A

MICROPROJECT

On

“Drip Irrigation System.”

Submitted By
1. Pawar Akhilesh Ramnath 23650910333
2. Kumar Priyanshu Dinesh 23650910339
3. Suryawanshi Ishwar Kachuru 23650910335
4. Dhaktode Shrikant Rajaram 2200300288
Class: CE5I
Under The Guidance
Mrs. R. D. Vikhe

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Padmashri Dr. Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil Institute of Technology and
Engineering (Polytechnic) Pravaranagar-413736.
(2025-2026)

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 Drip Irrigation System.

Padmashri Dr. Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil Institute of Technology and

Engineering (Polytechnic) Pravaranagar-413736

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

1. Pawar Akhilesh Ramnath 23650910333
2. Kumar Priyanshu Dinesh 23650910339
3. Suryawanshi Ishwar Kachuru 23650910335
4. Dhaktode Shrikant Rajaram 2200300288
Class: CE5I
Has successfully submitted the Micro Project on

“Drip Irrigation System.”

Towards the partial fulfillment of
Diploma in Civil Engineering affiliated to Maharashtra State Board of Technical
Education, Mumbai during academic year 2025-2026

(Mr. R. D. Vikhe) (Mr. S. K. Gorde)

Guide HOD

Place: Loni
Date:

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ABSTRACT

In India, perhaps more than 80 per cent of the available water is used for irrigation. Irrigation is the
controlled application of water through man-made systems to meet the water requirements of
agriculture. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to crops or plants, especially when an
agricultural field does not get enough water through rains. Having perhaps the largest irrigated
area in the world, India faces acute water scarcity. We need to adopt irrigation methods that help in
not only in saving freshwater, but also provide sufficient water to plants for growth. One such
method now being followed in India is ‘micro irrigation’.
Micro irrigation is the slow application of continuous drips, tiny streams or miniature sprays of
water above or below the soil surface. In this Session, you will learn about the main features of
micro irrigation system and its classification

Micro irrigation system can be broadly classified into two categories:

(1) drip irrigation system
(2) sprinkler irrigation system
However, there are distinct differences in the water flow rate, operating pressure requirement and
measurement of the wetted area between drip and sprinkler irrigation systems. Water flow rate
means the amount of water discharged in an area at a particular time. It is expressed in liter/minute
(lpm) or gallons/ minute (gpm). The system operating pressure must compensate for pressure
losses through system components and field elevation effects

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people whose constant guidance and encouragement made it
possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project, which is a result of a blend of our
studies, research and acknowledgement.
We express our earnest gratitude to Mr. S. K. Gorde (H.O.D., Dept. of Civil),
our honorable guide, Mrs. R. D. Vikhe for his constant support and encouragement and guidance.

Finally we express our guidance to all other members who are involved
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

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CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means for the
purpose of cultivation. Ordinarily water is supplied to land by nature through rain but generally it is
not enough for the proper growth of plants. As such as the basic objective of irrigation is to
supplement the natural supply of water to land so as to obtain the an optimum yield from the crop
grown on the land.
In order to achieve this objective of irrigation, an irrigation system is required to developed, which
involves planning, designing, construction, operation and maintenance of various irrigation works
visa, a source of water supply, a distribution system for carrying water from the source to the
agricultural land and its application on the land, and various other associated works. The factors
which necessitate irrigation are:
Ø Inadequate rainfall
Ø Uneven distribution of rainfall
Ø Growing a number of crops during a year
Ø Growing superior crops

Drip irrigation can help you use water efficiently. A well-designed drip irrigation system loses
practically no water to runoff, deep percolation, or evaporation. Drip irrigation reduces water contact
with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus conditions may be less favorable for the onset of diseases.
Irrigation scheduling can be managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of increased
yield and quality.

Growers and irrigation professionals often refer to "subsurface drip irrigation," or SDI. When a drip tape
or tube is buried below the soil surface, it is less vulnerable to damage during cultivation or weeding.
With SDI, water use efficiency is maximized because there is even less evaporation or runoff.

Agricultural chemicals can be applied more efficiently with drip irrigation. Since only the crop root
zone is irrigated, nitrogen already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses, and applied fertilizer N
can be used more efficiently. In the case of insecticides, less product might be needed. Make sure the
insecticide is labeled for application through drip irrigation.

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Additional advantages of drip irrigation include:

Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven topography or soil texture;
these specific factors must be considered in designing the drip system. Drip systems also can work
well where other irrigation systems are inefficient because parts of the field have excessive
infiltration, water puddling, or runoff.
Drip irrigation can be helpful if water is scarce or expensive. Because evaporation, runoff, and deep
percolation are reduced and irrigation uniformity is improved, it is not necessary to "over-water" parts
of a field to adequately irrigate the more difficult parts.
Precise application of nutrients is possible using drip irrigation. Fertilizer costs and nitrate losses can
be reduced. Nutrient applications can be better timed to meet plants' needs.
Drip irrigation systems can be designed and managed so that the wheel traffic rows are dry enough to
allow tractor operations at any time. Timely application of herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides is
possible.
Proven yield and quality responses to drip irrigation have been observed in onion, broccoli,
cauliflower, lettuce, melon, tomato, and cotton.
A drip irrigation system can be automated.
There are some disadvantages to drip irrigation. For example:

Drip irrigation systems typically cost $500 to $1,200 or more per acre. Part of the cost is a capital
investment useful for several years, and part is annual. Systems can be more elaborate and costly than
they need to be. Growers new to drip irrigation might want to start with a relatively simple system on
a small acreage.
Drip tape or tubing must be managed to avoid leaking or plugging. Drip emitters are easily plugged
by silt or other particles not filtered out of the irrigation water. Emitter plugging also can be caused
by algae growing in the tape or by chemical deposits at the emitter.
You might need to redesign your weed control program. Drip irrigation might be unsatisfactory if
herbicides need sprinkler irrigation for activation. However, drip irrigation can enhance weed control
in arid climates by keeping much of the soil surface dry. Tape depth must be chosen carefully for
compatibility with operations such as cultivation and weeding.
Drip tape causes extra cleanup costs after harvest. You'll need to plan for drip tape disposal, recycling
or reuse. Components and design of a drip irrigation system

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1.2 AIM & OBJECTIVE

1.2.1 AIM: To place water directly into the root zone and minimize evaporation.

1.2.2 OBJECTIVES OF Drip Irrigation System:

1.2.2.1 DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM:

1. Water Conservation: Drip irrigation minimizes water waste by delivering water directly to
the plant roots, reducing evaporation and runoff
2. Improved Crop Yields: By providing a consistent and adequate supply of water, drip
irrigation can enhance crop growth and increase yields.
3. Efficient Nutrient Delivery: This method can integrate fertigation (the application of
fertilizers through the irrigation system), allowing for precise nutrient delivery to plants.
4. Reduced Weed Growth: By applying water only to the root zone of plants, drip irrigation
reduces moisture in surrounding areas, which can help limit weed growth.
5. Soil Erosion Control: Because water is applied slowly and directly, drip irrigation reduces
soil erosion compared to traditional irrigation methods.
6. Adaptability to Various Terrain: Drip systems can be installed in a variety of landscapes,
including hilly or uneven terrain, making them versatile for different agricultural settings.

CHAPTER 2

LITREATURE REVIEW:

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2.1 There is a plethora of literature on agricultural technology adoption. Drip irrigation adoption, on
the other hand, is contingent on a variety of demographic, regional, and other factors, such as
government incentives. As a result, according to the study's goal, the suggested study integrates
certain relevant literature. Precision farming, according to Yahasaswini Sharma et al (2015), will
boost productivity, lower production costs, and reduce the impact of farming on the
environment. Precision farming, according to Crookston (2006), is one of the top ten agricultural
revolutions in history, and it entails using the correct management strategies in the right area, at
the right time, and at the right place.

2.2 According to Mulla et al (1996), precision farming has several advantages, including
increased efficiency in farm management inputs, increased agricultural output, improved crop
quality, and less fertilizer transportation. Agriculture was linked to socioeconomic trends in
underdeveloped nations by Pinaki Mondal et al (2008). The scope, current state, and tactics for
precision agricultural adoption in India and other developing nations are also discussed in this
research. Khondoker A. Mottaleb (2018) explored the perception and acceptance of new
agricultural technology in developing nations. The said study highlights the significance of
poverty among farmers in developing countries' rural regions in making technology adoption
decisions. According to a study by Neşe Üzen et al on the importance of micro-irrigation in
modern agriculture, the micro irrigation system is successful for horticulture in any weather
condition. This will result in higher crop yields, better fertilizer use, less salinization, and no
crop disease, as well as lower labour costs. P. Suryavanshi et al. (2015) recommended
micro- irrigation as sustainable agriculture since it saves water and increases crop output while
lowering cultivation costs. When compared to surface irrigation, all crops farmed with drip
irrigation have higher production. Drip irrigation's prospects, possibilities, and limitations in
India were explored by Khusro Moin et al (2018); they also discussed the economic state of
water in India, as well as a comparison between surface irrigation and drip irrigation in
terms of cost-benefit analysis, agricultural yield, labor, and efficiency. It also examines the rate
of drip irrigation adoption in India, concluding that the reason for farmers' reluctance to embrace
drip irrigation is the high initial cost, which is prohibitive for small and medium farms.

CHAPTER 3
THEOROTIES.
3.1 CONCEPT OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM:
Irrigation is the supply of water to crops by artificial means. It is designed to permit the desired
plant growth in arid regions and to offset drought in semiarid regions or subhumid regions. Even in
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areas where average seasonal precipitation may seem ample, rains are frequently unevenly
distributed, or soils have low water holding capacities so that traditional rainfed agriculture is a high-
risk enterprise. Irrigation provides a means for stable food production. In some areas, irrigation
prolongs the effective growing season. With the security provided by irrigation, additional inputs like
higher producing varieties, additional fertilizer, better pest control, and improved tillage, become
economically feasible. Irrigation reduces the risk of these expensive inputs being wasted by drought.
On a global scale, irrigation has a profound impact on fresh water supplies, world food production,
and the aesthetics and value of landscapes. One-third of the world's food comes from the 21% of the
world's cultivated area that is irrigated (Table 1.1). In the U.S., irrigated agriculture accounted for
about half of the total value of crop sales on 28% of harvested crop land in 2012 (USDA, 2019).

Irrigation has turned many of the earth's driest and most fertile lands into important crop
producing regions. For example, Egypt could grow virtually no food without water drawn from the
Nile or from underground aquifers. California's Central Valley and the Aral Sea basin—the fruit and
vegetable baskets of the United States and the former Soviet Union—would produce little without
irrigation. The world's major grain producing areas of northern China, northwest India, and the U.S.
Great Plains would drop by one-third to one-half without irrigation to supplement rainfall. Irrigation
fills a key role in feeding an expanding world population and seems destined to play an even greater
role in the future. As practiced in many places, however, irrigation is still based largely on traditional
methods which fail to measure and optimize the supply of water to satisfy plant water demands.
Unmeasured irrigation tends to waste water, nutrients, and energy, and may cause soil degradation by
waterlogging, erosion, and salination. The vital task of assuring adequate global food production must
include a concerted effort to modernize irrigation systems and improve water management. These
improved techniques will help achieve sustainable and efficient production while protecting the
environment. New systems must be based on sound principles and designs to optimize irrigation in
relation to essential inputs and operations while guaranteeing sustainability of irrigated agriculture.
Water and soil must be recognized as vital, precious, and vulnerable resources and managed
accordingly.

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3.2 Drip Irrigation:

Drip irrigation is a controlled, slow application of water to soil over a long period of time, usually
lasting several hours. The water flows under low pressure through plastic pipe/tubing laid along
each row of plants. It reduces water loss by up to 60 percent. Flow rate needs to be adjusted so
there is no flooding or runoff.
• Apply enough water to wet the soil to a depth of 4-6 inches
• Avoid frequent light applications of water
• Water in early daylight hours

Fig.3.1 Drip Irrigation System.

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3.2.3 Types of drip irrigation system:

Drip irrigation system can be classified into the following:

1 Surface drip irrigation

2 Sub-surface drip irrigation
3 Family drip
4 Online drip In-line drip
5 In-line drip irrigation
3.2.3.1 Surface drip irrigation

Surface drip irrigation is used to irrigate perennial crops (plants that live for more than two years) and
annual crops (plants that germinate, produce seeds, flower and die in one year). Typical surface drip
irrigation system consists of the following.
Pump unit: It comprises a pump and a power unit to supply electricity to the pump. The pump
draws water from the source and provides the right pressure for its delivery into the pipe system.
Head control unit: It consists of shut-off, air and check (non-return) valves to control the
discharge and pressure of water in the entire system. A pressure relief valve is installed after the
pump unit to return excess water when the system is not operated at its full capacity. It may also
have filters to clear the water. The filters remove sediment and debris, which can clog the system.
Disc filters are commonly used to filter water from ponds, reservoirs, tanks and other sources that
contain algae. Some head control units contain a fertiliser or nutrient tank to supply fertiliser
solution to plants.

Tubings: It consists of a main line, sub-main lines or sub-mains and laterals. The main line conveys
water from the source and distributes it to the sub-mains. The sub-mains convey water to the laterals,
which in turn supply it to the emmiters or drippers. The laterals are, usually, 13–32 mm in diameter
and supply water into fields through the head control unit.

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Emitters or Drippers: These devices are used to control the discharge of water from the laterals to
plants. They are made of high density polythylene (hdpe) plastic. Water enters the drippers at
approximately 1 kg/cm2 pressure and is delivered at zero pressure in the form of droplets at a low
rate of 1–2.4 litre/hour. There are mainly two types of emitters.
a) Online Emitters: These are small plastic devices, which convey small streams of water from
polyethylene (pe) tubing to the soil. The water, then, moves through the soil via capillary flow
and creates a wetted circle, the size of which depends on the soil type, flow rate and irrigation
schedule. Online emitters are attached to the pe tubing wall by inserting the emitters’ barb-
shaped base through a punched hole. These can be placed anywhere along the length of the
pipe. Some emitters have self-piercing barbs. The diameter of pipes used for installing online
emmitters is usually, between 12 and 20 mm.
b)

b) In-line Emitters or Drip lines: These consist of small plastic emission devices, which are pre-
inserted into the pe tubing at specified intervals during the tubing extrusion process. Their rate
of water flow depends on the inlet pressure with lower inlet pressure, the water flow decreases,
whereas, with high pressure, it increases. This emitter is available in 0.8 lph to 4 lph discharge
rate.
Surface drip irrigation system is, generally, used to irrigate high-value vegetable crops, such as
tomato, broccoli, celery, cauliflower, spinach, kohlrabi, leaf lettuce, etc.
3.2.3.2 Sub-Surface Drip Irrigation
Sub-surface drip irrigation is a method of irrigating crops through buried plastic tubes, containing
embedded emitters located at regular spacings. A sub-surface drip irrigation system has a similar
design as surface drip irrigation system but in this case, the drip tubes are typically located 38–84″
(97–213 cm) apart and 6–10″ (15–25 cm) below the soil surface. In sub-surface drip irrigation,
evaporation is minimised and water is used more efficiently as compared to surface irrigation. In
sub-surface irrigation, the effects of surface infiltration like crusting, water losses via evaporation
and surface run-off are eliminated. Water is applied directly to the root zone of a crop as opposed
to surface irrigation, in which most weed seeds hibernate. Water application is efficient and
uniform in this system.

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Sub-Surface drip irrigation helps in water conservation in open field agriculture, often resulting in
saving up to 25–50 per cent water as compared to the flood irrigation system.

• Subsurface drip irrigation is an irrigation method where water is delivered directly to the
plant roots by burying a dripline beneath the soil surface, allowing for highly efficient water
usage by eliminating surface evaporation and delivering water precisely to the root zone,
making it ideal for arid and semi-arid regions with limited water supply; key benefits include
increased crop yields, reduced weed growth, and significant water and fertilizer savings
compared to traditional irrigation methods.
3.2.3.3 Family drip or gravity fed drip irrigation
family drip or ‘gravity fed drip irrigation’ system is a low-cost system developed for small family
plots. it is suitable for house gardening and
peri-urban agriculture. It can also be used to demonstrate the working of drip irrigation system.
Family drip system is designed for areas measuring 500–1000 m2. It consists of five components
— elevated tank, shut-off valve, filter, main line and drip line.

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Global climate change is affecting the rainfall pattern in Mauritius. The mean annual rainfall has
decreased by about 8% over the last 10 years and there has been an increase in the duration of water
stress periods as well. About 48% of our water resources is being used by the agricultural sector. The
most common irrigation systems used for production of vegetable, fruit and flower crops are the
sprinkler and the mini sprinkler. Owing to the scarcity of water for irrigation, there is a tendency to
shift to the drip irrigation system which is more efficient and has a water economy of 40 to 50%.
Unlike the pressurised drip irrigation system which requires an electric or petrol driven pump to
pump water to the dripper lines, the gravity-fed drip irrigation requires no pump and is thus energy
saving. Whenever the valve is opened, irrigation water flows by gravity through a screen filter which
removes impurities, then through the main pipe to the dripper lines and drips at the root zone of the

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crop. The dripper lines should be closed at the end using end caps.

The first gravity-fed drip irrigation system, called the Netafim Family Drip System, was
introduced by the AREU in 2002 as a means to improve foodcrop production for small-scale farming
in areas where irrigation water supply is non-existent. The system currently costs Rs. 9,000.00, and it
can irrigate an area of up to 500 m2.
3.2.3.4 Online drip irrigation
In this system, emitters or drippers are fixed externally on the laterals at designed spacing.
Thus, the drippers can be checked and cleaned easily in case of clogging. The dripper spacing can be
changed any time to cover the increased root zone of a plant. Online dripper system is used in
orchards, vineyards, artificial landscapes and nurseries. It is, generally, used for irrigating
horticultural plants like mango, coconut, orange, lemon, banana, grapes, pomegranate, papaya,
sapota, guava, teakwood, bamboo, amla (Indian gooseberry), etc.
A] Inline drip is used for closed-spacing crops like vegetables, and row crops
agriculture. Online drip is used for wide spacing crops like orchards, other trees, etc.
Farmers use drip irrigation emitters to deliver a mix of water and nutritional
compounds in controlled quantities and pressures to individual plants. You can ensure
the roots of your plant receive adequate water with a dripper.

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B] Farmers rely on inline & online systems for providing water to crops. As part of
this water system, an inline drip has the dripper installed inside the dripline with
specific dripper spacing, while an online drip has the dripper installed on the lateral
tube at the required spacing.

C] Netafim: Affordable, Portable, and Multi-Crop Irrigation Solutions

The reasons why Netafim has become a trustworthy name in irrigation products are
manifold. As a comprehensive solution, Netafim portable kits provide convenience
and value-added benefits.
3.2.3.5 In-line drip irrigation
In this system, drippers are fixed in the lateral tube at designed spacing at the time of manufacturing
to meet the requirement of various crops. It is effective for row crops like cotton, sugarcane,
groundnut, vegetables and flowering crops. Dripper spacing depends on the water
requirement of a crop and the water-holding capacity of the soil. Once installed, the dripper
spacing cannot be changed.
It seems that drip irrigation has become synonymous with "Inline" drip emitter tubing. While today's
technology has helped to make most of the product available very efficient, it is imperative that the
designer recognizes the correct application. As with any product proper application is just as
important as the installation or maintanince for the success of an irrigation system. "Inline" drip
tubing is manufactured by inserting a drip emitter directly into the tubing at evenly spaced intervals
during the manufacturing process. Usually two holes are then drilled into the tubing at a precise
location for every emitter, where the water will drip out. Installations where plants are either very
close together or evenly spaced no greater than 3 feet on center, lend themselves perfectly for Inline.
Many different brands are readily available, when developing your design it is important to
understand the specific product you are using and its hydraulic limits. This information is available
from the manufacturer as well as recommended installation practices.
When plant spacings are irregular or greater than 3 feet on center "Online" drip emitters may be
the product of choice. Online drip emitter outlets are installed at or near the plants root zone, this
helps to eliminate wasteful irrigation between plants. Online emitters are usually punched into the
tubing near the plant. This method gives you a little more flexibility. It is equally as important to
consider the hydraulic limitations and recommended installation techniques when installing emitters
online.

Within a design for example you could have two different scenarios.

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In one section or zone you might have grouped plants, in this case it may be more efficient to use
“online” or point source drip emitters.

In another section or zone you may have rowed spaced plants were inline drip emitters might make
more sense.
Often times Inline and Online products are perceived to be interchangeable, while both
may work for similar applications, it is important to understand the best application for each.

3.3.1 Planning a Drip System:

When planning a drip irrigation system, there are many factors to consider. The most important of
these are covered in this fact sheet.
 Water quality
 Soil type and variation
 Crop variety, rootstock, and likely root zone depth
 Number of irrigation shifts and the ability to meet peak daily water
requirements
 Emitter selection, discharge and spacing
 Proposed irrigation management program, such as pulsing or intensive
fertigation practices
 Surface or sub surface irrigation
 Management issues such as frost and heat control
 Converting mature plantings
Issues covered in adjoining fact sheets are:
 System maintenance and monitoring
 Filtration
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 Fertigation

3.3.1.1 Water quality:

System blockages are a key issue for drip irrigation. All irrigators, regardless of the irrigation
method, should be aware of their irrigation water quality to ensure that it is compatible with the crop
and soil. Drip irrigators need to be particularly aware of their water quality as some water sources can
create system blockages.

The following water quality issues should be considered when determining if a water source is
suitable for drip irrigation:
 PH
 Iron and manganese concentration
 Hardness
 Calcium carbonate saturation index
 Turbidity

For information on how water quality can affect the performance of pressurised irrigation systems,
see the Farm Water Quality and Treatment fact sheet on the NSW Department of Primary Industries
website. If there is uncertainty about existing water quality, a water analysis should be conducted. A
full water analysis will provide a water quality baseline, also help identify the type and level of
filtration and possible disinfestation practices needed for the water source.If application is for
conversion for temporary purpose, he has to decide within 15 days.
3.3.1.2 Matching the system design to the soil and crop type
A soil survey is essential for understanding relevant soil characteristics for irrigation. It classifies
soils based on texture and depth, providing valuable information for designing the irrigation system
layout.
While the cost of a soil survey is typically small compared to the overall expense of a new drip
system, it is a worthwhile investment. It is recommended to hire a soil survey specialist to conduct

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the survey (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Soil surveys and associated irrigation and drainage management plans are
standard practice before a new development. They should also be prepared before upgrading
existing irrigation systems. Photo: Mallee CMA.
Understanding soil types is crucial for effective system planning. Soil pits reveal soil
profiles (Figure 2), providing information on texture, depth, and water-holding capacity. Similar soil
types allow similar rooting depths, dripper-wetted patterns, and drainage characteristics providing
similar amounts of water to each plant. Wherever possible, the irrigation system should be designed
so that similar soil types can be irrigated in the same shift.

A soil survey will also provide ripping, mounding and soil amelioration recommendations.
These suggestions are most readily applicable in a new development or redevelopment situation but
are also relevant in an existing orchard if drip conversions are proposed. Upgrading to drip irrigation
from an existing sprinkler system will not solve inherent soil problems.

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Figure 2. Soil pits are an excellent way to identify soil texture, root zone depths and drainage
characteristics. Photo: Mallee CMA
Designing the irrigation system according to soil type will help achieve even growth, maturity,
yield and fruit quality, allowing efficient irrigation management as each soil type and variety can be
irrigated according to its individual requirements. For example, lighter soil types that need more
frequent irrigations can be managed independently from heavier soil types where waterlogging is
possible.
The results from soil moisture monitoring should reasonably represent the moisture content of each
irrigation unit, and a well-designed drip system will help achieve this.
For more information see Soil survey for soil sampling for irrigated horticulture.

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3.3.1.2 Irrigation system design

An irrigation system design is best left to a professional designer who can select the correct equipment
to apply the right amount of water at the correct application rate for the soil. Growers should protect
their investment by using an Irrigation Australia Limited (IAL) Agricultural Drip Micro Certified
Irrigation Designer (CID). A directory of certified designers is available on the Irrigation Australia
website.

A correctly designed irrigation system is essential. Experience has shown that systems are more likely
to be successful if designed appropriately, installed correctly, and managed well. If any of these aspects
are ignored, production potential may not be reached.

Pipeline material, size and class should be the most cost-effective, considering the initial capital cost
and the long-term running costs. The design should comply with industry standards such as a maximum
emitter discharge variation of ± 5% within a valve unit, and maximum pipe velocity requirements. The
pump and motor should be selected for maximum efficiency, considering the size of the planting
(current and future), topography and the maximum number of shifts.
The basic components of a drip irrigation system are outlined in Figure 3 below.
When planning a system, look at the quality and suitability of the components rather than choosing them
on price alone.
If correctly designed, the drip irrigation system will be able to meet maximum crop water demand.
Newly designed systems can usually do this. When expanding a system, especially when using existing
pumps, the ability to keep up with crop water requirements may be compromised. Structure the initial
design to allow for possible future developments.

Figure 3. Typical surface drip system layout.

3.3.1.3 Maximum number of irrigation shifts allowed

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‘Irrigation shift’ refers to the arrangement or aggregation of selected irrigation unit(s) of an

irrigation system delivering water at a particular time.
Regardless of the size of the block or the irrigation management program chosen (e.g. pulsing),
establishing whether an irrigation system will meet the peak water requirement of a crop can be
achieved by determining the maximum number of shifts a system can run. This is a more critical
question for drip irrigation than full cover sprinkler systems, due to drip systems having a lower
application rate (full cover equivalent), therefore requiring a relatively longer run time to meet crop
water requirements. The following equation is used to determine the maximum number of shifts
possible for a given drip system and crop type.

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Assumptions:
Maximum daily water requirement of crop = 8.0 mm/d
System application rate = 1.3 mm/h (full cover equivalent)
Daily maximum hours pumping available = 18 h (25% pumping downtime)

In this example, no more than 3 shifts are possible in order to meet peak crop water demand.

Many new drip irrigation developments now adopt low application systems (0.6–0.9 mm/hr) over
larger areas, with a lower number of shifts (often a single shift).

Using the same daily crop water requirement (8 mm/d) with a low application system (0.9 mm/h), the
following is obtained for comparison:

Low flow systems have smaller emitters and therefore require stringent maintenance programs. Visit
the Drip maintenance and monitoring page.

More shifts can be run if irrigators are willing to pump 24 hours a day. While this is acceptable, it does
not allow any flexibility to cover pump repairs following a breakdown nor allow for extra pumping
during heatwaves (where daily water requirements would exceed 8.0 mm/d in the example above).

It’s important to ensure that every tree receives the right amount of water. A common issue can occur
where plants at the ends of rows don't receive enough water because there are fewer emitters around
them. This happens when the in-line drippers are connected to long blank poly offtakes (Figure 4) or
when the laterals end too early at the last tree (Figure 5). In orchards running north-south in hot inland
regions, the first or last tree on the northern edge often requires more water due to exposure to hot
winds. This, combined with a reduced water supply from fewer emitters, can lead to poor tree health.

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To ensure these trees receive adequate moisture, ensure that the drip line is run a little closer towards
the headland, past the edge of the crop canopy, and use shorter offtakes from the submain and
flushing manifold. If the offtakes are too long, another option is to insert button dripper(s) of the same
discharge and spacing into the blank offtake (Figure 6).

Figure 4. Offtakes can be shortened, and laterals extended to ensure the last tree in the row receives
adequate moisture.

Figure 5. Ensure laterals are long enough to supply adequate water to the last
tree.

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Figure 6. Button dripper added to a blind offtake ensuring the last vine receives adequate
water.

3.3.1.4 Choosing an emitter

The emitter – or dripper - is the device attached to the drip line or lateral to control the rate of
water discharge from the lateral. It is important to choose the right emitter for the irrigation system.
Only the more durable (and generally more expensive) drippers and drip lines are suitable for
perennial horticulture. Cheaper drip line is normally designed for single season use only, like
vegetable crops.

When selecting an emitter, the main properties to consider are:

 Pressure compensating or non-pressure compensating
 Type of dripper, and specialty function, such as non-drain (ND)
 Dripper quality, including manufacturing characteristics and susceptibility to
clogging
 Dripper discharge and spacing.

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3.3.1.4.1 Pressure compensating or non-pressure compensating:

Modern emitters can be classified into 2 types: pressure compensating (PC) and non-pressure
compensating (non-PC).

PC emitters maintain a consistent discharge within a wide pressure range (between a maximum and
minimum). They achieve this by using a flexible membrane or diaphragm that deforms with
increasing pressure, restricting the flow path. However, PC emitters cannot increase the discharge if
the pressure is too low (e.g., below 5 meters), but they can regulate it at high pressures.

On the other hand, non-PC drippers experience discharge variations with changing operating
pressures. In a well-designed and properly operated system, the discharge of non-PC emitters should
vary by less than ± 5%.
3.3.1.4.2 Hydraulic characteristic of non-pressure compensated drippers:
The hydraulic characteristic of an emitter refers to the relationship between the operating pressure and
the discharge rate.

In irrigation system design, it is important to ensure that the variation in discharge rate among all
emitters stays within an acceptable limit, typically less than ±5% of the design discharge rate.

The hydraulic characteristic helps estimate the maximum allowable pressure variation along the
lateral to maintain consistent discharge rates for individual emitters. This minimises the costs
associated with piping and pumping while ensuring proper irrigation.

In the case of non-PC emitters, their specified discharge rate (e.g., 2 L/h) is considered the nominal
discharge rate at a specific pressure, typically 100 kilopascals (kPa). If the pressure deviates from this
specified pressure, the discharge rate of the emitter will also vary (Figure 8).

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Figure 8. Discharge versus pressure of 2 L/hr pressure compensated and non-pressure

compensated drippers.
ACTUAL DISCHARGE RATE (L/H)
NOMINAL 50 kPa 100kPa 150kPa 200kPa
FLOW RATE
(L/H)
1.3 0.94 1.3 1.56 1.79
2.0 1.43 2.0 2.43 2.79
3.0 2.15 3.0 3.64 4.18
Table 1. Pressure and flow rate variation in a common non-pressure-compensating drip system.
Source: Adapted from Netafim Australia brochure, Dripline 2000–2025 multi-seasonal dripper
line.

The emitter discharge exponent (x) describes the relationship between pressure and discharge,
indicating the sensitivity of the emitter discharge rate to pressure differences (see Table 2).

The value of x is typically between 0.0 and 1.0. The greater the value, the more sensitive the discharge
is to pressure changes. Generally, an emitter discharge exponent of 0.5 or less is acceptable for non-PC
emitters used in permanent horticulture. A dripper with a large exponent (for example, x = 0.8) has
greater sensitivity to pressure variation than one with a smaller exponent (for example, x = 0.4).

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A value of 0.0 means that the discharge rate will not change with pressure. PC drippers have very low
x values (in theory 0.0), but generally do show some minor discharge variation in practice.

Table 2 shows that for a 20% change in pressure (due, for example, to friction losses or elevation
changes), drippers with x = 0.4 only have a 7.6% change in discharge (see highlighted cells in Table
2). If the same pressure change was to occur for a dripper with x = 0.8, the discharge would change
by 15.7%.

The emitter discharge exponent (x) should be available from all drip manufacturers but is rarely
available for drip tape or single-season products.
EMITTER DISCHARGE EXPONENT (X)
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
% PRESSURE % discharge rate change
CHANGE
10 3.9 4.8 5.9 6.9 7.9
20 7.6 9.5 11.6 13.6 15.7
30 11.1 14.0 17.1 20.2 23.3
40 14.4 18.3 22.3 26.6 30.9
50 17.6 22.5 27.5 32.8 38.3
Table 2. The change in percent discharge rate of emitters with various emitter discharge
exponents.
Source: Burt and Styles 1998.

Both PC and non-PC drippers use turbulent flow, where water moves through the dripper labyrinth in
a very unorganised way due to the internal ‘teeth’ design of the flow path (Figure 9). Turbulent flow
mixes the water, causing it to maintain a high velocity on the dripper wall, sweeping clay and silt
particles from the wall into the centre of the pathway and out of the dripper, preventing any build-up
or blockages from sedimentation.

Figure 9. Turbulent flow pattern

Turbulent flow drippers are produced by all major irrigation equipment manufacturers to suit a range
of operating conditions (Table 3). All turbulent flow emitters have widely varying performance
characteristics and are suited to different applications.

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Drip irrigation system designers should be aware of these performance characteristics when choosing
an emitter for a particular situation to ensure the irrigation system fulfils the basic requirement of
uniform water application to the crop.
3.3.1.4.3 Dripper quality
The Regional Planning Committee shall, after giving a reasonable opportunity to all persons affected
by the Regional plan of being heard, submit its report to the Regional Board together with all
connected documents, maps, charts and plans within such time as may from time to time be fixed in
that behalf by the Regional Board.
The small size of the emitter flow path (typically 0.5-1 mm diameter) requires precise manufacturing.
Even small deviations in size can significantly impact the discharge rate.
Ideally, each emitter of the same type would have identical performance and the discharge rate of any
emitter along a lateral could be predicted for any given operating pressure.
Tests on various emitter types have shown that most emitters have discharge rates within 2-10% of
the average measured rate. However, there have been cases where variations larger than 20% were
observed. Such variations would result in inconsistent water volumes, with some trees receiving
excessive water while others receive inadequate water.
Coefficient of variation: New drippers are tested by manufacturers to
determine how much variability exists in manufacturing. The measure of
manufacturing precision is called the coefficient of variation (Cv, see Table 4)
and is a measure of the difference in discharge rate of a group of emitters at the
same pressure. This measure should also be available from retailers upon
request.
CLASSIFICATION CV
EXCELLENT Less than 0.03
AVERAGE 0.03-0.07
MARGINAL 0.07-0.10
POOR More than 0.10
Table 4. Emitter coefficient of variation (Cv)
Pressure compensating drippers, due to their relatively complex construction, tend to have a large
manufacturing Cv compared to non-pressure compensating emitters.
Another measure that some manufacturers use, particularly for drip tape or single-season products, is
emission uniformity (EU%). Emission uniformity incorporates the flow rate variations from both
manufacturing (Cv) and pressure variation to estimate irrigation efficiency. The recommended EU is

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greater than 90%. The calculation of EU is complex and requires knowledge of the emitters Cv. Some
manufacturers provide online calculators to determine the EU.

Emission uniformity is used by manufacturers for determining the maximum length of a drip line on
flat ground given a certain operating pressure and emitter spacing. None of these measurements are
interchangeable. An EU of 90%, for example, does not relate to a flow variation of 10%. For more
information see Drip system maintenance and monitoring.

Qmin (L/h) = lowest emitter discharge, Qave (L/h) = average emitters discharge, Cv = coefficient of
variation, n = number of emitters per plant.

Clogging susceptibility
Two features of drippers that determine how readily they remain clean and functional are the filtration
area and labyrinth size (width, depth, and length).
Both features are measurable and should be readily available from dripper specification sheets.
Equations are available using turbulence coefficients and effective filtration to provide comparison of
dripper clogging susceptibility between products.

Dripper discharge
Dripper discharge should not exceed the soil’s infiltration rate. Operating below this infiltration rate
will minimise the saturated area immediately under the dripper and avoid run-off.
Traditionally a dripper discharge of 2.5–4.0 L/h was considered suitable for lighter soil types, and a
discharge of 2 L/h was used in heavier soil types to minimise surface run-off and ponding, promoting
deeper water penetration. Today dripper discharges generally lie between 1–2 L/h regardless of soil
type, combined with a relatively closer dripper spacing.
Dripper spacing
if compensation in respect of such injurious affection or restriction imposed under this Act or
substantially similar injurious affection or restriction in force under any other law has already been
paid in respect of the property or any right or interest therein to the claimant or to any predecessor in
interest of the claimant.

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Dripper discharge, spacing and soil type

Soil type should still be a factor when determining dripper discharge and spacing. Discharge and
spacing affect the wetting pattern in the soil and determine the application rate, which influences how
fast water moves into the soil.
Drip irrigation is based on a network of drippers that should distribute water and fertiliser in a
uniform pattern to each tree.
Although the system can deliver water uniformly, the soil profile might not be wet uniformly.
Immediately under each dripper the soil is saturated, with little air available for plant roots. Correct
selection of discharge and spacing can minimise these saturation areas.
Between the saturated zone and the wetting front there is a zone of balanced water and air content
(Figure 10). This is suitable for plant uptake of water and nutrients and the volume of this area should
be maximised for optimum plant performance.
To use drip irrigation efficiently, a continuous wetted strip along the tree row must be created.

Figure 10. Typical drip soil-wetting pattern.

The wetted strip may not be visible on the soil surface between drippers, but it should be around
30 cm below the surface Here the trees can develop a dense root system along the row, using the
maximum wetted area that can be made available by the laterals. Saline fronts between emitters
along the row are eliminated and the root system will be larger, more efficient, and less
vulnerable to water and nutrient stress, generally resulting in healthier trees (see Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Cross-section along a row showing wetted strip.

Soil type dictates the wetted pattern underneath each dripper. In general, sandy soils have large pores
which allow water to move freely downward due to gravity. There are only a few smaller pores, and
this limits the sideways spread from capillary action. In sandy soils, the wetted patterns tend to be
long and narrow.
Heavier clay soils have numerous small soil pores and few larger ones, meaning the water tends to
spread sideways and cannot move down freely. In these soils, the patterns produced tend to be
shallower and wider for the same volume of water applied (see Figure 12).

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Figure 12. Dripper wetted patterns in different soil types.

However, this generalisation is not true when heavy soils have dried out to such a level that cracks
develop in the soil. Once cracks develop, wetted patterns in clays initially tend to be long and narrow,
similar to that produced in sands.
The length of irrigation and dripper discharge also determines the size and shape of wetted patterns.
A longer irrigation produces a wider wetted pattern for a given dripper discharge and soil type. High
discharge drippers produce a wider zone of saturation under the emitter, assisting lateral movement
and resulting in a wider wetted pattern for a given irrigation time and soil type.
Pulsing is a drip irrigation management practice which many growers use. Pulsing involves setting up
the irrigation controller to turn an irrigation shift on and off (say one hour on, one hour off)
throughout an irrigation period. The most commonly claimed benefit is that it encourages greater
lateral water movement. A non-drain drip line is ideal for this situation (See drip drainage section
below).
Drip application rate
Application rate is the term used to describe the rate at which water is applied to the soil. It is usually
measured in millimetres of water applied per hour (mm/h). It relates to a volume of water applied to a
given area, and in drippers it is determined by dividing the volume of water discharged from a single
dripper into the area that the dripper covers (the product of their spacing).

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Oxygation:
All irrigated crops can be exposed to saturated soil under certain conditions. This is especially the
case for crops which are drip irrigated as water is delivered to the soil from a point source creating
sustained wetting fronts, particularly in heavy soils of low permeability. This scenario has been
termed the ‘irrigation paradox’; where irrigation is applied to meet the plant’s water requirements but
at the same time purges air and therefore oxygen out of the rootzone, potentially affecting root
activity.
Alleviating this low oxygen environment can be attempted with the use of aerated water for
irrigation, increasing oxygen availability in the rootzone. Oxygation is the term used for aerated
irrigation water applied through drip irrigation and has been shown to benefit the growth of several
crops, particularly in heavier soils.
Oxygen can be added to the irrigation water through a range of methods, including installing simple
venturi systems, where the amount of air ingress will depend on the pressure differential across the
venturi, or more complex systems such as nano-bubble generators and oxygen injection. Low-rate
continuous injection of hydrogen peroxide has also been used to provide oxygen to rootzones.
The most likely scenario when this practice could be considered is with SDI. The benefit is less
effective with surface drip irrigation, and ineffective when drip line is suspended above the ground
Drip line location:
Vine crops have one drip line along the vine row, while mature orchards typically have 2 drip lines
along the tree row on both sides of the tree. If a third drip line is introduced between these laterals along
the butt line (or if the outside laterals are located too close to the butt), care must be taken to avoid
problems such as root rot in susceptible crop types.
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If developing a drip irrigation system for an orchard, the system should be designed as a 2-drip line
system (or 3 as described above), with a single line installed initially to support the young trees (Figure
13).
Trees should be planted directly next to an emitter at spacings consistent with the drip line emitter
spacing (such as tree spacings of 1.5 or 2.0 m for emitters spaced at 0.5 m).
This ensures that an emitter is located directly on top of the undeveloped root zone in the first year of
planting, supplying adequate water and nutrient to the young tree.
The second line does not initially need to be installed, but if necessary, can be used to grow a mid-row
crop to provide some protection from wind or sand damage. Sorghum (Figure 14) or Sudax are
commonly grown in these situations. Often a cheaper one or 2-season drip line is used, as it can be
difficult to remove the hose from a mature stand of sorghum without damaging the drip line.
In the second year the original drip line used to irrigate the trees is usually moved along the row,
moving emitters away from the tree butts to prevent root rot problems. This line only has to be moved
half the length of the emitter spacing, i.e. 0.25 m for emitters spaced every 0.5 m.

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Figure 13. A single drip line can provide adequate water for young citrus trees.
In the third year the second drip line is installed closer to the trees with each drip line now positioned
approximately 0.25 m on either side of the tree. In the following years both drip lines are moved away
progressively from the tree line to avoid the trees experiencing dramatic changes to the wetting
pattern, while at the same time helping to develop a strong root system to support and anchor the
mature tree. The drip lines should finally be positioned 0.5–0.75 m on either side of the tree butts,
depending on soil type.

Figure 14. A sorghum crop providing protection to young citrus trees.

For many mature crops it is critical that the drip line does not move significantly throughout the
season. Water and fertiliser distribution within the soil, as well as salt movement, should be
maintained, allowing a healthy root zone to develop below the drip line. To ensure this occurs, drip
lines might need to be staked along the row (Figure 15).

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Figure 15. Staking a drip line

When trees are grown on mounds, a closer drip line spacing is often needed to keep the drip line on
top of the mounds. This is generally fine because mounds have well-drained soil that is less prone to
waterlogging. Staking the drip lines on each side of the mound near the tree prevents the line from
sliding off the mound and keeps it at a safe distance from the tree base to prevent root rot.
Drip irrigation in interplant situations, where there are both young and mature trees, presents
challenges. Young trees have small root zones, requiring the drip line to be close to the tree base.
Mature trees, on the other hand, need the line to be positioned 0.5-0.75 metres away from the base to
avoid root rot issues. One solution is to loop the drip line along the tree line in the early seasons until
the young trees have matured. (Figure 16)

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Figure 16. Looping a drip line close to young trees but further away from the mature trees
Drip drainage:
Drip system drainage or drain-out occurs following each irrigation event when the remaining water in
submains and laterals continues to run inside the pipework to the lowest point(s) in the orchard and is
emitted. Studies have found that emitters in these low areas can emit water continuously between 60-
minute irrigation pulses and continue for as long as 24 hours following complete irrigation shutdown.
Drain-out is a concern, especially in large systems with long pipes, frequent irrigation, or pulse
irrigation. The more frequent the irrigation event, the more frequently drain-out occurs following
each system shutdown/turnoff. There is an increasing level of interest in minimising or eliminating
drip drainage. New drip irrigation designs should consider drip drainage at the design stage,
particularly if pulse irrigation is being considered. Retrofit options also exist. Options to reduce drip
drainage include:
 Use of non-drain (ND) drip line
 Installation of non-return valves in submains running uphill
 Installation of sustaining valves in submains running downhill
 Non-leakage valve installation in drip lines
 Relocation of valves.

3.3.1.5.1 Sub-surface drip irrigation for permanent horticulture:

Intermittent interest in sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) in permanent plantings exists in Australia.
There are advantages and disadvantages of SDI in permanent horticulture.
Advantages of SDI are:
 Water is delivered directly to the root zone
 Less surface water for weed growth
 Reduced evaporation from the soil surface.

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Actual water savings are not well established There is some thought that if the drip line is below the
surface, the soil surface below the canopy will be more barren, exposed to greater temperatures, and
that water demand from trees will increase, offsetting the reduction in water use from surface
evaporation.
Interest in SDI is often driven by non-water related issues such as removing the drip line from
interfering with harvesting nuts from the orchard floor, or mechanical weed control necessary for
organic growers.
Placing the drip line below the surface unfortunately creates a new set of challenges. The main
disadvantage is that blockages are difficult to detect and locate. Direct observation of the dripper
discharge rate is not possible, and it is difficult to evaluate the system and measure the system
uniformity. Accurate water meters are therefore essential with SDI to measure application rates and
flag blockages or leaks. Blockages may be very difficult to locate until it is too late, and trees begin to
show signs of stress. The use of spatial imagery to identify any drip line blockages or leaks is highly
applicable for SDI (See Alternative monitoring methods).
Maintenance programs (flushing and disinfestation) need to be carried out more frequently than for
surface drip irrigation. Repairs and maintenance costs should also be factored in if considering SDI.
Soil may have to be excavated 30cm deep and 2m long before a suspected leak or blockage is found.
Frustration can result once a leak is fixed and the system repressurised, only to find another leak
exists a little further along.

Blockages can be due to the standard reasons which exist for surface drip irrigation, with SDI
additionally prone to blockages due to root intrusion, root pinching, and soil suck-back. In addition,
the temperature of irrigation water may drop a few degrees when moving from above to below
ground. If dissolved elements such as calcium exist in the water this can precipitate, creating mass
blockages in the drip line (See water quality section above).
3.3.1.5.2 Root intrusion
DI systems potentially have the serious problem of root intrusion, particularly when the surrounding
soil is dry and crops are looking to scavenge any available water. If herbicide injection to control root
intrusion is required, a permit or label extension may be necessary depending on specific regulations.
Modern drip lines are available with chemical (copper) impregnated into the dripper to inhibit root
intrusion. It is generally accepted that this may postpone or delay root intrusion, but not completely
eliminate it. Root intrusion can also be controlled with acid injection, depending on how severe the
intrusion has become.

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Even if root penetration is avoided, there is no known method of avoiding drip line pinching, which
can occur in vigorous root systems.
Vacuum in laterals
When irrigation ceases in SDI, and the system is shut down, drainage continues in the laterals and
sub-main. This can cause a vacuum effect in the laterals, resulting in soil particles being sucked into
the dripper orifices, causing blockages. To avoid this, air inlet vacuum relief valves must be installed
at the end of each sub-main and flushing manifold, as well as at the high points of the laterals. Non-
suck-back drip line products are recommended in SDI situations (see Types of drippers section
above).
Insects and rodents
Other problems have been encountered with various insects biting small holes in the laterals, causing
seepage, and mice chewing holes in search of water. Standard measures should be used to control
these pests. Damage often becomes a particular problem if the system has laid dormant for any length
of time (over 6,500 holes reported due to marsupial mice in an installation that lay unused for 2 years
due to drought). New drip products claim to deter insect damage by having insecticide embedded
directly into the drip line.

3.3.1.5.3 Installation
Installing the drip line will require a tine that can carry the drip line into the soil. Depending on the
soil type and tractor power, the depth of the lateral can vary. Installation depth should realistically be
no more than 30 cm, although limited recommendations are available for permanent horticulture.
Some users prefer the drip line as close to the surface as possible. These irrigators are primarily
installing the drip line below the surface to avoid damage from machinery such as slashers, and water
reaching the surface is not of concern. Installation depth will be a compromise between supplying
sufficient moisture to feeder roots near the surface and avoiding excessive water coming to the
surface (channelling).

In young orchards, drip line is generally left on the surface for a few years, close to the butt, to enable
water to reach the immature rootzone. The drip line can be installed in the correct sub-surface
location required for mature plantings once the trees are established (3–4 years old).

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Installation in large mature plantings is difficult as the larger tree canopy (unless heavily pruned) does
not allow the installation equipment to install drip lines at ideal distances from the butt of the tree (see
Drip line location section above). Damage to rootzones can also be a concern. Therefore, SDI
installation in mature trees must be carefully considered.

Several brands of drip line have been used in trials and most reputable brands have proven to be
reasonably successful for SDI. AS emitters are necessary, while ND emitters should be avoided.
Installing emitters facing up improves lateral water spread.

While SDI is potentially the most efficient system available, growers need to weigh up the
disadvantages of such a system before adoption. With continual improvements in management and
technology, SDI could become a more favourable option in the future.

3.3.1.5.4 Frost control and drip irrigation

Lack of frost control is often viewed as a major disadvantage of drip irrigation. Growers in frost-
prone areas have historically preferred using low-level or overhead sprinkler irrigation. If converting
to drip irrigation from overhead sprinklers in this situation, seriously consider retaining the overhead
system, at least in likely frost pockets.

Low-output frost protection heads can be an option in some instances where drip irrigation already
exists. These sprinklers generally operate between 150 to 200 kPa: a pressure that is compatible with
most drip systems. The sprinklers are usually mounted on risers above the canopy (Figure 17). Some
models (such as flippers) apply water along the tree row only. In these situations, mid-row areas
remain relatively dry, meaning these sprinklers can be used to control many more frosts than
conventional overhead sprinklers, which can result in waterlogging. These sprinklers also enable a
larger area to be frost-protected for a given flow or sub-main size compared with conventional
sprinkler systems.

Given the value of water and other issues, frost fans are increasingly being adopted to overcome frost
issues in perennial horticulture.

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Figure 17. Low output overhead sprinklers may be an option for frost pockets or sensitive
varieties that are currently drip irrigated.
Heat control and drip irrigation
Growers of heat-sensitive crops have also historically been hesitant to adopt drip irrigation, preferring
full-cover sprinkler systems (above or below canopy). Purpose built cooling systems, mostly above
the canopy (Figure 18), are increasingly being adopted along with drip irrigation in heat sensitive
crops. A dual system therefore exists. The cooling system is designed to operate at a similar pressure
and flow rate to drip irrigation and is compatible with a drip irrigation design. Cooling systems are
operated to reduce temperatures and or increase humidity when conditions require, potentially
avoiding damage to crops. These systems have also been used successfully for frost control.

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Figure 18. An overhead cooling system on a drip irrigated avocado crop.

3.3.1.6 Converting existing plants to drip irrigation
Irrigators are often cautious when converting mature trees or vines from a full cover irrigation method
to drip irrigation. Some crop types (and rootstocks) are more sensitive to this conversion than others.
Where an established orchard or vineyard is converted to drip, poor crop health and reduced
productivity can occur in the first year after conversion if appropriate management practices are not
adopted.
Poor tree health, most commonly observed in older trees or trees growing on shallow soil, is often due
to a poor understanding of the different management practices the new drip system requires. The most
common issue is that irrigators new to drip irrigation often do not initially recognise that more frequent
irrigations are required.

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The key aim when converting existing trees from full cover to drip irrigation is to quickly encourage
enough root growth in the soil volume wetted by the drippers to support the plant during periods of peak
water demand.

In some regions salt could have also built up under the tree, where the drippers and soon to be active
rootzone are now located. This is particularly the case with furrow and overhead systems, and in un-
skirted below canopy sprinkler situations. This salinity needs to be leached quickly. As drip applies
water to a relatively small area compared with full-cover systems, the leaching power of drip systems is
considerable.

To leach salts away from the tree row, the first few irrigations with drip should be reasonably heavy,
considering crop water requirements, water tables and problem areas. Subsequent irrigations need to be
scheduled to ensure under-watering does not occur. If the previously existing full-cover system is
retained, be aware that frequently using this system could re-mobilise soil salinity back into the dripper-
wetted profile.

An ample water supply is usually recommended in the first year after conversion. Growers should not
be too concerned about slightly over-watering in the first year. A healthy orchard that successfully
overcomes the conversion to drip irrigation can be efficiently drip-irrigated for many years. Applying
ample water in this first season also encourages a greater lateral spread of water, which helps minimise
the significant change in the new wetting pattern produced when drip irrigation is installed.

To encourage root growth within the wetted strip, it is important to apply soluble fertiliser through the
irrigation system (that is, fertigate) early in the season. Use fertiliser high in phosphorus and nitrogen, as
this will encourage the development of roots within the wetted strip. Ample phosphorus might exist in
the mid-row area, but under drip irrigation, much of this becomes unavailable to the tree. Side banding
fertiliser along the proposed drip line location in the season before conversion might also be an option.

When applying fertiliser, time the application over the whole irrigation period, allowing time to flush it
from the irrigation system. It is generally recommended to apply nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisers
weekly throughout the first season of conversion.

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A nematode test and a compaction assessment are also recommended for sensitive crop types. If
existing root systems are unhealthy due to nematodes, root rot or compaction, conversion to drip
irrigation alone will not correct these problems.

The best time to convert to drip irrigation is normally straight after harvest, as this gives the plant
extra time to adapt to the new system without a crop to support. Successful conversions have
occurred during less-than-ideal periods, with trees carrying heavy crop loads, but in these situations,
the risk of problems occurring is much higher, particularly due to early heatwaves.

During the first season, no stress should be observed as long as:

- Ample irrigation is supplied to maximise lateral spread and leach accumulated salts
- A good fertigation program is adopted.
When converting to drip from an existing pressurised system, the tendency is to use existing
pipework where possible. Discuss this with the irrigation designer. Often the effort needed to
continue to use this pipework is not worth the small saving in capital cost. Existing asbestos cement
submains are unsuitable for drip conversions because they tend to flake, and block emitters when
disturbed during installation and once fertigation or injection processes begin. Retaining asbestos
cement mainlines can be more acceptable if back-up filters are installed at all valves and, if acid
injection is practiced, the pH of the water is kept above 4.5.

Silt and clay build-up in the existing pipework can also render a new drip system ineffective by
creating emitter blockages. If this is likely, it is again important to install back-up filters at each
irrigation valve (see Filtration for drip irrigation) and to fully flush the system following installation.

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CHAPTER NO. 4
4.1 CASE STUDY FOR Drip Irrigation System

Drip Irrigation Case Study – Nelson Valley

Nelson Valle is a small farmer from the community of Jucuapa, Matagalpa, Matagalpa, Nicaragua. He
lives with his wife, Johana, his 5 year old daughter, Ixil and his mother, Marina. Matagalpa is located in
the northern mountainous region of Nicaragua and is known for its cooler climate, rivers and coffee
production. Nelson grows squash, passion fruit, and tomatoes on 2 acres of land to sell at the local
market but has had trouble earning a profit due to the high cost to irrigate his crops. When we met
Nelson he was using a pump to water his crops that was powered by grid electricity at times and by a
diesel generator at times. The diesel generator was used because the electric grid goes down often,
preventing him from irrigating when needed, and the grid quality is not high enough to accommodate
the voltage from the pump. When the water pump is turned on, the lights and appliances in the house do
not work properly. In addition to problems with grid quality, some farmers in Nicaragua are charged
commercial electric rates or a fixed electric rate, making the use of electricity too expensive to irrigate
his small farm. Nelson was using his pump to water his crops three days a week, even though the crops
needed watering daily. He was paying $130 a month for electricity and diesel fuel to irrigate his farm
when we met him. Nelson is a member of a national agricultural organization called UNAG, Unión
Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos. UNAG is one of the largest agricultural groups in Nicaragua for
small and medium sized farmers, with more than 72,000 members, offering them support, training, and
opportunities to improve their businesses. GRID Alternatives approached UNAG to find small organic
famers that would benefit from a solar-powered drip irrigation system. The UNAG Matagalpa chapter
introduced us to Nelson because he met our requirements of having successful experience growing
crops on 2.5
acres of land or less, having a clear need for a solar-powered plants drip by drip through gravity. Water
pipes were buried in a ditch that ran from the river to Nelson’s storage tank to prevent cows from
stepping on them and breaking the PVC pipes. The PV system is a DC-direct stand-alone system with
no batteries. The PV modules power the pump during the day to move water from the river to the
storage tank, and the water moves to the crops as needed by gravity. A DC-direct system means no
battery purchase, replacement or maintenance is necessary. Ten months after the project was installed,
GRID staff visited Nelson’s farm to see how the system was working and to better understand the
impacts the system had made so far.
Nelson mentioned the following impacts on him and his family:
 Before he has the drip irrigation system, Nelson grew only squash, passion fruit and tomatoes because
there was not enough water to irrigate other crops. Now he is able to grow squash, passion fruit,
tomatoes, onions, pipian, pasturage, and raise Tilapia. He has improved the diversity of his crops and
the quantity of each one.
 Before he had the drip irrigation system, his monthly earnings were $25 (income $103 - $77 costs).
Now his monthly earnings are $546 (income $581 - $35 costs). He increased his monthly earnings by
more than 20 times (or over 2,000%).
 Before Nelson and his family had to walk to the community well to get drinking water. Now that the
pump has been installed they can get drinking water from the storage tank that runs directly to their
house saving them time each day.

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 Now that Nelson doesn’t use electricity to run his pump, their monthly bill comes out to about $2.90
instead of $33. He also doesn’t have to buy any diesel fuel and he is able to sell his diesel generator and
old water pump to recoup some of his investment.
 Previously he had eight cows that had to eat in another field because he did not have enough to feed
them. Now he has 12 cows that eat in his field. With the existence of irrigation system now he can keep
their animals on his farm.
 The solar pump allows him to divert water from the river to create a pond on his property where he is
now growing Tilapia, a fast growing fish that can be sold at the market. Tilapia fish eat mosquito larva,
reducing mosquito born virus exposure near his home.
 Nelson is able to sell his crops to community members directly who take the produce to resell in
markets in the capital city of Managua, providing his neighbors with a source of income.
In summary, impacts from the solar-powered drip irrigation system include higher earnings, more
diverse crops, less time collecting drinking water, more reliable electricity for home appliances, no
more trips to buy diesel fuel, more income for neighbors, more locally grown food available all
year round. Due to the increased income from more and different crops, Nelson will be able to pay
back the $2,000 loan in one year. Now that he is earning more income, he is thinking of opening a
bank account for the first time to have emergency funds in case the new pump needs to be fixed. He
will also use the funds to provide for his family, paying for food and clothing. One day Nelson
hopes to buy a motorcycle so he has more transportation independence and possibly more land to
grow more crops. Normally, Nelson would only need to use the drip irrigation system during the
dry season since there should be plenty of rain in the rainy season and the holes in the drip
irrigation tubes can get clogged with mud when it rains hard. But in the last two years Nicaragua
has experienced extreme droughts which requires farmers to water their crops all year round or lose
their crop entirely. Since it’s been dry Nelson has used his drip irrigation all but one month since it
was installed last December. When it does rain heavily, Nelson rolls up the irrigation tubes and
removes the pump from the river and locks it up so it won’t get stolen and so the river doesn’t cover
the surface pump. Although the project was installed successfully and the system is working well,
GRID will continue to visit Nelson twice a year to maintain a relationship with him and ensure he is
part of our solar network in Nicaragua. Our staff will work with him to ensure his system is
working well and to continue to gather feedback about the project for the years to come. Nelson
will continue to be invited to our annual solar conference in Nicaragua where he will meet up with
representatives from other communities where GRID has installed solar projects, to learn more
about solar energy and to share experiences with others. Nelson has become a role model for the
surrounding farmers who were skeptical at first about the reliability of solar energy and the
system’s return on investment. Many of the neighboring farmers now express strong interest in
having a solar-powered irrigation system themselves. Nelson expressed that even he had doubts at
first: “When GRID told us about the drip-irrigation project, I wasn’t sure it would really work. Plus
I knew these types of systems are expensive so I didn’t think I would have the capacity to pay for
one. But now we’re happy to see how much progress we’ve made. I now have more varieties of
food to feed my family and sell. Not only am I producing more, but there are also fewer costs both
economically and environmentally.

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SYSTEM SPECS:
Modules: Two 185W UD-185MF5 Mitsubishi Electric PV Modules
Motor controller: One NOV MONO Solar Motor Controller
Pump: One Surface Pump, SunRay SRX Drive Pack CP800
Combiner Box: 1 Midnite Solar Combiner Box MNPV3
Surge Protector: One Midnite MNSPD115
DC breaker: One Midnite 20 amp
Land Size: 2 acres
Water flow: 44 liters per minute (on a sunny day)
Total project cost: $10,000 USD

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CHAPTER NO. 5
CONCLUSION:

Drip irrigation is a latest sub-surface method of irrigating water with higher water
demands in arid region. It may not be applicable to all farms. Yet, when properly designed,
installed and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by reducing
evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other types of irrigation such as flood or
overhead sprinklers since water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition,
drip can eliminate many diseases that are spread through water contact with the foliage. It
also results reduced energy costs. Drip irrigation was developed initially for home,
lawn ,farm’ scare and garden water use. However, while spray irrigation technology was
developed for personal use, it is such a useful technology that it has quickly become one of
the most common types of irrigation systems in agriculture by using of drip irrigation method
water can be saved the government of India launched the pradhan mantri krishi sinchai
yojana (pmksy) or prime minister’s agriculture irrigation programme, with the slogan ‘per
drop more crop’ in july 2015. it is a policy initiative to shift towards micro irrigation so as to
‘save’ water in agriculture and boost crop yield.

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REFERENCES:

Drip irrigation is a highly efficient irrigation system that delivers water directly to the plant roots,
minimizing water waste and increasing crop yield. Here are some references and resources for a deeper
understanding of drip irrigation systems:

Books

1. "Drip Irrigation for Agriculture: Untapped Reserves of Water" by Jacob K. Kimenye

o This book offers detailed insights into drip irrigation and its benefits for sustainable
agriculture.

2. "Drip Irrigation: Theory and Practice" by Shyam R. Sharma

o A comprehensive guide to the theory, design, and practical applications of drip irrigation
systems.

3. "Irrigation Engineering" by A.M. Michael

o Covers various irrigation techniques, including drip systems, with practical design tips
and examples.

Journals & Articles

1. "The Role of Drip Irrigation in Sustainable Agriculture" - Agricultural Water Management

Journal
o Explores the role of drip irrigation in improving water use efficiency and its
environmental benefits.

2. "Design and Performance Evaluation of Drip Irrigation Systems" - Irrigation Science

Journal
o Offers technical insights into the design, operation, and evaluation of drip irrigation
systems.

3. "Drip Irrigation Technology and Innovation for Improving Agriculture" - Water

Resources Management Journal
o Discusses recent innovations in drip irrigation technology and how it is transforming
agricultural practices globally.

Websites and Resources

1. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)

o www.icid.org
o A global resource for irrigation systems, including drip irrigation.

2. DripWorks
o www.dripworks.com
o A supplier and educational resource for drip irrigation systems. They offer guides on
design, installation, and maintenance.

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3. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

o www.fao.org
o FAO provides multiple reports, guides, and technical papers on irrigation practices,
including drip systems.

4. National Drip Irrigation Association (NDIA)

o www.ndia.org
o A resource for industry standards, best practices, and technical specifications for drip
irrigation.

Research Papers & Reports

1. "Field Evaluation of Drip Irrigation Systems" by C.A. Clark, et al.

o An extensive field-based study on the performance of drip systems in different
agricultural settings.

2. "Drip Irrigation System Design and Field Performance" - Journal of Agricultural

Engineering
o A research paper that explores the practical performance and challenges in the design of
drip irrigation systems.

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