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For other uses, see Assam (disambiguation).

Assam

State

State of Assam

Kamakhya Temple

Kareng Ghar in Garhgaon

Rang Ghar in Sivasagar

Frang-Mai-Dam in Charaideo
 Majuli Island

Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park

Assam tea garden

Emblem of Assam

Etymology: "A-ham" (Uneven) or from "Ahom"

Nickname(s):
"Land of red river and blue hills"

Motto(s):
Joi Aai Axom
(Hail Mother Assam)[1]

Anthem: "O Mur Apunar Desh"[2]

(O my Dearest Country)
 Location of Assam in India

Coordinates: 26.14°N 91.77°E

Country India

Region Northeast India

Before was State of Assam

Bifurcation 21 January 1972

Formation 26 January 1950[3]

Capital Dispur

Largest city Guwahati

Districts 35 (5 divisions)

Government

• Body Government of Assam

• Governor Lakshman Acharya[4]

• Chief Himanta Biswa Sarma (BJP)

minister

State Unicameral
Legislature

• Assembly Assam Legislative Assembly (126 seats)

National Parliament of India

Parliament

• Rajya 7 seats
Sabha

• Lok 14 seats
Sabha

High Court Gauhati High Court

Area

• Total 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi)

• Rank 16th

Dimensions

• Length 725 km (450 mi)

• Width 30 km (20 mi)

Elevation 80 m (260 ft)

Highest elev 1,960 m (6,430 ft)

ation
(Cachar
Hills
section)

Lowest elev 45 m (148 ft)

ation

Population
(2011)
 • Total 31,169,272

• Rank 15th

• Density 397/km2 (1,030/sq mi)

• Urban 14.1%

• Rural 85.9%

Demonym Assamese

Language

• Official Assamese[5] (for entire state except Barak

Valley ) • Boro (holds one of the official language
[6]

status for the entire state of

Assam[7]) • Meitei (Barak Valley[a] and Hojai
district)[8] • Bengali (Barak Valley)[6]

• Official Bengali–Assamese
script script (for Assamese & Bengali) • Devanagari (fo
r Bodo) • Meitei script (for Meitei)

GDP
[9]

• Total (202 ₹6.43 lakh crore (US$74 billion)

4–2025)

• Rank 18th

• Per capita ₹118,504 (US$1,400) (18th)

Time zone UTC+05:30 (IST)

ISO 3166 IN-AS

code

Vehicle AS
registration

HDI (2018) 0.614 Medium[10] (30th)

Literacy (20 72.19%[11] (26th)

11)

Sex 958 (12th)

ratio (2011)

Website assam.gov.in

Symbols of Assam

Emblem of Assam

Song "O Mur Apunar Desh"[2]

(O my Dearest Country)

Foundation Assam Day

day

Bird White-winged duck

Flower Foxtail orchid

Fruit Kaji Nemu

Mammal Indian rhinoceros

Tree Hollong

State highway mark

State highway of Assam

AS SH1 -AS SH48
 List of Indian state symbols

• First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April

1911, and led to the establishment of Assam Province by
partitioning Province of East Bengal and Assam.
• Assam was one of the original provincial divisions of
British India.
• Assam has had a legislature since 1937.[12]

Assam (Assamese: asama , pronounced [ɔ'xɔm] , ⓘ ə-SoM, a-SAM) is a state

in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along
the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of
78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi). It is the second largest state in northeastern India by
area and the largest in terms of population, with more than 31 million inhabitants.
The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the
north; Nagaland and Manipur to the
east; Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram and Bangladesh to the south; and West
Bengal to the west via the Siliguri Corridor, a 22-kilometre-wide (14 mi) strip of land
that connects the state to the rest of India. Assamese and Bodo are two of the official
languages for the entire state and Meitei (Manipuri) is recognised as an additional
official language in three districts of Barak Valley and Hojai district.[13] in Hojai
district and for the Barak valley region, alongside Bengali, which is also an official
language in the Barak Valley.
The state has 35 districts with 5 divisions. Guwahati (containing the state
capital Dispur) is the largest city in northeastern India. Assam is known for Assam
tea and Assam silk. The state was the first site for oil drilling in Asia.[14] Assam is
home to the one-horned Indian rhinoceros, along with the wild water buffalo, pygmy
hog, tiger and various species of Asiatic birds, and provides one of the last wild
habitats for the Asian elephant. The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife
tourism to Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, which are World
Heritage Sites. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is famed for its feral horses[15]. Sal
tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, look green
all year round. Assam receives more rainfall than most parts of India; this rain feeds
the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a
distinctive hydro-geomorphic environment.

Etymology
[edit]
Main article: Etymology of Assam
The first dated mention of the region comes from Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st
century) and Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century), which calls the region Kirrhadia,
apparently after the Kirata population.[16][17] In the classical period and up to the 12th
century, the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day
Assam, was called Kamarupa, and alternatively, Pragjyotisha.[18] Though a western
portion of Assam as a region continued to be called Kamrup, the Ahom kingdom that
emerged in the east, and which came to dominate the entire Brahmaputra valley,
was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used Asham); and the British province too was
called Assam. Though the precise etymology of Assam is not clear, the name Assam
is associated with the Ahom people, originally called Shyam (Shan).[19]

History
[edit]
Main article: History of Assam
Pre-history
[edit]
Further information: People of Assam
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the
beginning of the Stone Age.[20] The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–
615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt,
useful for tool-making.[21] Ambari site in Guwahati has revealed Shunga-Kushana era
artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century
BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at
Ambari is Roman era Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE. Gupta
explains that while Guwahati, formerly known as Pragjyotishpur in ancient times, is
mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata and the Puranas, there is a lack of
substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history, especially before
the 7th century AD.[22][23]

Legend
[edit]
Further information: Danava dynasty, Bhauma dynasty, and Asura kingdom
According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century CE), the earliest ruler of
Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty, which was removed
by Naraka of Mithila and established the Bhauma dynasty. The last of these rulers,
also Naraka, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta became the king, who
(it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of
Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the
same time towards the east in central Assam, Asura kingdom was ruled by another
line of kings.[24]

Ancient era
[edit]

Kamarupa kingdom at its height

 Deopahar ruins

Further information: Kamarupa

Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock
cut stupa at Sri Surya Pahar has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock
cut Karle and Bhaja caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where
several rock-cut shivalingas, votive stupas and the deities
of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain pantheon are scattered.[25] Samudragupta's 4th-century-
CE Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa[26] and Davaka (Central Assam)
[27]
as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by
Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to
near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts
of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[28] The kingdom was
ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka;
the Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), the Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and
the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-
day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North
Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent
from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650
CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels.
Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa
tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II
(c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[21]

Medieval era
[edit]
Further information: Kamata kingdom, Koch dynasty, Ahom kingdom, Chutia
kingdom, Kachari kingdom, and Baro-Bhuyan
The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of Ahoms in the early
part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. The
medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers
under Turko-Afghan and Mughals, finally resulting in Assamese victory, however,
this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist
the Burmese invasions, which led to its annexation.[29]

Chutia kingdom
[edit]
Chutia, a Bodo-Kachari group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of
Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from Vishwanath (north bank)
and Buridihing (south bank), in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh.
It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and
Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them
from the early 16th century.

Kachari kingdom
[edit]
Main article: Kachari kingdom
The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854,
controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern
Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 17th century, with the expansion of
the Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the
Kacharis were confined to the areas of Cachar and North Cachar. At this point, they
became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force.

Ahom kingdom
[edit]
Early period
[edit]
Main article: Sukaphaa
The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam for almost 600 years.[30] In the year
1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the Brahmaputra Valley under the leadership
of Sukapha along with 9,000 men from Mong Mao, a Tai state, situated in South-
Western Yunnan of China, and established his kingdom in Upper Assam. In 1253, he
founded the capital city in a hillock and named it Charaideo. At the time of his
advent, the area was inhabited by Morans and Borahis, to the north, to the north-
east was the Chutia kingdom and to the south was the Kachari kingdom and to the
west on the plains were the Baro-Bhuyans.

For more than two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants, while
primarily focused on administering the kingdom, upheld their dominance in the valley
through their military prowess.[31]

Charaideo Maidams -UNESCO World Heritage

Site ,Assam
Expansion
[edit]
Main articles: Suhungmung and Dimasa kingdom
 Assamese kingdoms in their greatest territorial
heights. Kachari kingdom (1230) in red dotted lines, Koch dynasty (1560) in blue
lines, Ahom kingdom (1700) in red lines.
The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of Ahom kingdom.
Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous
battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In
1522–23 the Chutia kingdom was annexed and the captured tract was placed under
the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract,
Suhungmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and
extended it till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri river. When the Kacharis tried to
regain the lost territory they were defeated and their capital Dimapur was sacked.
Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as
a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was
subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne
with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as
'thapita sanchita' meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.

Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After
a series of battle, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up
to Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal, terrified by the approaching army of
Suhungmung, made peace by offering his two daughters and five paraganas, along
with other articles as dowry to the king. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also
offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the
territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of
annual tribute.[32]

The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa, sent many

expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with
the Koch. During the reign of Sukhaamphaa, the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led
by Chilarai and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the
tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with
further military expeditions.[33]

Later Period
[edit]
War with Mughals
[edit]
Main articles: Ahom kingdom, Bengal Subah, Koch dynasty, and Ahom–Mughal
conflicts
 Cannon captured from the Mughals
Soon after the death of Nara Narayan his kingdom, got divided between the sons of
Nara Narayan and Chilarai as Koch Hajo and Koch Bihar. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan
king of Cooch Behar accepted the vassalage of Mughals, and the Koch Hajo king
Raghudev and later his son Parikshit sought assistance from Ahoms. In 1612,
the Mughals attacked Koch Hajo and his territory up to Barnadi River were annexed
in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals with direct contact with Ahoms.
Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with Ahoms, but got
captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later Balinarayan, a brother of
Parikshit who had taken refugee under the Ahoms was made the king of Darrang in
1615 by the Ahom king Pratap Singha. From 1616, onwards many battles were
fought the Mughal without any tangible result, with the first Battle of Samdhara till
after the last battle where the treaty was concluded in 1639 which fixed the Asurar ali
on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the
boundary between the two. Pratap Singha had also enacted the Paik system and
created a number of army and civil administration posts such as
the Borbarua and Borphukan.

Garchuk Lachit Garh a 17th-century mud fort ruins

Jayadhwaj Singha taking the advantage of War of succession between the sons
of Shah Jahan, occupied the imperial territories up to Dhaka. Aurangzeb after
becoming the emperor, appointed Mir Jumla II, to recover the lost territory. After fail
negotiations. In November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to
invade Ahom kingdom. Here the Ahoms, lost at several places, and then captured
the Ahom capital Garhgaon. During the rainy season Mir Jumla and his army
suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley in addition
the guerrilla fighting resorted against the invaders. And at last no noticeable gain,
negotiation started and in January 1663, Treaty of Ghilajharighat was concluded.
According to the treaty, the Ahoms had to acknowledging Mughal supremacy, ceded
the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank
along with a huge amount of war indemnity and handing over the sons of the
Gohains as hostage and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem.

Soon after the departure of Mir Jumla, Jayadhwaj Singha died and the new
king Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and
to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, finally after the Battle of
Saraighat the Mughals were forced to retreat.

The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who
wanted to arrest their own political power and influence by placing their own choice
of prince in the throne. In 1679, Laluksola Borphukan, in hopes of becoming king
with the help of Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the
accession of Gadadhar Singha, fought the final Battle of Itakhuli where the Mughals
were badly defeated. And the since then the border was fixed at Manah on the north
bank and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation
by the East India Company in 1826.[34][35]

18th century
[edit]
See also: Rudra Singha, Siva Singha, and Moamoria rebellion

Siva dol, Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the

banks Sivasagar tank, the largest temple constructed during Ahom era

Royal court of Siva Singha and Ambika by Badha

Ligira, c. 1736.
Rudra Singha succeeded Gadadhar Singha, his reign is notable because of his
military achievements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated
the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept
Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several
expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the
Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and
early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion
of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.

After Rudra Singha, the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievement. During
this period from, Siva Singha to Rajeswar Singha, the kingdom witnessed peace and
prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In
the field of religion also, Ekasarana Dharma spread all over the kingdom and started
to influence all aspects of people's life. The religious heads of Vaisnavite monastery
exalted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous Satras and
most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came
under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies
concluded by Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the
situation more along with the pressure of Paik system in the 18th century.[36]

This finally resulted in the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened
the Ahom kingdom where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised.
The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for a devastating set of
invasions by the Burmese, weakening it more and finally leading to its annexation.

Colonial era
[edit]

Map of Eastern Bengal and Assam during 1907–1909

A map of the British Indian Empire in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–
1911), showing British India in two shades of pink (coral and pale) and the princely
states in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.
Further information: Colonial Assam and Assam Province
The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in
1836–37 in London. [37]The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839
onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam,[38] where the soil
and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese
labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of
forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error
with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters
later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam.
By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial
growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw
substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for
preparing processed tea during the 1870s.

Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working

and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea
growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo.
The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence,
conditions of the labourers have improved very little.[39]

In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles
led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of
lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely
weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister
Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of
Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,[40][41][42][43] in turn
leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning
monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was
defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam.[44][45]
[46]

A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,[47][48][49]

[50]
who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal.[51][52] The Burmese
reached the East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese
War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[53] in 1826, with the
Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of
Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British
gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of
instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made Bengali, instead of
Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created
greater unemployment among the People of Assam and Assamese literature
naturally suffered in its growth.[54][55]

Showing a historical incident at Kanaklata

Udyan, Tezpur
Initially, Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made
a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a
chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam
Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region.
The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the
demographic canvas.

The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East
Frontier' non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-
Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912
as Assam Province.[56]

After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the
1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the Indian National
Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath
Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.[citation
needed]
Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was
representing the Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim
cleric Maulana Bhasani.[57]

The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the
Deputy Post Master General.[58]

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were
administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one
among the major eight provinces of British India. The table below shows the major
original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under the
Administrative Office of the Chief Commissioner.

With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India.
The Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to
East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.

Modern history
[edit]
See also: Assam separatist movements
Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed
in the 1960–70s. The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a suburb of Guwahati.
After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.
The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a
state, divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970 within the borders of what
was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India
under the name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in
response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the Meghalaya
Plateau, the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were
formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate
state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East
Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from
Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.[59]

Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and

violence remain. Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands
for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In
1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the Assamese
language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking
people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam
Agitation[60] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on
electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners
illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and to provide constitutional,
legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese
majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from
Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its
leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing
simmering discontent.[61]
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as
the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)[60] and the National Democratic Front of
Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian
army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been
continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups
have grown. The Panchayati Raj Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of
the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of
successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.[citation needed]

Deadly floods hit the state in 2020 and 2022.[62]

Geography
[edit]

Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the
Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.
Main article: Physical geography of Assam
See also: Tourism in North East India
A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six
physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The
Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the
Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the
month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is
an antecedent river older than the Himalayas, which has entrenched itself since they
started rising. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering
Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries,
creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide,
600 mi/1000 km long).[63] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and
close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally
parts of the South Indian Plateau system.[63] In the south, the Barak originating in the
Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–
30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River.

Urban centres include Guwahati, one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.
[64]
Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to the North-East India". Silchar, (in
the Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre
of business. Other large cities include Dibrugarh, an oil and natural gas industry
centre,[65]

Climate
[edit]
With the tropical monsoon climate, Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F
or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall
and high humidity.[63][66] The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours
reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters,
frequent during the afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–
October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's
agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.

Flooding
[edit]
See also: Brahmaputra floods
Every year, rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak overflow due to heavy rainfall,
causing widespread flooding across Assam. The rising water levels submerge
nearby areas, washing away houses, livestock, and damaging infrastructure such as
bridges, railway tracks, and roads, leading to communication breakdowns in many
regions. This natural disaster also results in numerous fatalities throughout the state.
[67][68]

Fauna
[edit]
See also: Biodiversity of Assam

An Indian rhino at Kaziranga National Park

An endangered golden langur

Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of
tropical rainforests,[69] deciduous forests, riverine grasslands,[70] bamboo[71] orchards
and numerous wetland[72] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and
reserved forests.
Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two
UNESCO World Heritage Sites[73]-the Kaziranga National Park, on the bank of
the Brahmaputra River, and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, near the border with
Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned
rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and
threatened species including the white-winged wood duck or deohanh, Bengal
florican, black-breasted parrotbill, red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, greater
adjutant, Jerdon's babbler, rufous-necked hornbill, Bengal tiger, Asian
elephant, pygmy hog, gaur, wild water buffalo, Indian hog deer, hoolock
gibbon, golden langur, capped langur, barasingha, Ganges river dolphin, Barca
snakehead, Ganges shark, Burmese python, brahminy river turtle, black pond
turtle, Asian forest tortoise, and Assam roofed turtle. Threatened species that are
extinct in Assam include the gharial, a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian,
and the pink-headed duck (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the
white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.[clarification needed][74] In addition
to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa
National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.

Assam has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along
with the pygmy hog, tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the
last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. Kaziranga and Manas are both World
Heritage Sites. The state contains Sal tree forests and forest products, much
depleted from earlier times. A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The
Brahmaputra River tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with hydro-
geomorphic environment.[citation needed]

The state has the largest population of the wild water buffalo in the world.[75] The state
has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.[76] With subspecies
the number is as high as 946.[77] The mammal diversity in the state is around 190
species.[78]

Blooming of Kopou Orchid marks the beginning of the

festive season of Bihu in Assam.
Flora
[edit]
Assam is remarkably rich in Orchid species and the Foxtail orchid is the state flower
of Assam.[79] The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity
Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.

Geology
[edit]
Assam has petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such
as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar.[80] A small quantity of
iron ore is available in western districts.[80] Discovered in 1889, all the major
petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399
million barrels (63,400,000 m3) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (3.34×1010 m3) of gas
and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m3) of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic
Province.[81][citation needed]
The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild
earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, 1897, and 1950.

Demographics
[edit]
Main articles: Demography of Assam, Assamese people, Assamese Manipuri
people, and People of Assam
Population
[edit]

Historical population

Year Pop. ±%

1901 3,289,680 —

1911 3,848,617 +17.0%

1921 4,636,980 +20.5%

1931 5,560,371 +19.9%

1941 6,694,790 +20.4%

1951 8,028,856 +19.9%

1961 10,837,329 +35.0%

1971 14,625,152 +35.0%

1981 18,041,248 +23.4%

1991 22,414,322 +24.2%

2001 26,655,528 +18.9%

2011 31,205,576 +17.1%

 Source: Census of India[82]

People gathered at Kamakhya Temple for

the Ambubachi Mela
The total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in
2001.[83] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts
of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darrang, and Cachar. Assam's
population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011 and is
expected to reach 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.[84]

As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total
population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten
years with a growth rate of 16.93%.[85]

Of the 33 districts, Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, and Hailakandi,

recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last
decade, whereas Sivasagar and Jorhat, registered around 9 per cent population
growth. These districts do not have any international border.[86]

District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001

In 2011, the literacy rate in the state was 73.18%. The male literacy rate was 78.81%
and the female literacy rate was 67.27%.[85] In 2001, the census had recorded literacy
in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. The
urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.[87]

The growth of population in Assam has increased since the middle decades of the
20th century. The population grew from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941. It
increased to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991.[83] The growth in
the Western districts and Southern districts was high primarily due to the influx of
large number of illegal immigrants from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh.[61]

The mistrust and clashes between indigenous Assamese people and Bengali
Muslims started as early as 1952,[88][89] but is rooted in anti Bengali sentiments of the
1940s.[90] At least 77 people died[91] and 400,000 people were displaced in the 2012
Assam violence between indigenous Bodos and Bengali Muslims.[92]

The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%)
identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest
settlers were Austroasiatic, Dravidian followed by Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan,
and Tai–Kadai people.[93] Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities,
including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24)
and Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families.
There is a high degree of bilingualism.[citation needed]

According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, Byrnihat located in Assam
is the most polluted city in India.[94]

Religions
[edit]
See also: Hinduism in Assam, Islam in Assam, Christianity in Assam, and Ahom
religion

Kamakhya Temple
Panbari Mosque, Dhubri
Religion in Assam (2011)[95]

1. Hinduism 61.47 (61.5%)

2. Islam 34.22 (34.2%)
3. Christianity 3.74 (3.74%)
4. Buddhism 0.18 (0.18%)
5. No religious 0.16 (0.16%)
6. Tribal Religion 0.09 (0.09%)
7. Jainism 0.08 (0.08%)
8. Sikhism 0.07 (0.07%)
9. 0 (0.00%)
 Basistha Temple in Guwahati.

Azan Faqir dargah at Saraguri Chapari

near Sibsagar town.
According to the 2011 census, 61.47% were Hindus, 34.22% were Muslims.[95]
[96]
Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among the Scheduled Tribe and Castes
population.[97] The Scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13%, of which
Bodos account for 40%.[98] Other religions followed
include Jainism (0.1%), Buddhism (0.2%), Sikhism (0.1%)
and Animism (among Khamti, Phake, Aiton etc. communities).

The three popular sects of Hinduism, namely, Shaivisim, Shaktism,

and Vaishnavism are prevalent here. Many Assamese Hindus are also followers of
the Ekasarana Dharma sect of Hinduism.[citation needed]

Assam's Religious diversity as of the 2011 census[99]

Religion Population

Hindus ( ) 19,180,759

Muslims ( ) 10,679,345

Christians ( ) 1,165,867

Buddhists ( ) 54,993

25,949
Jains ( )

Sikhs ( ) 20,672
 Other religions 27,118

Not stated/available 50,873

Total 31,205,576

Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are Muslim majority according to the 2011 census of
India. The districts
are Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, Karimganj, Hailakandi, Darrang a
nd Bongaigaon.[100][101][102]

Languages
[edit]

Languages spoken by district

Assamese
30–40%
40–50%
50–60%
60–70%
70-80%
80-90%
90–100%
Bengali
70–80%
80–90%
Boro
20–30%
30–40%
Karbi
40–50%
Dimasa
30–40%
See also: Assamese language, Assamese literature, Bengali language, Bodo
language, and Meitei language in Assam

7th–8th century specimen of

Assamese (Kamarupi) literature
Languages of Assam (2011)[103]

1. Assamese (48.38%)
 2. Bengali (28.92%)
3. Bodo (4.51%)
4. Hindi (3.21%)
5. Sadri (2.29%)
6. Mishing (1.98%)
7. Nepali (1.91%)
8. Karbi (1.64%)
9. Others (7.16%)
Assamese and Bodo are the official languages of the state, Meitei (Manipuri) is
official in Hojai district and all the three districts of Barak Valley, while Bengali is
official in the three districts of Barak Valley,[104][6][8] where Sylheti is most commonly
spoken.[105]

Assam linguistic diversity as per (2011 census)[99]

Language Population

Assamese 15,097,257

Bengali 9,024,652

Bodo 1,407,371

Hindi 1,001,698

Sadri 714,607

Mishing 617,870

Nepali 596,026

Karbi 511,771

Others 2,234,319

Total 31,205,576

An early 18th century illustrated Assamese

manuscript
According to the language census of 2011 in Assam, out of a total population of
around 31 million, Assamese is spoken by more than 22 million total speakers, with
more than 15 million people speaking it as their mother tongue and around 7 million
as L2 speakers.[106] Although the number of speakers is growing, the percentage of
Assam's population who have it as a mother tongue has fallen slightly. Assamese
serves as lingua franca of the region[107] as it is spoken by over 71% of the population
(including the one who have listed Assamese as their 2nd language,[106] while 48.38%
of them speak it as their mother tongue.[108] According to the 24th Edition
of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Assamese is spoken by 15,327,990 persons
as mother tongue across the world as of 2021.[109] However, 2016 Assam Legislative
Assembly election results, have found that 10 million people speaks Assamese as
their mother tongue in Assam, which is significantly fewer than the census result of
2011.[110] The Assamese speakers constituted 48% of the State population according
to the 2011 Census.[111][112][113][114]

Tai-Ahom manuscript (Buranji)

The various Bengali dialects and closely related languages are spoken by around 9
million people in Assam, and the portion of the population that speaks these
languages has grown slightly as per the census. However, the number of Bengali
speakers is estimated to be more than the expected census results, as 30% of the of
35% Muslim population in Assam as per 2011 are thought to speak different dialects
of Bengali as their native language but during census enumeration, they have
reported their mother tongue as Assamese.[115][116][117][118][119] In the Brahmaputra Valley,
the main Bengali dialect is that of Mymensingh (now in Bangladesh),[120] while in the
Barak Valley and Hojai district, Sylheti is the main language which is also considered
to be a dialect of Bengali in census.[121] Bodo is the third most-spoken language
followed by Hindi which comes under fourth position.

See also: Brahmaputra valley

Brahmaputra valley region of Assam

Languages spoken in Brahmaputra valley (2011)[122][123]

1. Assamese (Official) (55.65%)

2. Bengali (22.1%)
3. Hindi (7.6%)
4. Bodo (5.13%)
5. Others (9.52%)
The population of the Brahmaputra Valley is 27,580,977 according to the 2011
census report by the Assam government. Assamese is the official language of the
Brahmaputra Valley and is spoken by 15 million people comprising 55.65% of the
valley population. Bengali is spoken by 6.09 million people representing 22.1% of the
valley, Hindi is spoken by 2.1 million comprising 7.61% of the region, Bodo is spoken
by 1.41 million comprising 5.13% of the valley's population and 2.98 million people
speak various indigenous tribal languages of Assam, such as Karbi, Tiwa
(Lalung), Hmar, Deori, Rabha, Mishing, Koch, Rajbangshi, Garo, Dimasa, Gorkha,
Halam, Ao and Motak.

Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk in the

ancient Kamarupa kingdom and in the medieval kingdoms of Dimasa
Kachari, Chutiya Kachari, Borahi Kachari, Ahom and Kamata kingdoms. Traces of
the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, and others,
in Charyapada (c. 7th–8th century CE). Modern dialects such
as Kamrupi and Goalpariya are remnants of this language, which blend into
the Rajbanshi and Rangpuri lects spoken in North Bengal which have the same
origin. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural
groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms
and was required for economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist
in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.

Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the
American Missionaries based on the local form used near Sivasagar (Xiwôxagôr)
district. Assamese (Ôxômiya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature and unique
characteristics of pronunciation and softness. The presence of Voiceless velar
fricative in Assamese makes it a unique among other similar Indo-Aryan languages.
[124][125]

Bodo is spoken largely in Western Assam. It is official language of

the Bodoland territorial region and co-official language of the state of Assam. It is
also one of twenty-two languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of
India. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the
phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-
Kachari words (e.g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, and Dikrai) reveal that it was
more widely-spoken in ancient times. Other languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and
related to Bodo-Kachari are Deori, Mising, Karbi, Rabha, and Tiwa.[citation needed]

There are approximately 590,000 Nepali speakers spread all over the state forming
about 1.98% of Assam's total population according to 2011 census.

There are speakers of Tai languages in Assam. A total of six Tai languages were
spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.[126]

 Tai Phake
 Tai Aiton
 Khamti
 Khamyang (critically endangered)
 Ahom (extinct)
 Turung (extinct)
Government and politics
[edit]
Main articles: Government of Assam and Politics of Assam
Assam has Governor Lakshman Acharya as the head of the state,
[4]
the unicameral Assam Legislative Assembly of 126 members, and a government
led by the Chief Minister of Assam. The state is divided into five regional divisions.

On 19 May 2016, BJP under the leadership of Sarbananda Sonowal won the
Assembly elections, thus forming the first BJP-led government in Assam.[127]

Administrative districts
[edit]

1. Tinsukia 2. Dibrugarh 3. Dhemaji 4. C

haraideo 5. Sivasagar 6.Lakhimpur 7. Majuli 8. Jorhat 9. Biswanath(merged with
Sonitpur district) 10. Golaghat 11. Karbi
Anglong 12. Sonitpur 13. Nagaon 14. Hojai(merged with Nagaon district)15. Karbi
Anglong West 16. Dima
Hasao 17. Cachar 18. Hailakandi 19. Karimganj 20. Morigaon 21. Udalguri 22. Darra
ng 23. Kamrup
Metro 24. Baksa 25. Nalbari 26. Kamrup 27. Barpeta 28. Chirang 29. Bongaigaon 30
. Goalpara 31. Kokrajhar 32. Dhubri 33. South Salmara
Mankachar 34. Bajali(merged with Barpeta district)
Main article: List of districts of Assam
The 31 administrative districts of Assam are delineated based on geographic
features such as rivers, hills, and forests.

On 15 August 2015, five new districts were formed:[128][129]

 Part of Sonitpur became the Biswanath district (9 in the nearby map)

 Part of Sivasagar became the Charaideo district (4)
 Part of Nagaon became the Hojai district (14)
 Part of Dhubri became the South Salmara-Mankachar district (33)
 The Karbi Anglong district was divided into East (11) and West (15) districts
On 27 June 2016, an island in the Brahmaputra River was bifurcated from the Jorhat
district and declared the Majuli district, India's first district that is a river island.[130]

On 12 January 2021, Bajali was carved out from Barpeta district and formally
declared as a district. With the announcement made by Governor Jagdish Mukhi, it
has become the 34th district of Assam.[131]
On 31 December 2022, existing four districts Bajali (with Barpeta), Tamulpur(with
Udalguri), Biswanath (with Sonitpur) and Hojai(with Nagaon) and number of district
came down to 31.

However, after the delimitation exercise was carried out in Assam, the Assam
Cabinet reconstituted the 4 new districts (Bajali, Tamulpur, Biswanath and Hojai),
taking the number of districts to 35 again.

Subdivisions
[edit]
The administrative districts are further subdivided into 54 "Subdivisions"
or Mahakuma.[129] Every district is administered from a district headquarters with the
office of the Deputy Commissioner, District Magistrate, Office of the District
Panchayat and usually with a district court.

The local governance system is organised under the jila-parishad (District

Panchayat) for a district, panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under
the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village
panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.[132] The 'town-committee' or nagar-
somiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-sobha for medium towns
and municipal corporation or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local
bodies.

For revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for
the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and
for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana.

Guwahati is the largest metropolitan area and urban conglomeration administered

under the highest form of urban local body – Guwahati Municipal Corporation in
Assam. The Corporation administers an area of 216.79 km2 (83.70 sq mi).[133] Apart
from Guwahati Municipal Corporation and Dibrugarh Municipal Corporation All other
urban centres are managed under Municipal Boards.

A list of 9 oldest, classified and prominent, and constantly inhabited, recognised

urban centres based on the earliest years of formation of the civic bodies, before
the Indian independence of 1947 is tabulated below:

Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam[134]

Urba Railw Railw

Road
n Ye Airp ay ay Catego Not
Civic Body Netwo
Centr ar ort Statio Juncti ry† es
rks
es n on

Guwaha Guwahati show

ti Town 1853 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – III
Committee More

Guwahati 1873↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II

Municipal
 Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam[134]

Urba Railw Railw

Road
n Ye Airp ay ay Catego Not
Civic Body Netwo
Centr ar ort Statio Juncti ry† es
rks
es n on

Board

Guwahati show
Municipal 1974↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – I
Corporation More

Dibrugarh
Municipal 1873 show
Dibruga
Board & Dibru & Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
rh
garh Municipal 2024 More
Corporation

Goalpara show
Goalpar
Municipal 1875 No 1 Yes No 2 Yes Tier – II
a
Board More

Dhubri show
Dhubri Municipal 1883 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Board More

Nagaon show
Nagaon Municipal 1893 No 3 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Board More

Tezpur show
Tezpur Municipal 1894 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Board More

Jorhat show
Jorhat Municipal 1909 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Board More

Golaghat show
Golagha
Municipal 1920 No 4 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
t
Board More

Silchar show
Silchar Municipal 1922 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Board More

†Tier – I: a big city with an urban conglomeration (in the true sense) administered by a Municipal corporation. Tier –
II: a medium–sized city for an urban agglomeration administered by a Municipal Board.
Tier – III: a small town, larger than a township with a sizeable human settlement.
↑Upgraded to the next highest form of civic body.
 Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam[134]

Urba Railw Railw

Road
n Ye Airp ay ay Catego Not
Civic Body Netwo
Centr ar ort Statio Juncti ry† es
rks
es n on

Jointly shared with the other urban centre. ^1 and ^2 Shared with Guwahati. ^3 Shared with Tezpur. ^4 Shared with
Jorhat.
Autonomous Council
[edit]
The state has three autonomous councils under the sixth schedule of the Indian
Constitution.

 Bodoland Autonomous Territorial Council

 Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council.
 Dima Hasao Autonomous Council.
The state has further statutory autonomous councils constituted under State Act-

 Tiwa Autonomous Council for ethnic Tiwa people (Lalung)

 Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council
 Mising Autonomous Council for Mising people
 Deori Autonomous Council
 Sonowal Kachari Autonomous Council for Sonowal Kachari people
 Thengal Kachari Autonomous Council
 Moran Autonomous Council for Moran people
 Dudhnoi for ethnic Rabha Kachari
 Mising Autonomous Council for Mising people
 Matak Autonomous Council for Matak people
 Kamatapur Autonomous Council for Rajbongshi people
 Bodo Kachari Welfare Autonomous Council for Bodo-Kachari people living
outside the Bodoland Territorial Region
In March 2024, the Assam cabinet had given green signal for 'Kiran Sheikh'
development council for the 'Kiran Sheikh' community in Barak Valley.[145]

Social issues
[edit]
Inter-state dispute
[edit]
According to Assam Government, Assam has border dispute with four states namely
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.[146]

Assam-Mizoram dispute

Mizoram used to be a district of Assam as Lushai hills before being carved out as a
separate union territory and later, becoming another state in 1987. Because of the
history, the district's borders did not really matter for locals for a long time. Mizoram
shares a border with the districts Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj which comes
under Barak valley region of Assam. Over time, the two states started having
different perceptions about where the demarcation should be. While Mizoram wants
it to be along an Inner Line Permit notified in 1875 to protect tribals from outside
influence, which Mizos feel is part of their historical homeland, Assam wants it to be
demarcated according to district boundaries drawn up much later.[146][147]

Assam-Meghalaya dispute

Meghalaya has identified close to a dozen areas on which it has a dispute with
Assam about the state's borders. The chief ministers of the two states, Himanta
Biswa Sarma and Megahalya's Conrad Sangma, recently held the first-ever meeting
on inter-state border dispute. Both the states have agreed to individually assess the
claims for all 12 areas flagged by Meghalaya in the past. A second round of
discussion between the two state CMs will be held next month of August. On the
question of the role the Union Government is playing in redressing the inter-State
border dispute in the country, minister of state for home affairs Nityanand Rai said,
"The approach of the Central Government has consistently been that inter-state
disputes can be resolved only with the cooperation of the State Governments
concerned and that the Central Government acts only as a facilitator for amicable
settlement of the dispute in the spirit of mutual understanding."[146]

Assam-Nagaland dispute

The border dispute between the two states has been going on since the formation of
Nagaland in 1963. The two states lay claim to Merapani, a small village next to the
plains of Assam's Golaghat district. There have been reports of violent clashes in the
region since the 1960s.[146][148]

Assam-Arunachal Pradesh dispute

Assam shares an 804.10 km inter-state boundary with Arunachal Pradesh. The state
of Arunachal Pradesh, created in 1987, claims some land that traditionally belonged
to its residents has been given to Assam. A tripartite committee had recommended
that certain territories be transferred from Assam to Arunachal. The two states have
since been battling it out in the Supreme court of India over the issue. Some
incidents of local violence have been reported from the borders.[146][149]

Separate statehood demand within Assam

[edit]
Ahomland

Proposed Ahomland Map

Upper Assam's various Tai-Ahom organisations like "Ahom Tai Mangoliya Rajya
Parishad" (ATMRP), has been demanding a separate Ahomland state since 1967,
comprising erstwhile Un-divided Sivasagar and Lakhimpur districts (today's Upper
Assam and North Assam divisions) respectively.[150] On 2023, "TAI Ahom Yuba
Parishad, Assam" (TAYPA) have organised a protest at Chachal and have
demanded separate Ahomland state.[151][152]

Barak state

Main article: Barak state movement

Barak Valley
The Barak Valley of Assam comprising the present districts
of Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi is contiguous to Sylhet (Bengal plains), where
the Bengalis, according to historian J.B. Bhattacharjee, had settled well before the
colonial period, influencing the culture of Dimasa Kacaharis.[153][154] Bhattacharjee
describes that the Dimasa kings spoke Bengali, the inscriptions and coins were
written in Bengali script and the official language of the court was also Bengali.
[154]
Migrations to Cachar increased after the British annexation of the region.[154] The
native Bengali people of Southern Assam demanded separate state for themselves
within the Bengali majority areas of Assam particularly Bengali majority Barak
valley comprising three districts: Cachar, Hailakandi, Karimganj along with Dima
Hasao and parts of Hojai was also demanded to meet the criteria for creating a
separate state for themselves by carving out from Assam's Assamese
majority Brahmaputra Valley post NRC.[155][156][157][158] Silchar is the proposed capital of
Barak state.[159] Barak valley is the most neglected part of Assam in terms of its
infrastructure development, tourism sector, educational institutions, hospitals, IT
industries, G.D.P, H.D.I etc. which is still lagging behind in comparison to the
Assam's mainland Brahmaputra valley which have access to all of those facilities
mentioned above.[160][161][162][163][164] In fact, the Assam's Southern part have an overall
indigenous Bengali majority population, particularly Hojai have overall (54%)
Bengali-speaking population,[165] Barak Valley region have an overwhelming Bengali
majority of about 80.3%, while Dima Hasao have approximately 30.2% significant
Bengali plurality on certain pockets specially in the urban areas of the district.[122]

Bodoland

Main article: Bodoland

Bodoland district map

The agitation for the creation of a separate Bodoland state resulted in an agreement
between the Indian Government, the Assam state government and the Bodo
Liberation Tigers Force. According to the agreement made on 10 February 2003,
the Bodoland Territorial Council, an entity subordinate to the government of Assam,
was created to govern four districts covering 3082 Bodo Kachari-majority villages in
Assam.[166][167] Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and Hagrama
Mohilary was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.
[168]
Demographic wise, the Indigenous Bodo tribe constitutes half of the region's
population, along with the region have also significant large number of other ethnic
minorities which includes: Assamese, Koch Rajbangshi, Garo, Rabha tribe, Adivasis,
Nepalis, Tea tribes, Bengalis, Biharis, Marwaris and Muslims.[122]

Dimaraji

Main article: Dimaraji

 Map of Dimaraji state
The Dimasa people of northeast India have been demanding a separate state
called Dimaraji or "Dimaland" for several decades. It would comprise the Dimasa-
Kachari inhabited areas, namely Dima Hasao district, Cachar district, parts of Barak
Valley, Nagaon district, Hojai district and Karbi Anglong district in Assam together
with part of Dimapur district in Nagaland.

Karbiland

See also: Karbi Anglong

Karbi Anglong is one of the 35 districts of Assam. Karbi Anglong was previously
known as Mikir Hills. It was part of the Excluded Areas and Partially Excluded Areas
(the present North East India) in British India. The British Indian government had
never included this area under their government's jurisdiction. Thereby, no
government development work or activity were done, nor any tax levied from the hills
including Karbi Anglong. The first memorandum for a Karbi homeland was presented
to Governor Reid on 28 October 1940 by Semsonsing Ingti and Khorsing Terang at
Mohongdijua.[169] The Karbi leaders were then, a part of the All Party Hill Leaders'
Conference (APHLC) which was formed on 6 July 1960.[170] The movement again
gained momentum when the Karbi Anglong District Council passed a resolution
demanding a Separate State in 1981. Then again from 1986 through the leadership
of Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC), demanded Autonomous
statehood of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao under Article 244(A). In 2002, the Karbi
Anglong Autonomous Council passed another resolution to press for the demand of
statehood. Several other memoranda were submitted at different times by several
organisations. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when
student demonstrators set government buildings on fire. Following the incident, the
elected leaders of Karbi Anglong jointly submitted a memorandum to the Prime
Minister of India demanding a separate State. Demographic wise, more than half of
the Karbi Anglong population is made up of Indigenous Karbi tribe with significant
migrants from other parts of India.[122]

Migration from Bangladesh

[edit]
Assam has been a major site of migration since the Partition of the subcontinent,
with the first wave being composed largely of Bengali Hindu refugees arriving during
and shortly after the establishment of India and Pakistan (current day Bangladesh
was originally part of Pakistan, known as East Pakistan) in 1947–1951. Between the
period of first patches (1946–1951), around 274,455 Bengali Hindu refugees have
arrived from what is now called Bangladesh (former East Pakistan) in various
locations of Assam as permanent settlers and again in second patches between
(1952–1958) of the same decade, around 212,545 Bengali Hindus from Bangladesh
took shelter in various parts of the state permanently.[171][172] After the 1964 East
Pakistan riots many Bengali Hindus have poured into Assam as refugees and the
number of Hindu migrants in the state rose to 1,068,455 in 1968 (sharply after 4
years of the riot).[173] The fourth patches numbering around 347,555 have just arrived
after Bangladesh liberation war of 1971 as refugees and most of them being Bengali
speaking Hindus have decided to stay back in Assam permanently afterwards.
[174]
Though the governments of India and Bangladesh made agreements for the
repatriation of certain groups of refugees after the second and third waves, a large
presence of refugees and other migrants and their descendants remained in the
state. Nevertheless, still people of Bangladesh have been immigrating to Assam on
regular basis. As per reports, about 635 of Bangladeshi people mostly Hindus, use to
immigrate to Assam daily.[175][176]

Besides migration caused by displacement, there is also a large and continual

unregulated movement between Assam and neighbouring regions of Bangladesh
with an exceptionally porous border. The situation is called a risk to Assam's as well
as India's security.[177] The continual illegal entry of people into Assam, mostly
from Bangladesh, has caused economic upheaval and social and political unrest.[178]
[179]
During the Assam Movement (1979–1985), the All Assam Students
Union (AASU) and others demanded that government stop the influx
of immigrants and deport those who had already settled.[180] During this period, 855
people (the AASU says 860) died in various conflicts with migrants and police.[181]
[182]
The 1983 Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, applied only to Assam,
decreed that any person who entered the Assam after Bangladesh declared
independence from Pakistan in 1971 and without authorisation or travel documents
is to be considered a foreigner, with the decision on foreigner status to be carried out
by designated tribunals. In 1985, the Indian Government and leaders of the agitation
signed the Assam accord to settle the conflict.[180]

The 1991 census made the changing demographics of border districts more visible.
[183][180]
Since 2010, the Indian Government has undertaken the updating of
the National Register of Citizens for Assam, and in 2018 the 32.2 million residents of
Assam were subject to a review of their citizenship.[184] In August 2019, India released
the names of the 2 million residents of Assam that had been determined to be non-
citizens and whose names had therefore been struck off the Register of Citizens,
depriving them of rights and making them subject to action, and potentially leaving
some of them stateless, and the government has begun deporting non-citizens, while
detaining 1,000 others that same year.[185][186][187]

In January 2019, the Assam's peasant organisation Krishak Mukti Sangram

Samiti (KMSS) claimed that there are around 20 lakh Hindu Bangladeshis in Assam
who would become Indian citizens if the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill is
passed. BJP, however claimed that only eight lakh Hindu Bangladeshis will get
citizenship.[188][189][190] According to various sources, the total number of illegal Hindu
Bangladeshis is hard to ascertain.[191][192] According to the census data, the number of
Hindu immigrants have been largely exaggerated.[192]

In February 2020, the Assam Minority Development Board announced plans to

segregate illegal Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants from the indigenous Muslims of the
state, though some have expressed problems in identifying an indigenous Muslim
person. According to the board, there are 1.4 crore Muslims in the state, of which 1
crore are of Bangladeshi origin.[193][194][195] A report reveals that out of total 33 districts in
Assam, Bangladeshis dominate almost 15 districts of Assam.[196][197][198]

Floods
[edit]
Main article: Brahmaputra floods
In the rainy season every year, the Brahmaputra and other rivers overflow their
banks and flood adjacent land. Flood waters wash away property including houses
and livestock. Damage to crops and fields harms the agricultural sector. Bridges,
railway tracks, and roads are also damaged, harming transportation and
communication, and in some years requiring food to be air-dropped to isolated
towns. Some deaths are attributed to the floods.[199][200]

Unemployment
[edit]
Unemployment is a chronic problem in Assam. It is variously blamed on
poor infrastructure, limited connectivity, and government policy;[201] on a "poor work
culture";[202] on failure to advertise vacancies;[203] and on government hiring candidates
from outside Assam.[204]

In 2020 a series of violent lynchings occurred in the region.

Education
[edit]
Main article: Education in Assam
See also: List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University
See also: List of colleges affiliated to Assam University
See also: List of educational institutions in Assam
 

School girls in the classroom, Lakhiganj High School, Assam

Cotton University, Guwahati

Academic complex of IIT Guwahati

 

National Institute of Technology, Silchar

Jorhat Engineering College of Assam Science and Technology University

Assam schools are run by the Indian government, government of Assam or by
private organisations. Medium of instruction is mainly in Assamese, English or
Bengali. Most of the schools follow the state's examination board which is called
the Secondary Education Board of Assam. All schools under Government of
Assam are assessed by Gunoutsav Assam .Almost all private schools follow
the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE) and Indian School Certificate (ISC) syllabuses.[citation needed]

Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but Bengali

language is also taught as a major Indian language. In Guwahati and Digboi, many
Jr. basic schools and Jr. high schools are Nepali linguistic and all the teachers
are Nepali. Nepali is included by Assam State Secondary Board, Assam Higher
Secondary Education Council and Gauhati University in their HSLC, higher
secondary and graduation level respectively. In some junior basic and higher
secondary schools and colleges, Nepali teachers and lecturers are appointed.[citation
needed]

The capital, Dispur, contains institutions of higher education for students of the north-
eastern region. Cotton College, Guwahati, dates back to the 19th century. Assam
has several institutions for tertiary education and research.[citation needed]

Universities, colleges and institutions include:

Universities
[edit]
 Assam University
 Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat
 Assam Don Bosco University,[205]
 Assam down town University,[206]
 Assam Rajiv Gandhi University of Cooperative Management, (ARGUCOM),
Sivasagar
 Assam Science and Technology University,[207] Guwahati
 Assam Women's University,[208] Jorhat
 Bodoland University,[209] Kokrajhar
 Cotton University, Guwahati
 Dibrugarh University,[210] Dibrugarh
 Gauhati University,[211] Guwahati
 Kaziranga University,[212] Jorhat
 Krishnaguru Adhyatmik Vishvavidyalaya
 Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University
 Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit and Ancient Studies University
 Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya
 National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam[213]
 Royal Global University
 Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences
 Tezpur University,[214] Tezpur
Medical colleges
[edit]

 AIIMS, Guwahati
 Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh
 Gauhati Medical College and Hospital, Guwahati
 Jorhat Medical College and Hospital, Jorhat
 Diphu Medical College and Hospital, Diphu
 Lakhimpur Medical college and Hospital, Lakhimpur
 Silchar Medical College and Hospital, Silchar
 Tezpur Medical College & Hospital, Tezpur
 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College, Barpeta
 Nagaon Medical College and Hospital, Nagaon
 Kokrajhar Medical College and Hospital, Kokrajhar
 Dhubri Medical College and Hospital, Dhubri
 Regional Dental College, Guwahati
 Government Dental College, Silchar
Assam has 12 medical colleges at present with 4 more scheduled to be completed
by 2026–27.

Engineering and technological colleges

[edit]

 Indian Institute of Technology in Guwahati[215]

 Indian Institute of Information Technology, Guwahati
 National Institute of Technology, Silchar,[216]
 Assam Engineering College, Guwahati[217]
 Assam Science and Technology University
 Bineswar Brahma Engineering College, Kokrajhar
 Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar[218]
 Institute of Engineering and Technology, Dibrugarh University
 Institute of Science and Technology, Guwahati University
 Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat[219]
 Jorhat Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat
 NETES Institute of Technology & Science Mirza, [citation needed]
 Barak Valley Engineering College Nirala Karimganj
 Golaghat Engineering College, Golaghat
Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig,
(ICAR) in Guwahati,[220]

Economy
[edit]
Main article: Economy of Assam

Per capita income of Assam since 1950

Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of
India's tea.[221] The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil
reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.[222] According to the recent
estimates,[223] Assam's per capita GDP is ₹6,157 at constant prices (1993–94)
and ₹10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.[224] According to
the recent estimates,[223] per capita income in Assam has reached ₹6756 (1993–94
constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.
 A paddy field in Assam
A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty
sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland
(e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas
Tea plantations
[edit]
Main article: Assam tea

This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam

Macro-economy
[edit]
The economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness
amidst plenty.[225][full citation needed] Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to
25% of India's petroleum needs, Assam's growth rate has not kept pace with that of
India; the difference has increased rapidly since the 1970s.[226] The Indian economy
grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000; the growth rate of Assam
was only 3.3%.[227] In the Sixth Plan period, Assam experienced a negative growth
rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.[226] In the post-liberalised era (after
1991), the difference widened further.

According to recent analysis, Assam's economy is showing signs of improvement. In

2001–02, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 4.5%, falling to 3.4% in
the next financial year.[228] During 2003–04 and 2004–05, the economy grew (at
1993–94 constant prices) at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.[228] The advanced estimates
placed the growth rate for 2005–06 at above 6%.[223] Assam's GDP in 2004 is
estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal
picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was 2.6% per annum
over the 1980s, has fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.[229] The manufacturing sector showed
some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in
the 1980s.[229] For the past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest
growth rates of the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in
the 1980s.[229]

Employment
[edit]
Unemployment is one of the major problems in Assam. This problem can be
attributed to overpopulation and a faulty education system. Every year, large
numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability
of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.[230][231] A
number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates,
or candidates with narrowly defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by
the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the
unemployed community of the State. The reluctance on the part of the departments
concerned to advertise vacancies in vernacular language has also made matters
worse for local unemployed youths particularly for the job-seekers of Grade C and D
vacancies.[232][233]

Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by illegal immigration from

Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in
jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in
construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.[234][235] The
government has been identifying (via NRC) and deporting illegal immigrants.
Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.[236][237]

Agriculture
[edit]

Assamese women busy planting paddy seedlings in

their agricultural field in Pahukata village in the Nagaon district of Assam
In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest
contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam's
income and employs 69% of workforce.[238] Assam's biggest contribution to the world
is Assam tea. It has its own variety, Camellia sinensis var. assamica. The state
produces rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potato, sweet potato,
banana, papaya, areca nut, sugarcane and turmeric.[citation needed]

Assam's agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With

implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the
past five decades.[239] Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared
to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (a staple food of Assam)
was just 1531 kg per hectare against India's 1927 kg per hectare in 2000–
01[239] (which itself is much lower than Egypt's 9283, US's 7279, South Korea's 6838,
Japan's 6635 and China's 6131 kg per hectare in 2001[240]). On the other hand, after
having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5 million hectares of inland water
bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[241] fishing is still in its traditional
form and production is not self-sufficient.[242]

Floods in Assam greatly affect the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture
because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.[67]
[68]
Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in
Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers
overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock
being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also
damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places.
Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the state. [243][244]

See also: 2016 Assam floods

Infrastructure
[edit]
On 30 August 2023, Nilachal Flyover was inaugurated. The flyover is Assam's
longest flyover, spanning 2.63 kilometres and connecting Maligaon Chariali to
Kamakhya Gate in Guwahati.[245]

Industry
[edit]
Handlooms and handicrafts are traditional industries that continue to survive,
especially among rural women, in the state.[246]

Assam's proximity to some neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and

Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major Border checkpoints through which border trade
flows to Bangladesh from Assam are : Sutarkandi (Karimganj), Dhubri, Mankachar
(Dhubri) and Golokanj. To facilitate border trade with Bangladesh, Border Trade
Centres have been developed at Sutarkandi and Mankachar. It has been proposed
in the 11th five-year plan[clarification needed] to set up two more Border Trade Center, one
at Ledo connecting China and other at Darrang connecting Bhutan. There are
several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan
to facilitate border trade.[247]

The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development
of Assam:[248]

 Petroleum and natural gas-based industries

 Industries based on locally available minerals
 Processing of plantation crops
 Food processing industries
 Agri-Horticulture products
 Herbal products
 Biotech products
 Pharmaceuticals
 Chemical and plastic-based industries
 Export oriented industries
 Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
 Paper making industries
 Textiles and sericulture
 Engineering industries
 Cane and bamboo-based industries
 Other handicrafts industry
Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to
the mainland by the narrow Siliguri Corridor (or the Chicken's Neck) improved
transport infrastructure in all the three modes – rail, road and air – and developing
urban infrastructure in the cities and towns of Assam are giving a boost to the entire
industrial scene. The Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport at Guwahati,
with international flights to Bangkok and Singapore offered by Druk Air of Bhutan,
was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.[249] The cities of Guwahati[250][251] in the
west and Dibrugarh[252][253] in the east with good rail,[254][255] road and air connectivity are
the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development
Bank for providing $200 million for improvement of urban infrastructure.[256][257]

Assam is a producer of crude oil and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude
output,[258] exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd.,[259] and natural gas in India and
is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where
petroleum was discovered. Asia's first successful mechanically drilled oil well was
drilled in Makum way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Eastern
Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries in Digboi (Asia's first and world's second
refinery), Guwahati, Bongaigaon and Numaligarh and with a total capacity of
7 million metric tonnes (7.7 million short tons) per annum. Asia's first refinery was set
up at Digboi and discoverer of Digboi oilfield was the Assam Railways & Trading
Company Limited (AR&T Co. Ltd.), a registered company of London in 1881. [260] One
of the biggest public sector oil company of the country Oil India Ltd. has its plant and
headquarters at Duliajan.

There are several other industries, including a chemical fertiliser plant

at Namrup, petrochemical industries in Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills
at Jagiroad, Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area
Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills in Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur,
cement plants in Bokajan and Badarpur, and a cosmetics plant of Hindustan
Unilever (HUL) at Doom Dooma. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute
mill, textile and yarn mills, Assam silk, and silk mills. Many of these industries are
facing losses and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management
practices.[261]

Tourism
[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Assam
See also: Tourism in North East India
Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.
Culture
[edit]
Main article: Culture of Assam
See also: Assamese cinema

Moran bihu dance in the traditional attire of the Moran

people on the occasion of Bohag Bihu
Assamese Culture is described as a hybrid and syncretic in nature developed due to
the assimilation of numerous ethnic groups and cultural practices
of Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-aryan and Tai inhabitants. Therefore, both
local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.[262] The
major milestones in the evolution of Assamese culture are:

Dakhinpat Satra of Majuli

 Assimilation in the Kamarupa kingdom for almost 800 years (Varman dynasty for
300 years, Mlechchha dynasty for 250 years and the Pala dynasty for 200 years.
[21]

 Establishment of the Chutia kingdom in the 12th century in eastern Assam and
assimilation for next 400 years.[21]
 Establishment of the Ahom kingdom in the 13th century CE and assimilation for
next 600 years.[21]
 Assimilation in the Koch kingdom (15th–16th century CE) of western Assam and
Kachari kingdom (12th–18th century CE) of central and southern Assam.[21]
 Neo-Vaishanavite (Ekasarana Dharma) Movement led by Srimanta
Shankardeva (Xongkordeu) made an enormous impact on the socio-cultural and
religious sphere of Assam. This 15th century religio-cultural movement under the
leadership of Srimanta Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and his disciples have provided
another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms
took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the
Ahom kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such
as namghar and sattra (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become an integral part
of the Assamese way of life. The movement contributed greatly towards
language, literature, and performing and fine arts.[citation needed]. It was also an
 egalitarian reform movement as it broke away with the old caste barriers of
Brahmanical Hinduism and converted into its fold people of all castes, ethnicity
and religions (including Islam).

Presenting Gayan Bayan in Majuli, the Neo-Vaishnavite cultural heritage of Assam

The modern culture has been influenced by events in the British and the post-British
era. Assamese language was standardised by American Baptist Missionaries such
as Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as Hemchandra
Barua with the dialect spoken in undivided Sibsagar district (the centre of the Ahom
kingdom) forming the standardised dialect. [citation needed]

Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms
present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups (many
source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of
the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system' with sub-systems.
Many source-cultures of the Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as
sub-systems or as sister entities, e.g. the; Bodo or Karbi or Mishing. It is important to
keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time focus on
development of the sub-systems.

Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect
towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic (gamosa, arnai, etc.), traditional
silk garments (e.g. mekhela chador, traditional dress of Assamese women) and
towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are
common.

Symbols
[edit]
See also: List of Assam state symbols and Jaapi

A Mising woman using a handloom to weave a traditional Mekhela chador dress.

 A decorative Assamese Jaapi laid over a Gamosa
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part
of the Assamese way of life. Various elements are used to represent beliefs,
feelings, pride, identity, etc.

Tamulpan (areca nut and betel leaves), Xorai and Gamosa are three important
symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan or guapan (gua from kwa) are
considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with
embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition
is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the
aboriginal Austric culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of
great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers.
Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray
respect and pride.

Singhasan of manikut in a Namghar

There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in
literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes.
The typical designs of Assamese-lion, dragon (ngi-ngao-kham), and flying-
lion (Naam-singho) are used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The
archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th–10th centuries CE) exhibits
mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show
case power and prosperity.
 Jhumura
The Vaishnavite monasteries (Sattras) and many other architectural sites of the late
medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

Festivals and traditions

[edit]
Main article: List of festivals in Assam
See also: Domahi, Bohag Bihu, Magh Bihu, and Bwisagu

A Bihu dancer blowing a pepa (horn)

Ornate Jaapis from Dhemaji T

he burning of Meji (an offering to the god of fire) during the festival of Maghor bihu
There are diversified important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most
important festival of Assam and is celebrated all over the state.The Assamese new
year (Ek Bohag) is celebrated in April of the Gregorian calendar.

Husori in Bihu
Bihu is described as the soul and life of Assam. It is a series of three prominent
festivals each associated with a certain stage during the cultivation of paddy.
Primarily a secular festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points
of a cultivator's life over yearly cycle. Three Bihus, rongali (in the month of bohag),
celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing
season; kongali or kati, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are
empty and bhogali (in the month of magh), the thanksgiving when the crops have
been harvested and the granaries are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are
associated with rongali and bhogali bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as
the day of Uruka. The first day of 'Rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the
cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with
special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the
growth of urban centres.

Traditional Bwisagu dance

Bwisagu is one of the most popular seasonal festivals of the Bodos. Baisagu is a
Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa" which means year or age, and
"Agu" meaning starting or beginning. Bwisagu marks the beginning of the new year.
It is celebrated at the beginning of the first month of the Boro year, around mid-April
in the Gregorian Calendar. It has remarkable similarities to the festival of Rongali
Bihu, also celebrated at the same time in Assam. The worship of Bathow is done on
the second day of the festival.
 Mising girls dancing during Ali Ai Ligang (Spring
Festival) to the tunes of Oi:Nitom
Ali-Aye-Ligang or Ali-Ai-Ligang is a spring festivital associated with agriculture
celebrated by the indigenous Mising of Assam and other Northeast Indian states. It
marks the beginning of the Ahu paddy cultivation in the farms. The term "Ali" denotes
legumes, "Aye" means seed and "Ligang" is 'to sow'. The festival is celebrated on a
Wednesday of the month of Fagun of the Assamese calendar and in the month of
February in English calendar. The gumrag dance is associated with this festival.

Dimasa women performing Baidima, the traditional

dance of the Dimasa people.
Bushu Dima or simply Bushu is a major harvest festival of the Dimasa people. This
festival is celebrated during the end of January. Officially 27 January has been
declared as the day of Bushu Dima festival. The Dimasa people celebrate by playing
musical instruments- khram (a type of drum), muri (a kind of huge long flute). The
people dance to the different tunes of "murithai" and each dance has its own unique
name, the most prominent being the "Baidima" There are three types of Bushu
celebrated by the Dimasas- Jidap, Surem and Hangsou.

Me-Dam-Me-Phi is the day of the veneration of the dead ancestors for the Tai-
Ahom community. It bears striking similarity in the concept of ancestor worship that
the Tai-Ahoms share with other peoples originating from the Tai stock. The word
‘Me’ means offerings, ‘Dam’ means ancestors and ‘Phi’ means gods. According to
the Buranjis, Lengdon (God of thunder), the king of Mong Phi (The heavenly
kingdom), sent two of his grandsons Khunlung and Khunlai to Mong Ri Mong Ram
(present day Xishuangbanna, China) and at that moment Ye-Cheng-Pha, the God of
knowledge, advised them to perform Umpha, Phuralong, Mae Dam Mae Phi and Rik-
khwan rituals in different months of the year on different occasions to pay respect to
the Phi-Dam (Ancestral Spirit) and Khwan elements. Since that day till now Mae
Dam Mae Phi has been observed by the Tai-Ahoms. It is celebrated on 31 January
every year according to the Gregorian calendar.

Rongker also called Dehal is an annual winter festival of merriment celebrated by

the Karbi people of Assam. It is observed in order to appease the local deities
associated with the welfare of the village and the harvest of crops and also to get rid
of all evil spirits. Although the festival does have a specific time it is usually observed
at the beginning of the Karbi New year (Thang thang) which falls on February of the
Gregorian calendar.

Doul Mohutsav (Holi) in Barpeta Satra

Doul Mohutsav, also called Fakuwa or Doul Utsav is a festival of colours and
happiness popular in Lower Assam and especially in Barpeta. It is synonymous with
the festival of Holi celebrated in Northern India. Holigeets of Barpeta are sung which
is incredibly popular and enthralls the heart of every Assamese. These holigeets are
the exquisite compositions in praise of Lord Krishna. People from different parts of
the state visit Barpeta Satra to experience this colourful and joyful festival.

Chavang Kut is a post harvesting festival of the Kuki people. The festival is
celebrated on the first day of November every year. Hence, this particular day has
been officially declared as a Restricted Holiday by the Assam government. In the
past, the celebration was primarily important in the religio-cultural sense. The
rhythmic movements of the dances in the festival were inspired by animals,
agricultural techniques and showed their relationship with ecology. Today, the
celebration witnesses the shifting of stages and is revamped to suit new contexts
and interpretations. The traditional dances which form the core of the festival is now
performed in out-of-village settings and are staged in a secular public sphere. In
Assam, the Kukis mainly reside in the two autonomous districts of Dima Hasao and
Karbi Anglong.

Beshoma is a festival of Deshi people (one of the indigenous Muslim groups of

Assam).[263] It is a celebration of sowing crop. The Beshoma starts on the last day of
Chaitra and goes on until the sixth of Baisakh. With varying locations it is also
called Bishma or Chait-Boishne.[264]

Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year
on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different
ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:

 Wanshuwa Festival (by the Tiwas)

 Kherai (by the Bodos)
 Garja
 Bisu (Deori)
 Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
 Chojun/Swarak
 Deusi Bhailo ( Traditional Nepalese songs that are sung during the festival of
light "Dipavali" and also called "Tihar" )
 Sokk-erroi
 Hacha-kekan
 Hapsa Hatarnai
 Porag
 Bathow
 Wangala
 Bohuwa nrityo

Durga puja in Guwahati.

Christmas is observed with great merriment by Christians of various denominations,
including Catholics, Protestants and Baptists, throughout Assam. Durga Puja is
widely celebrated across the state. Muslims celebrate two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid
al-Adha) with much eagerness all over Assam.

Other few yearly celebrations are Brahmaputra Beach Festival, Guwahati, Kaziranga
Elephant Festival, Kaziranga and Dehing Patkai Festival, Lekhapani, Karbi Youth
Festival of Diphu and International Jatinga Festival, Jatinga can not be forgotten.
Few yearly Mela's like Jonbeel Mela, started in the 15th century by the Ahom
Kings, Ambubachi Mela, Guwahati etc.

Asom Divas or Sukapha Divas (2 December) is celebrated to commemorate the

advent of the first king of the Ahom kingdom in Assam after his journey over the
Patkai Hills.

Lachit Divas (24 November) is celebrated on the birth anniversary of the great Ahom
general Lachit Borphukan. Sarbananda Sonowal, the chief minister of Assam took
part in the Lachit Divas celebration at the statue of Lachit Borphukan at Brahmaputra
riverfront on 24 November 2017. He said, the first countrywide celebration of 'Lachit
Divas' would take place in New Delhi followed by state capitals such as Hyderabad,
Bangalore and Kolkata in a phased manner.

Music, dance, and drama

[edit]
See also: Music of Assam, Folk dances of Assam, and Mobile theatre in Assam


Sattriya Dance (An Indian classical dance form)

Bodo dance Bagurumba

Jhumair dance in Tea garden

Nagara drums

Bhupen Hazarika (Music maestro of Assam)

 

Assamese youth performing Bihu Dance

Statue of Bishnu Prasad Rabha, Jyoti Prasad Agarwala and Phani Sarma at District
Library, Guwahati.

Bhaona performance

Mask making in Majuli

 Actors of Abinaswar Gosthi performs the play "Surjya
Mandirot Surjyasta" directed by Dipok Borah
Performing arts include: Ankia Naat (Onkeeya Naat), a traditional Vaishnav dance-
drama (Bhaona) popular since the 15th century CE.[citation needed] It makes use of large
masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays
a Sutradhar (Xutrodhar) continues to narrate the story.[citation needed]

Besides Bihu dance and Husori performed during the Bohag Bihu, dance forms of
tribal minorities such as; Kushan nritra of
Rajbongshi's, Bagurumba and Bordoicikhla dance of Bodos, Mishing Bihu, Banjar
Kekan performed during Chomangkan by Karbis, Jhumair of Tea-garden
community are some of the major folk dances.[265] Sattriya (Sotriya) dance related to
Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other
age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta's Bhortal Nritya, Deodhani
Nritya, Ojapali, Beula Dance, Ka Shad Inglong Kardom, Nimso Kerung, etc. The
tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of
many Mobile theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Brindabon, etc.[citation needed]

The indigenous folk music has influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds
expression in the music of artists like Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad
Rabha, Parvati Prasad Baruwa, Bhupen Hazarika, Pratima Barua Pandey, Anima
Choudhury, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, Dipali
Barthakur, among many others. Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg, Angaraag
Mahanta and Joi Barua.[citation needed] There is an award given in the honour of Bishnu
Prasad Rabha for achievements in the cultural/music world of Assam by the state
government.[citation needed]

Cuisine
[edit]
Main article: Assamese cuisine

Assamese Thali An
ethnic preparation of Ghost chili chicken curry of Assam
Typically, an Assamese meal consists of many things such as bhat (rice) with dayl/
daly (lentils), masor jool (fish stew), mangxô (meat stew) and stir
fried greens or herbs and vegetables.[citation needed]

Bhut jolokia (ghost pepper) is used in preparation of

traditional meat stews
The two main characteristics of a traditional meal in Assam are khar (an Alkali,
named after its main ingredient) and tenga (Preparations bearing a
characteristically rich and tangy flavour). Khorika is the smoked or fire grilled meat
eaten with meals. Pitika (mash) is another delicacy of Assam. It includes alu pitika
(mashed potatoes), bilahi (tomatoes), bengena (brinjals) or even masor pitika (fish).
Commonly consumed varieties
of meat include Mutton, fowl, duck/goose, fish, pigeon, pork and beef (among Musli
m and Christian indigenous Assamese ethnic
groups). Grasshoppers, locusts, silkworms, snails, eels, bat wild fowl, squab and
other birds, venison are also eaten, albeit in moderation.[citation needed]

A Mising girl roasting fish and pork in bamboo tubes

(bahor sungha) in an ethnic festival
Khorisa (fermented bamboo shoots) are used at times to flavour curries while they
can also be preserved and made into pickles. Koldil (banana flower) and squash are
also used in popular culinary preparations.[266]

Rice beer is consumed on festivals by the various

indigenous ethnic communities of Assam
A variety of different rice cultivars are grown and consumed in different ways, viz.,
roasted, ground, boiled or just soaked.[citation needed]
Fish curries made of free range wild fish as well as Bôralí, rôu, illish, or sitôl are the
most popular. [citation needed]

Another favourite combination is luchi (fried flatbread), a curry which can be

vegetarian or non-vegetarian.[citation needed]

Many indigenous Assamese communities households still continue to brew their

traditional alcoholic beverages; examples include: Laupani, Xaaj, Paniyo, Jou,
Joumai, Hor, Apong, Sujen etc. Such beverages are served during traditional
festivities. Declining them is considered socially offensive.[citation needed]

Assamese food is generally served in traditional bell metal dishes and platters
like Kanhi, Maihang and so on.[citation needed]

Fish cooked in banana leaves

 Narikol Pitha is a very popular dish especially during Bihu

Lakshminath Bezbaroa, one of the foremost figures

of Assamese literature
Literature
[edit]
Main article: Assamese literature
 Imaginary portrait of Srimanta Sankardeva by Bishnu Prasad
Rabha[267]
Assamese literature dates back to the composition of Charyapada, and later on
works like Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali, which is the first translation
of the Ramayana into an Indo-Aryan language, contributed to Assamese literature.[268]
[269][270]
Sankardeva's Borgeet, Ankia Naat, Bhaona and Satra tradition backed the
15th-16th century Assamese literature.[271][272][273][274] Written during the Reign of Ahoms,
the Buranjis are notable literary works which are prominently historical manuscripts.
[275]
Most literary works are written in Assamese although other local language such
as Bodo and Dimasa are also represented.[citation needed] In the 19th and 20th century,
Assamese and other literature was modernised by authors including Lakshminath
Bezbaroa, Birinchi Kumar Barua, Hem Barua, Dr. Mamoni Raisom
Goswami, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Hiren
Bhattacharyya, Homen Borgohain, Bhabananda Deka, Rebati Mohan Dutta
Choudhury, Mahim Bora, Lil Bahadur Chettri, Syed Abdul Malik, Surendranath
Medhi, Hiren Gohain etc.

Fine arts
[edit]
Main article: Painting of Assam
The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the
earliest examples (c. 300 BCE to c. 100 CE) of ancient art and architectural works.
The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a
beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of artwork in
ancient Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period.[citation
needed]

Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th century CE) mentions that
among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there were
paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the
manuscripts such as Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra
Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples
of traditional paintings.[citation needed]

Traditional crafts
[edit]
Main articles: Traditional crafts of Assam and Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam
See also: Assam silk
Assam has a rich tradition of crafts, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal
and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy
and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, and
musical instruments making have remained as major traditions.[276]

Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging
from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical
instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such
as Sorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese
household.[277][278] Hajo and Sarthebari (Sorthebaary) are the most important centres of
traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks,
the most prestigious are: Muga – the natural golden silk, Pat – a creamy-bright-silver
coloured silk and Eri – a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter.
Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost
every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk
garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural
groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery
designs and wonderful colour combinations.

Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly
concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in western
Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the
region.

A page of manuscript painting from Assam; The medieval painters used locally
manufactured painting materials such as the colours of hangool and haital and papers
manufactured from aloewood bark


 Bell metal made sorai and sophura are important parts of culture

Assam Kahor (Bell metal) Kahi

Brihat Ushaharan, an 18th-century manuscript illustration of Garhgoan school of

painting

Mayurpokhyi Khel-Nao (Pleasure boat) of medieval Assam, used by Badula Ata of

Kamalabari Satra
 

18th century Mahisamardini bronze metal sculpture

A painting from the folio of Hastividyarnava

Mask art of Assam

Vrindavani Vastra was woven in the 16th century under the guidance of Mahapurush
Shrimanta Shankardev. The large drape illustrates the childhood activities of Lord
Krishna in Vrindavan.
Media
[edit]
Print media include Assamese dailies Amar Asom, Asomiya Khabar, Asomiya
Pratidin, Dainik Agradoot, Dainik Janambhumi, Dainik Asam, Gana
Adhikar, Janasadharan and Niyomiya Barta. Asom Bani, Sadin and Janambhumi are
Assamese weekly newspapers. The English dailies of Assam include The Assam
Tribune, The Sentinel, The Telegraph, The Times of India, The North East
Times, Eastern Chronicle and The Hills Times. Thekar, in the Karbi language has the
largest circulation of any daily from Karbi Anglong district. Bodosa has the highest
circulation of any Bodo daily from BTR. Dainik Jugasankha is a Bengali daily with
editions from Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Silchar and Kolkata. Dainik Samayik
Prasanga, Dainik Prantojyoti, Dainik Janakantha and Nababarta Prasanga are other
prominent Bengali dailies published in the Barak Valley towns of Karimganj and
Silchar. Hindi dailies include Purvanchal Prahari, Pratah Khabar and Dainik
Purvoday.

Broadcasting stations of All India Radio have been established in 22 cities across the
state. Local news and music are the main priority for those stations. Assam has
three public service broadcasting service stations of state-owned Doordarshan at
Dibrugarh, Guwahati and Silchar. The Guwahati-based satellite news channels
include Assam Talks, DY 365, News Live, News18 Assam North East, North East
Live, Prag News and Pratidin Time.

Geographical indications
[edit]
Boka Chaul
[edit]
Boka Chaul was awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) status tag from
the Geographical Indications Registry, under the Union Government of India, on 30
July 2018 and is valid until 24 July 2026.[279][280]

Lotus Progressive Centre (LPC) and Centre for Environment Education (CEE) from
Guwahati, proposed the GI registration of Boka Chaul.[281] After filing the application in
July 2018, the rice was granted the GI tag in 2023 by the Geographical Indication
Registry in Chennai, making the name "Boka Chaul" exclusive to the rice grown in
the region. It thus became the second rice variety from Assam after Joha rice and
the 7th type of goods from Assam to earn the GI tag.[282]

The GI tag protects the rice from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal
protection and a unique identity.