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Beatrice Da Lio - Paper

This document discusses the development of a pure and indistinguishable single-photon source at telecommunication wavelengths, which is essential for fiber-based quantum networks. The authors present a quantum frequency conversion scheme that successfully converts single photons from InAs quantum dots to the telecommunication C band (around 1550 nm) with high efficiency (40.8%) and indistinguishability (94.8%). This advancement enables the implementation of single-photon-based quantum key distribution protocols over long distances, enhancing the potential for scalable quantum communication technologies.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 views7 pages

Beatrice Da Lio - Paper

This document discusses the development of a pure and indistinguishable single-photon source at telecommunication wavelengths, which is essential for fiber-based quantum networks. The authors present a quantum frequency conversion scheme that successfully converts single photons from InAs quantum dots to the telecommunication C band (around 1550 nm) with high efficiency (40.8%) and indistinguishability (94.8%). This advancement enables the implementation of single-photon-based quantum key distribution protocols over long distances, enhancing the potential for scalable quantum communication technologies.

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A pure and indistinguishable single-photon source at telecommunication wavelength

Beatrice Da Lio, Carlos Faurby, Xiaoyan Zhou,∗ Ming Lai Chan, Ravitej Uppu,† and Henri Thyrrestrup
Center for Hybrid Quantum Networks (Hy-Q), Niels Bohr Institute,
University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.

Sven Scholz, Andreas D. Wieck, and Arne Ludwig


Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festköorperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum,
Universitätsstrasse 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany

Peter Lodahl and Leonardo Midolo‡


Center for Hybrid Quantum Networks (Hy-Q), Niels Bohr Institute,
University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
(Dated: January 10, 2022)
arXiv:2201.02465v1 [quant-ph] 7 Jan 2022

On-demand single-photon sources emitting pure and indistinguishable photons at the telecommu-
nication wavelength are a critical asset towards the deployment of fiber-based quantum networks.
Indeed, single photons may serve as flying qubits, allowing communication of quantum information
over long distances. Self-assembled InAs quantum dots embedded in GaAs constitute an excellent
nearly deterministic source of high quality single photons, but the vast majority of sources operate
in the 900-950 nm wavelength range, precluding their adoption in a quantum network. Here, we
present a quantum frequency conversion scheme for converting single photons from quantum dots to
the telecommunication C band, around 1550 nm, achieving 40.8% end-to-end efficiency, while main-
taining both high purity and a high degree of indistinguishability during conversion with measured
values of g (2) (0) = 2.4% and V (corr) = 94.8%, respectively.

Single photons at telecommunication wavelengths con- longer wavelengths, i.e. to the telecommunications O-
stitute a key resource for quantum communication, en- band (1300 nm) and C-band (1550 nm), by providing a
abling transmission of quantum information over long deeper electron-hole confinement. However, InAs QDs
distances across optical fiber networks without loss of co- in pseudomorphically strained InGaAs quantum wells [8]
herence. A complete quantum network would require the or grown by metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy [9], typi-
ability to exchange information between matter qubits cally suffer from high dislocation densities or large back-
and photons with high fidelity. This demands a determin- ground impurity concentration, resulting in higher charge
istic emitter-photon interface capable of realizing photon noise, blinking, or low internal quantum efficiency from
generation and entanglement in a scalable manner [1]. In non-radiative decay channels. In fact, to date, several
combination with mature foundry-based silicon photonic demonstrations of single-photon emission at telecommu-
integrated circuit technology, the realization of a scalable nication wavelengths exist [10–21], but there are only few
quantum photonic technology is within reach. A solid- reports on the photon indistinguishability [22–24] where
state quantum emitter deterministically coupled to a cav- temporal post-selection was implemented at the cost of
ity or waveguide is an attractive source of on-demand reduced source efficiency. These works are important
single photons. In particular, self-assembled InAs quan- stepping stones towards the realization of a quantum net-
tum dots (QDs) in GaAs offer a mature technology for work and indeed prepare-and-measure quantum key dis-
photon generation and a platform for interfacing electron tribution protocols have already been implemented with
spin and photons in which the decoherence and noise pro- such sources, as they do not require indistinguishable
cesses have been identified and reduced [2–6]. Despite the photons [25–29]. However, the full potential of the tech-
excellent performance, a major drawback of InAs-based nology, e.g., in device-independent quantum key distri-
QD emitters is that the emission wavelength is typically bution or one-way quantum repeaters, is only realized
in the range of 900-950 nm. However, standard single with high-efficiency on-demand sources of indistinguish-
mode fibers experience the lowest attenuation coefficient able photons in the telecom range.
of 0.16 - 0.2 dB/km at around 1550 nm, while the at- An alternative route to reach this goal exploits quan-
tenuation in the 900-950 nm range is severely limited by tum frequency conversion (QFC) of the emitted single
Rayleigh scattering to about 1 - 1.5 dB/km [7]. Hence, photons to the C-band, thereby bridging the gap between
the QDs typical emission wavelength reduce their appli- the mature InAs emitter technology and quantum com-
cations to communication over only short distances and munications applications. Previous works have shown
impedes interfacing to advanced quantum photonic inte- efficient QFC to either the O-band [30] or the C-band
grated circuits on the silicon-on-insulator platform. [31, 32] while maintaining the purity of the single-photon
Controlling the epitaxial growth of self-assembled QDs source. Recently, Morrison et al. [33] also analysed the
does enable shifting the wavelength of the emitters to indistinguishability after QFC and reported two-photon
2

FIG. 1. Schematic of the experimental setup used for frequency conversion and measurements. a) Frequency
conversion setup. Single photons at 940 nm are emitted by a quantum dot in the photonic crystal waveguide on-chip in a
cryostat at 1.6 K or 4 K (see main text) and routed to the frequency conversion setup via a single mode fiber. Single photons
(blue path) are mixed with a dichroic mirror with light from a tunable continuous wave laser at around 2400 nm (red path), and
both are coupled to the ppLN waveguide via an aspheric lens (AL), after accurate mode matching of both polarization (using
HWP and QWP) and mode profile (using a beam expander and an extra lens). At the output, the converted single photons (at
1550 nm, green path) are collimated by another AL, and all unwanted residual wavelengths are filtered away with a longpass
filter at 1400 nm and a diffraction grating, before the coupling to a single mode fiber. b) Photon counting and lifetime
measurement setup. Single photons (either before or after conversion) are sent to a single-photon detector and counts are
collected by a time tagger unit. For the lifetime measurement, a clock from the excitation laser is used for synchronization.
c) Purity measurement setup. Single photons are directed to a Hanbury Brown-Twiss (HBT) setup composed of a beam
splitter with a single-photon detector at each output, and a time tagger unit records count coincidences between them. d)
Indistinguishability measurement setup. Single photons are directed to a Hong-Ou Mandel (HOM) setup composed of
a Mach-Zehnder interferometer with delay matching the repetition rate of the excitation laser and a HWP to cross-polarize
photons. Two single-photon detectors at the output and a time tagger unit measure coincidences.

interference of up to (67 ± 2)%. nm (λ3 ), a pump laser source at around 2100-2500 nm


In this work, we report stable and efficient QFC of sin- (λ2 ) is required. In this work, we used a 48 mm long
gle photons from QDs to the telecommunication C-band, ppLN waveguide with 26 µm poling period. A schematic
with a total (40.8 ± 0.8)% system efficiency and simulta- representation of the setup used for DFG is shown in
neously low multi-photon probability of (2.4 ± 0.2)% and Fig. 1a). The setup consists of one input fiber for pho-
high degree of indistinguishability (94.8 ± 1.6)% of the tons at 940 nm (subsequently collimated to a free-space
converted photons, without implementing any post se- beam), free-space optics to optimally couple to the de-
lection. The conversion method uses difference-frequency sired ppLN waveguide, and an output fiber where con-
generation in periodically-poled Lithium Niobate (ppLN) verted telecommunication photons are coupled into. We
waveguides, approaching near-unity internal conversion define the system, or end-to-end, efficiency as measured
efficiency, which is only limited by fabrication imperfec- from fiber to fiber. At the input of the ppLN waveguide,
tions (e.g. non uniform waveguide cross-section), mode single photons from the QD are mixed with light from a
matching between the three waves and scattering. Our high-power continuous-wave pump laser. At the output,
QFC scheme enables implementing single-photon based the converted 1550 nm wavelength photons are spectrally
protocols for quantum key distribution over long dis- filtered and directed to the output fiber. Spectral filter-
tances and combining high-quality on-demand single- ing is crucial to achieve a low-noise process, as required to
photon sources with photonic integrated circuits based reach high purity and indistinguishability. Here, we use
on silicon photonics. a longpass filter to remove residual input photons and
The frequency conversion process implemented in this second harmonic generation from the pump and a blazed
work is based on difference frequency generation (DFG). grating acts as a narrow bandpass filter to extinguish the
DFG is a second-order non-linear process in which pho- pump from the converted output. Further details on the
tons from two input wavelengths, λ1 and λ2 are com- experimental setup are reported in the supplementary
bined to produce output photons at a third wavelength materials.
λ3 = 1/(1/λ1 − 1/λ2 ), i.e. at the difference of the input The system efficiency is characterized with a classical
frequencies. Since the InAs/GaAs QDs emit photons in light beam at the input. We use a continuously tun-
the range of 900 to 950 nm (λ1 ), and the goal is to con- able laser emitting continuous-wave light in the required
vert them to the telecommunication C-band around 1550 wavelength range. Varying the pump power coupled to
3

losses occurring at the input and output of the waveguide


(e.g. arising from surface roughness), we are estimating a
lower bound for the actual internal conversion efficiency
L
ηint . In the second method, we compare the 940 nm laser
transmission with pump laser on and off to estimate the
depletion due to DFG. As we negelct the optical loss at
1550 nm, we are estimating the efficiency with an up-
U L
per bound ηint . We measured ηint = (86 ± 0.3)% and
U
ηint = (95 ± 1)%.
The QFC experiment is performed with a QD source
in a 1.6 K closed-cycle cryostat (see reference [2] for a
description of the source) emitting at 942 nm. The end-
to-end efficiency of the QFC is obtained by comparing
the single-photon rate at 1550 nm at the output of the
setup with the single-photon rate at 930 nm at the input
FIG. 2. Pump power dependence of the frequency con- of the setup. Under π-pulse resonant excitation (with 73
version setup. External efficiency measured when convert- MHz repetition rate and 20 ps pulse duration) we mea-
ing light from a tunable continuous wave laser for a classical sure an in-fiber rate of Nin =(2.21 ± 0.02) Mcount/s at
characterization of the frequency conversion setup. Data are the fiber input of the frequency conversion setup. The
shown with purple points, the fit with a purple dashed line achieved in-fiber count rate at the output of our setup
and the upper and lower bounds for the ideal case with orange
lines.
is Nout =(905 ± 15) kcount/s. Both Nin and Nout are
obtained measuring the photon rate with SNSPDs and
correcting for the setup-to-detector fiber transmissions
the waveguide, we measured the external conversion effi- and detector efficiencies (see supplementary materials).
ciency as: ηext = (Pout λ3 )/(Pin λ1 ), where Pin and Pout This leads to an overall external conversion efficiency
are the input and output power measured in fiber at of ηext =Nout /Nin =(40.8 ± 0.8)%. The achieved ηext is
λ1 = 940 and λ3 = 1550 nm respectively. The results are fully consistent with the value obtained for classical input
shown in Fig. 2. The highest observed end-to-end con- light, as discussed previously, meaning that the band-
version efficiency is (41.7 ± 0.3)%, for 327 mW of pump width of the QD (measured to be around 500 MHz) is
power in the waveguide, which is close to the maximum sufficiently narrow to be covered by the frequency conver-
efficiency expected from theoretical analysis (see supple- sion process bandwidth, whose full width half maximum
mentary materials). Fig. 2 also shows the lower and up- is measured to be 115 GHz.
per bounds for the ideal case scenario, which are esti- In a second experiment with a QD source (operated
mated assuming 100% internal conversion efficiency and in a 4 K closed-cycle cryostat) emitting at 945 nm, the
including the measured optical loss of the setup (with the quantum characteristics of the source was investigated
uncertainty coming from the in- and out-coupling scatter- both before and after the the QFC process. The output
ing losses and from the propagation loss of the 1550 nm wavelength was moved to 1543 nm in order to completely
photons in the waveguide). The measured values and the eliminate the noise coming from the pump laser, either
fit show that the maximum conversion efficiency is lower direct or Raman. Fig. 3a) on the left shows the measured
than in the ideal scenario and it is reached at higher lifetime of the source (measured with the setup shown
pump power. The lower efficiency is explained by a non- in Fig. 1b)), the detector/instrument response function
unity internal conversion efficiency, which is mainly due (IRF) and the fit with an exponential decay convolved
to an imperfect coupling of the single photons to the fun- with the IRF. From the fitted curve we can extract a
damental mode of the waveguide, which supports several time constant of τ930 =(0.271 ± 0.016) ns. On the right,
modes at 940 nm. We suspect that the requirement for we report the same measurement carried out on the con-
higher pump power to reach saturation can be explained verted photons. We find τ1550 =(0.269 ± 0.004) ns, con-
by assuming a varying waveguide cross-section across its firming no change in the lifetime of the frequency con-
length due to fabrication imperfections. verted single-photons. To assess the purity of the source,
We estimate the internal conversion efficiency using we measured the second order correlation g (2) (0) of the
two methods, with each method providing either the up- photons at 930 nm and at 1550 nm using a Hanbury
per or the lower bounds. In the first method, we measure Brown-Twiss (HBT) setup as shown in Fig. 1c). The
the input and output converted power right before and af- resulting coincidence counts are reported in Fig. 3b) in
ter the aspheric lenses used for in- and out-coupling and the left (right) plot before- (after-)QFC with an integra-
then factor out the aspheric lenses insertion loss (6.5% tion time of 10 (30) minutes. By fitting the data, we can
at both 940 and 1550 nm) and the simulated coupling compare the area of the central peak with the area of a
efficiency (96%). As we neglect the potential scattering far away peak (at around 40 µs delay, see supplementary
4

FIG. 3. Measured lifetime and purity before (left) and FIG. 4. Measured indistinguishability before (left) and
after conversion (right). a) Lifetime measurements. after conversion (right). a) Coincidence counts. Data,
The lifetime is measured and plot in orange. The instrument measured in a HOM setup, is shown in orange (yellow) for
response function (shown in yellow) is convolved with an ex- the co-polarized (cross-polarized) configuration, and peak val-
ponential decay to precisely fit the single photon lifetime (fit ues are highlighted with blue (purple) points. b) Zoom in
shown in dashed black). b) Purity measurements. Coin- view on the central peaks. Normalized data is shown
cidence counts are measured in a HBT setup: data is shown with yellow points in the cross-polarized scheme (fit shown in
with yellow points while the fit is shown is orange. orange), and with purple points in the co-polarized scheme
(fit shown in blue). Each trace is firstly normalized to a far
away side peak area, and then both are normalized on the
cross-polarization central peak for clarity.
materials for the long time scale behaviour). This gives
(2) (2)
us g930 (0) = (2.0 ± 0.3)% and g1550 (0) = (2.4 ± 0.2)% in
the two wavelength regimes. The two values and error fect splitting ratios of the beam splitters and non-unity
ranges show that the QFC process does not increase the interference visibility (see supplementary materials), we
multi-photon probability, i.e. the C-band single-photon (corr)
extract the corrected visibility [34] V930 = (93.5±1.1)%
source is only limited by the few percent impurity of the (corr)
and V1550 = (94.8 ± 1.6)% before and after conversion,
original QD source.
respectively. Both the raw and corrected visibility data
Finally, we characterize the indistinguishability of the reveal a high degree of indistinguishability of the QD
source, before and after conversion by measuring coinci- source, which is preserved after QFC. We observe a qual-
dence counts in a Hong-Ou Mandel (HOM) setup, shown itatively different shape of the suppressed HOM peak for
in Fig. 1d). Two photons generated by consecutive ex- the two sets of data, which can be attributed to the fact
citation pulses are interfered in an asymmetric Mach- that detector response time at 1550 nm is significantly
Zendher interferometer and a half waveplate is used to faster than at 930 nm, which is evident in the IRF of
cross-polarize the photons to make them distinguishable. the 930 nm and 1550 nm detectors in Fig. 3a) (further
The results are shown in Fig. 4a). On the left, we report analysis in the supplementary materials).
measurements from the QD source at 930 nm (with 10 In conclusion, we have demonstrated frequency conver-
minutes integration time per trace), and on the right sim- sion of indistinguishable single photons emitted in the
ilar measurements after conversion at 1550 nm (1 hour 900-950 nm to the telecommunication C-band around
integration time per trace). In both cases, the raw vis- 1550 nm. We have shown simultaneously a high exter-
ibility is obtained by fitting the data, normalizing each nal efficiency of 40.8% and the low-noise behaviour re-
trace with the area of a peak at a delay of approximately quired to maintain the high purity and indistinguishabil-
500 ns, and then comparing the areas of the central ity characteristic of the QDs used as sources, achieving
peaks in the co- and cross-polarized cases, Ak and A⊥ : g (2) (0) = 2.4% and V corr = 94.8%, respectively. The
V (raw) = (A⊥ − Ak )/A⊥ . The normalized coincidence end-to-end conversion efficiency is currently limited by
counts are shown in Fig. 4b) for both before and after (apart from the optical loss of the setup components)
conversion measurements for ease of comparison. The the coupling of the converted 1550 nm photons to the
(raw)
resulting raw visibilities are V930 = (89.2 ± 0.9)% and output fiber, and could be readily improved by tailor-
(raw)
V1550 = (88.8±1.4)%. Taking into account the non zero ing the light wavefront to achieve better mode match-
(2)
g (0) (assuming it is due to distinguishable photons) ing, for example using spatial light modulators. Future
and the imperfections in the optical setups such as imper- work will address integrating QFC on-chip, using thin-
5

film ppLN or GaAs waveguides [35–37], which are ex- COMPETING INTERESTS
pected to further reduce the required pump power and
allow to scale up the conversion to multiple emitters. The P.L. is founder and minority shareholder in the com-
demonstrated low-noise QFC enables developing schemes pany Sparrow Quantum. The authors declare that there
for long-distance quantum communication and it offers are no other competing interests.
the possibility to compensate for the inhomogeneous
broadening of the QD emission wavelength, as demon-
strated by several works [38, 39] recently achieving up to
(67±2)% two-photon indistinguishability [40]. Moreover, DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
our schemes could be used in combination with highly-
efficient photonic integrated circuits to implement device- All data needed to evaluate the conclusions in the pa-
independent quantum key distribution protocols, where per are present in the paper and/or the Supplementary
maintaining photon coherence after conversion is crucial Materials. Additional data related to this paper available
to perform Bell-state measurements at a remote herald- from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ing station [41, 42]. Finally, the QFC demonstrated here
closes the gap between the single-photon source technol-
ogy of InAs QDs in GaAs and the mature silicon-on-
insulator photonic integrated circuit technology [43–45], ∗
Currently at: Key Laboratory of Integrated Opto-
enabling the modular integration of quantum communi-
Electronic Technologies and Devices in Tianjin, School
cation, computing, and simulation. of Precision Instruments and Opto-Electronics Engineer-
ing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.

Currently at: Department of Physics & Astronomy, Uni-
versity of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS midolo@nbi.ku.dk
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See Supplementary Materials for further description of interfaces for scalable photonic quantum technology,”
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bility of the single-photons. pon, X. Zhou, L. Midolo, S. Scholz, A. D. Wieck, A. Lud-
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[3] M. H. Appel, A. Tiranov, A. Javadi, M. C. Löbl,
Y. Wang, S. Scholz, A. D. Wieck, A. Ludwig, R. J.
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