. The left foot has been
face. dropped more than the right; this is in
The broken feathers of the wing tell order to put a drag on that side to assist
us that the bird has traveled a long dis- in the turn.
tance, or that the feathers have been bro- These are the things that a con-
ken by the bird's flying through branches. noisseur of waterfowl art will search for.

The soft edge of the trailing feathers indi- The final touch is the reflected color in the
cates that they are old and frayed but will eye and its highlight.

157
PRACTICE SUBJECTS and show a pintail duck in a driving
snowstorm, or it may be a spring day and
These sketches will give you a latitude of late in the afternoon.
choice in order for you to tr\' your skill at Please yourself regarding the weather,
paintings of this type. I have purposely the time of day, or the season of year you
made the sketches simple in design. You wish to paint. All that I have done is to indi-
are to fill in the background that you cate some flight positions that you are free
choose to depict. to use. The only thing you must do is de-
You mav want to take the first one sign the landscape and finish the painting.

Figure 11.27 Figure U.29

Canada goose. .\laUards.

Figure 11.28
Pintail.

158
Figure U.30
Pintail.

Figure 11.31
Mallards.

159
Figure 11.32
Pintails.

160
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163
Index

A Andersen, Hans Christian, 116

And He just Loves Horses (Palenske), 3
Aberdeen Angus, 75, 78 Animal Painting and Anatomy (Calderon), 31
Academic figure, 141 Animals in Motion (Muybridge), 11, 12
Adamson, Harr}^ Curieux, 107 Ankole, 79
Afghan, 51 Antelope, 78, 89, 91, 92, 128, 134
Alar cartilages, 24 Antlers, 78, 92-93
Alaskan brown bear, 98, 100 Aoudad, 109
Altimira Cave, 4 Appaloosa, The (Sweney), 10
American Goldeneye Drake, Canvas-hack Drake, Archaeopter\'x, 140
and YJood Duck Drake (Sweney), 143 Archaeopteryx (Schreckengost), 5
Anatomy: Architectural background, 81-84
of birds, 143-47 Argali (Ovis ammon), 106
of cats, 63-67 Atlas, 19, 22
of cattle, 77^0 Atlas of Afiimal Anatomy for Artists, An
of deer, 89-93 (Ellenberger, Baum, and Dittrich), 19
of dogs, 51-54 Atlas of Human Anatomy for the Artist (Peck),
of goats and sheep, 106, 108 19
of horses, 14-40 Auroch, 74
of small animals, 117-18 Axis, 19, 22

165
 B Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal), 110
Cannon bone, 27, 28
Baboon, 133 Canvasback ducks, 149, 150, 151
Barbar\' sheep, 109
Cape buffalo, 74, 78, 79, 107
Barbizon School, 50-51 Capjc Buffalo (Sweney), 79
Bat, 118
Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg as St. Jerome
Baum, H., 76 (Cranach), 62-63
Bear, 97-105
Caribou, 89, 91, 92
demonstration painting, 100-103 Cariniform cartilage, 22, 34
practice subjects, 104-5 Carlson, Ken, 88
size and behavior of, 98-100
Carroll, Lewis, 116
types of, 97-98 Cats, 62-73
Beaver, 117, 121-24 anatomy 63-67
of,
Beaver Pond, The (Sweney), 121-24
demonstration painting, 68-72
Bengal tiger, 73 histor\' of, 62-63
Best in the Field — English Setter (Rousseau),
practice subjects, 72-73
51
sketches of, 67, 68-69
Bierstadt, Albert, 147
Cattle, 74-86
Bifurcated tines, 92
anatomy of, 77-80
Bighorn sheep, 106-9, 114
demonstration painting, 81-84
Birds, 1, 140-60
historv' of, 74-75
anatomy of, 143-47 practice subjects, 84-86
approaches to painting, 147-52 sketches of, 81
artistic traditions, 140-42
Cattle Resting in Landscape (Potter), 75, 76
demonstration painting, 153-57 Cave art, 4-6, 75
feathers, 146-47
Chamois, 106
flight, 149-51
Charcoal drazcing of kudo (Travis), 125, 126
practice subjects, 158-60
Charolais, 75, 84, 85
wings, 145-46
Cheetah, 65, 66
Bishop, Richard E., 149, 150
Chipmunk, 117, 120
Bison, 74, 79
Cinnamon bear, 97
Black Angus, 78
Colors, 44, 95, 101, 146-47
Black bear (Ursus Americanus), 97
Columbus, Christopher, 8
Blackbuck, 134
Composition, locating most important point
Black Duck (Sprankle), 148, 149
in, 43
Black panther, 128
Constable, John, 147
Black-tail deer, 87, 90, 96
Coracoid process, 26-27
Bobcat, 65
Core, 16, 17
Bonheur, Rosa, 76 Corot, Jean, 147
Borzoi, 61
Cotton-tail Rabbit (Schwartz), 120
Bovine (Schreckengost), 80
Coues deer, 87
Brahman, 75, 78, 79, 84, 85
Cougar, 66, 68-72
Brangus, 78, 84
Cow (see Cattle)
Brown, Paul, 3, 8, 9, 13, 17
Cranach, Lucas (the Elder), 62-63
Brown bear, 98, 100
Cro-Magnon, 4-6, 75
Buffalo, 74, 78, 79
Croup, 19, 21, 27
Bull {see Cattle)
Cuyp, Albert, 76

c D
Calderon, W. Frank, 31 Dachshund, 61
Camel, 134-38 Dall sheep, 107, 110-14
Camera obscura, 110 Dark, 114
Canada geese, 150-51, 153-57 Deer, 87-96
Canada Geese (Swenev), 150-51 anatomv of, 89-93

166
 antlers and horns, 78, 92-93
demonstration painting, 93-95
history of, 87-88 FallGuys, The (Sweney), 153-57
practice subjects, 96 Fawns," 89, 90
sketches of, 91-92, 93 Feathers, 146-47

Degas, Edgar, 110 Feet, 64, 66, 67

Delacroix, Eugene, 76 Femur, 28

Demonstration paintings: Fighting Stallions, The (Huntington), 10

of bears, 100-103 Flight, 149-51

of beaver, 121-24 Forelimbs, 26-27, 36, 37

of birds, 153-57 Four Riders of the Apocalypse, The (Durer),
of camel caravan, 135-38 8, 9

of cats, 68-72 Friendly Conversation, A (Sweney), 81-84

of cattle, 81-84 Frisky (Sweney), 9

of deer, 93-95 Frontal bone, 24, 25

of dogs, 56-59 Fur, 66, 71, 72, 99, 100

of exotic animals, 135-38

of horses, 40-46
of sheep, 110-13
of small animals, 121-24 Gaskin, 28
Desert bighorn, 106 Gericault, Theodore, 76

Disney, Walt, 116 German Short-haired Pointer (Sweney), 55

Dittrich, H., 76 Gesner, Konrad, 2

Dog, 50-61 Giant argalis, 106
anatomy of, 51-54 Gibbon, 128, 130-131
demonstration painting, 56-59 Giraffe, 132

history of, 50 Glacier bear, 97

practice subjects, 60-61 Glazes, 46, 72, 95, 101, 113
skeleton of, 52, 54 Goats, 106-15
sketches of, 54-56 practice subjects, 114-15

Dorsal vertebrae, 19, 21 sketches of, 114-15

Down from Manitoba (Bishop), 149, 150 types, behavior, and anatomy, 106-8
Dromedary, 134 Gopher, 117
Ducks {see Birds) Gorilla, 139

Diirer, Albrecht, 8, 9 Greyhound, 51-54

Grizzly bear, 98, 99
Gromme, Owen J., 127
Guernsey, 75, 85

Eager Beaver (Sv^eney), 56-59

Ears, 24, 26
Eastern Chipmunk (Schwartz), 120
H
Elephant, 107, 132, 133 Hair forms, 52, 54
El Greco, 1 —
Hanging Loose Leopard (Gromme), 127
Elk, 78, 89, 91, 92, 96 Heads, 22-25, 32-36, 66, 67
Ellenberger, W., 76 Hereford, 75, 79, 85
English bulldog, 52 Highlight, 114
Enlarging sketch, 40, 41-43 Hind limbs, 27-29, 38-39
Eohippus, 7 —
Hooded Merganser Drake (Sprankle), 142
Ermine, 121 Hoofs, 26, 78
Exotic animals, 125-39 Horns, 78-79, 92, 111, 134
demonstration painting, 135-38 Horses, 1, 7-49
examples of, 125-34 anatomy of, 14-40
practice subjects, 138-39 demonstration painting, 40-46
Expressionism, 140-41 history of, 7-8
Eyes, 24, 66 muscles of, 30-39

167
Horses (continued) Metatarsal gland of deer, 90-91
practice subjects,47-49 Mice, 117
research, sketch, and composition, 40-44 Middle-tone, 16, 17, 114
skeleton, 19-29 Monarch of the Glen (Landseer), 76
sketches of, 40-44 Monet, Claude, 142, 147
Human arm, 31, 36, 37 Monkey, 126, 128, 130-31
Huntington, Anna Hyatt, 10 Moose, 89, 91-93
Moroccan Caravan (Sweney), 135-38
Mouflon, 106
I
Mule deer, 87, 90, 91, 96
Ibex, 109, 134 Mule Deer (Sweney), 89
Idealism, 140, 141 Muscles, 30-39, 52, 54, 78, 99, 100
Impressionism, 140, 142 Musk-ox, 74
Incipient hump, 78 Muybridge, Eadweard, 11, 12, 76, 110
Inness, George, 147
Irish setter, 60
Irish wolfhound, 51
N
Nasal bone, 24, 25
Neanderthal, 4
J Neck of horse, 22-25
Jaguar, 66, 67, 125 Niaux Cave, 4
Jaguar, The (Sweney), 67 Normande, 75
Jersey, 75, 79

o
K Occipital bone, 24
Kangaroo, 133 O'Neil Memorial (Schreckengost), 12
Kermode bear, 97 Outsiders, The (Sweney), 68-72
Kev deer, 87 Ox {see Cattle)
Koala, 133, 134
Kodiak bear, 98, 104, 105
Kudu, 125, 126, 134
Palenske, R. H., 3
Palette, 44, 56, 68
L Panda, 128, 129
Labourages Nivernais (Bonheur), 76 Panda Bear (May), 129
Landseer, Edwin, 76 Panther, 128
Lascaux Cave, 4, 6 Parietal bone, 24, 25
Lead, change of, 12 Parrish, Maxfield, 95
Leghorns (Schreckengost), 141 Pastern, 28
Leopard, 65, 66, 125, 127 Photographs, 8, 22, 24, 32, 55, 110, 119 {see
Light, 16, 17, 71 also Practice subjects)
Limousin, 75 Pigmentarv colors, 146
Lion, 65, 66, 138 Pintail ducks, 158-60
Lips, 24 Planes of horse, 16-17
Longhorn, 78, 79, 80 Polar bear (Ursus maritimus), 97, 100-103,
Lumbar, 19, 21 105
Poodle, 60

M Porcupine, 117
Potter, Beatrix, 116
Mallard ducks, 151, 158, 159 Potter, Paulus, 75, 76
Mandible bone, 24 Practice subjects:
Marco Polo sheep, 107 bears, 104-5
Marmot, 117 birds, 158-60
May, Lawrence A., Jr., 117, 129 cats, 72-73

168
 cattle, 84-86 Santa Gertrudis, 75, 78
deer, 96 Schnauzer, 60
dogs, 60-61 Schreckengost, Viktor, 5, 12, 80, 141
exotic animals, 138-39 Schwartz, Charles W., 119, 120
horses, 47-49 Scratchboard, 121-24
sheep and goats, 114-15 Sculptures, 10
Prairie dog, 117 Sheep, 106-15
Prairie Wings (Queeny), 149 demonstration painting, 110-13
Pronghorn antelope, 78, 89, 91, 92 practice subjects, 114
Proughoru Range (Sorrels), 89 sketches of, 114
Proportions of horse, 15-16 types, behavior, and anatomy, 106-8
Pudus, 93 Shorthorn, 75, 78
Puma, 65 Shoulder blade, 26, 27
Skeleton:
of dog, 52, 54
Q of horse, 19-29
Quarter horse, 14-15 Sketches:
Queeny, Edgar M., 149 of bears, 100
of birds, 147, 152
of cats, 67, 68-69
R
of cattle, 81
Rabbit, 118, 120 of deer, 91-92, 93
Raccoon, 119 of dogs, 54-56
Raccoon (Schwartz), 119 of horses,40-44
Radius, 26, 27 of sheep and goats, 114-15
Rat, 117 of small animals, 121-23
ReaUsm, 140, 141 SkuU of horse, 19, 22-25
Red-bellied woodpecker, 149 Small animals, 116-24
Reflected light, 17, 114 demonstration painting, 121-24
"Rembrandt" st}'le of illumination, 71 problems of painting and drawing, 118-21
Rembrandt van Rijn, 76 sketches of, 121-23
Research, 40 types, behavior,and anatomy, 116-18
Retouch varnish, 112-13 Snow Geese (Sweney), 142
Rhvthm lines, 44 Snow sheep, 106
Rib's, 19, 21-22, 77 Sorrels, Gary, 89
Riogetsu, 2 Spikes, 92, 93
Rocky Mountain Bighorn sheep, 106-9 Sprankle, Jim, 142, 148, 149
Rocky Mountain goat, 109 Springbok, 128, 129
Rocky Mountain mule deer, 87 Squirrel, 117, 119
Rodeo, 75-76 Squirrel (May), 117
Rouffignac Cave, 4 Star-Gazer, The— Polar Bear (Sweney), 100-103
Rousseau, Percival, 50-51 Sternum, 21-22
Rubens, Peter Paul, 76 Stillwater Passage (Carlson), 88
Ruminants, 26 Stone sheep, 107
Russian wolfhound, 61 Structural colors, 147
Stubbs, George, 76
Sweney, Fredric, 9, 10, 40-47, 55-59, 67-72,
79-84, 89, 93-95, 100-103, 110-13, 121-24,
Sable antelope, 134 135-38, 142, 143, 150-51, 153-57
Sabre-toothed tiger, 4, 5
Sacrum, 27
Saddling the Blue Roan (Warren), 8, 13
Saint Martin Dividing His Cloak with the Tails, 19, 21, 90
Beggar (Theotocopuli), 1, 2 Tarsius, 133
Saluki, 51 Temporal bone, 24, 25

169
 Theotocopuli, Jorge Manuel,
Thinhorn, 106
1, 2 w
Thorax, 19, 21-22, 71 WaUabv, 128
Three A.M. and All's Well (Sweney), 80, 81 Wapiti '(elk), 78, 89, 91, 92, 96
Tiger, 4, 5, 65, 73 Warren, Melvin C, 8, 13-14
Tines, 92-93 Water buffalo, 79
Top of the World, The —Dall Sheep (Swenev), White-faced Hereford, 85
110-13 Whites, 46
Travis, Paul, 125, 126 White-tail deer, 87, 89-93
Turner, M. W., 95 White-Water Trail (Sweney), 40-47, 56, 68
J.
Wings, 145-46
Woodchuck, 117
u Woodcock, 147, 148
Ulna, 26, 27 Wood Ducks (Swenev), 142
Ungulates, 26 Woodpecker, 149
Upypvr Gorge, The —Argali Rams (Adamson),
107
Urials, 106

Yorkshire terrier, 60
V
Velasquez, Diego, 142
Vermeer, Jan, 110, 155
Vertebral skeleton, 19-22, 30-33
Virgin Forest, The (Sweney), 93-95 Zebra, 138
Virginia white-tail deer, 87 Zygomatic arches, 24

47 5 3 41

^ 170
K'