Scribd
Upload
16 views237 pages

International Laws PDF

The document outlines a course on International Law and Organizations, detailing its structure, contents, and objectives. It covers various aspects of international law, including its nature, sources, treaties, state responsibilities, and the role of international organizations. The course aims to familiarize students with the principles and developments of international law and its application in contemporary contexts.

Uploaded by

bdu1509261
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
16 views237 pages

International Laws PDF

The document outlines a course on International Law and Organizations, detailing its structure, contents, and objectives. It covers various aspects of international law, including its nature, sources, treaties, state responsibilities, and the role of international organizations. The course aims to familiarize students with the principles and developments of international law and its application in contemporary contexts.

Uploaded by

bdu1509261
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 237

I

nter
nat
ionalLawandOr
gani
zat
ions
COURSECODE:

Pr
epar
edby
:Aby
ssi
niaAbay

1|Page
2024
Cont
ent
s
CHAPTERONE:
THENATUREANDDEVELOPMENTOFI
NTERNATI
ONALLAW 3
Def
ini
ngI
nter
nat
ional
Law 3
Nat
ureandScopeofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 8
I
nter
nat
ional
LawFaci
l
itat
est
heI
nter
act
ionofLegal
Equal
s 9
Hi
stor
ical
Dev
elopmentofI
nter
nat
i Law:Nat
onal ural
i
stvs.Posi
ti
vi
stLaw 11
Ef
fect
ivenessofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 22
Sour
cesofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 26
Tr
eat
ies 26
Cust
om 34
Gener
alr
ecogni
zedPr
inci
plesofl
aw 40
I
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
cour
tandOr
gani
zat
ions 43
Judi
cial
deci
sions 44
I
nter
nat
ional
LawandMuni
cipal
Law 45
Cont
ri
but
ionofMuni
ci
pal
Rul
esi
nInt
ernat
ional
Law 47
Subj
ect
sofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 49
St
ates 49
I
nter
nat
ional
Organi
zat
ions 50
I
nter
nat
ional
publ
i
ccompani
es 52
Tr
ansnat
ional
Cor
por
ati
ons 53
Nat
ional
li
ber
ati
onMov
ementgr
oups(
NLMGs) 53
I
ndi
vi
dual
s 54
Summar
y 56
Sel
f-
CheckEx
erci
se 57
CHAPTERTWO:
RECOGNI
TION,
ANDSTATERESPONSI
BILI
TYUNDERI
NTERNATI
ONALLAW57
Recogni
ti
onofSt
ateandGov
ernment 57
Recogni
ti
onofgov
ernment
s 60
Under
standi
ngt
heBasi
cRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
ates 64
Ri
ght
sofSt
ates 66
TheRi
ghtofI
ndependence 66
TheRi
ghtofSov
erei
gnt
y 66
TheRi
ghtofTer
ri
tor
ial
Jur
isdi
cti
on 67
TheRi
ghtofSov
erei
gnEqual
i
ty 67

2|Page
2024
TheRi
ghtofSel
f-
Def
ense 67
DUTI
ESOFASTATE 67
TheDut
ytoRef
rai
nfr
om t
heThr
eatorUseofFor
ce 67
TheDut
ytoSet
tl
eInt
ernat
ional
Disput
esbyPeacef
ulMeans 68
St
ateJur
isdi
cti
onandI
mmuni
ti
esofSt
ateJur
isdi
cti
on 69
St
ateResponsi
bil
i
ties 72
Thenat
ureofSt
ateResponsi
bil
i
ty 73
Di
plomat
icLaw/Di
plomat
icI
mmuni
ty 75
Consul
arI
mmuni
ty 80
Di
plomat
icRecogni
ti
on 81
Enf
orcementMechani
smsofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 86
Most
lyUsedMet
hodsi
nEnf
orcementofI
nter
nat
ional
Law 89
I
.Enf
orcementt
hroughi
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions(
UNsy
stem) 89
Uni
l
ater
aluseoff
orce 89
Col
l
ect
iveuseoff
orce 90
Enf
orcementofI
nter
nat
ional
LawbyDi
ff
erentTr
ibunal
s 91
Reci
proci
ty 92
Col
l
ect
iveEnf
orcement 93
I
nter
nat
ional
Nor
ms 97
I
nter
nat
ional
Casesundert
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cour
t(I
CJ) 98
I
nter
nat
ional
CasesunderDomest
icCour
tsofSt
ates 100
ThePr
inci
pleofJur
isdi
cti
on(
Ext
radi
ti
on) 102
ThePr
inci
pleofTer
ri
tor
ial
i
ty(
Immi
grat
ionLaws) 103
Summar
y 103
Sel
f-cheekQuest
ions 105
CHAPTERTHREE:
INTERNATI
ONALLAW ONTREATI
ES 105
Under
standi
ngTr
eat
ies 105
PURPOSESOFTREATI
ES 107
THE1969VI
ENNACONVENTI
ONONTHELAW OFTREATI
ES 108
I
nval
i
dit
yofTr
eat
iesandTr
eat
yTer
minat
ion 118
Tr
eat
yTer
minat
ion 120
Fundament
alchangeofci
rcumst
ances 123
Tr
eat
yReser
vat
ions 124

3|Page
2024
TheLawoft
heSeaandLandl
ockedSt
ates 126
The1982Conv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
heSea 127
Rel
ati
onsbet
weenCoast
alandLandl
ockedSt
ates 128
I
nter
nat
ional
LawandEt
hiopi
a’
sRi
ghtAccesst
otheSea 131
Uni
tSummar
y 132
Sel
f-
checkQuest
ions 134
CHAPTERFOUR:I
NTERNATI
ONALLAW ONWARCRI
MESANDPROTECTI
ONOFHUMAN
RI
GHTS 134
WarCr
imes:
Theor
yandPr
act
ice 134
Lawsi
nWarVer
susLawsofWar 139
TheRol
eofI
CConWarCr
imes 140
LawsofWarandPr
otect
ionofCi
vi
li
ans 142
LawsonPr
isoner
sofWar(
POW) 145
JustWarVer
susAggr
essi
onWar 149
I
. JUSADBELLUM 150
I
I. JUSI
NBELLO 151
I
II
. JUSPOSTBELLUM 151
ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sinI
nter
nat
ional
Lev
el 152
TheRol
eofAmnest
yInt
ernat
ional
andHumanRi
ght
sWat
ch 155
TheRol
eofUNHCRonRef
ugees 158
Chapt
erSummar
y 159
Sel
f-
CheckEx
erci
se 160
CHAPTERFI
VE:
INTERNATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS(
IOS) 161
Def
ini
ngI
nter
nat
ional
Organi
zat
ions(
IOs) 161
Hi
stor
ical
Dev
elopmentofI
Os 162
Ther
iseofmoder
nor
gani
zat
ions 166
Pur
pose,
powerandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofI
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions 169
Power
sofI
nter
nat
ional
Organi
zat
ions 170
Or
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofRegi
onal
Char
act
er 171
TheEur
opeanUni
on/
EU 172
TheAmer
icanCont
inent
/AAS 179
TheAr
abLeague/
AL 180
TheAf
ri
canUni
on/
AU 182

4|Page
2024
Associ
ati
onofSout
hEastAsi
anSt
ates/
ASEAS 188
Or
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofUni
ver
sal
Char
act
er 190
TheLeagueofNat
ions 191
TheUni
tedNat
ionsSy
stem 193
TheLawofSel
f-
Def
ense 203
TheLawofAnt
ici
pat
ion,
Pre-
empt
ionandPr
event
ion 205
WeaponsofMassDest
ruct
ionandPr
event
iveWar 206
Humani
tar
ianI
nter
vent
ion 208
Summar
y 210
Sel
f-CheckExer
cise 210
Ref
erences 211

Cour
seDescr
ipt
ion

5|Page
2024
Thecour
sei
sdesi
gnedt
ofami
l
iar
izel
ear
ner
sont
henat
ureofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw,
I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ion whi
ch deal
s mor
e aboutPubl
i
cInt
ernat
ionalLaw
(
dif
fer
entf
rom Pr
ivat
eInt
ernat
ionalLaw)andI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions.Duet
o
t
hev
astandf
ragment
ednat
ureoft
hecour
senat
ure,i
temphasi
zesonsome
sel
ect
edar
easofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw andI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionsi
nter
msof
t
hei
rhi
stor
icaldev
elopment
,sour
ces oft
he l
aws,t
he v
ari
ous enf
orcement
mechani
sms,t
he i
mpor
tance of st
ate sov
erei
gnt
y on t
he appl
i
cat
ion of
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
int
ernat
ionall
awandi
nst
it
uti
onsont
hepr
otect
ionofwarcr
imes
and humani
tar
ian r
ight
s, i
nter
nat
ional l
aw of t
reat
ies and i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionsespeci
all
ytheUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion i
tsr
oles,achi
evement
s
andchal
l
engesi
nmai
ntai
ninguni
ver
sal
peace.

.Obj
ect
ivesoft
hecour
se

Att
heendoft
hecour
se,
student
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

 expl
ainwhatI
nter
nat
ional
Lawi
s
 ev
aluat
ehow I
nter
nat
ionalLaw ev
olv
est
il
lcont
empor
aryper
iod wi
tha
v
ari
etyofst
atei
nter
est
s
 compar
ether
elat
ionshi
pbet
weendomest
icandI
nter
nat
ional
Law
 el
abor
atet
hev
ari
oussour
cesofI
nter
nat
ional
Law
 anal
yze t
he enf
orcement mechani
sms of I
nter
nat
ionalLaw t
hrough
di
ff
erentway
s
 expl
aint
her
oleofsov
erei
gnt
yont
heappl
i
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsl
i
ke
t
hedi
plomat
icl
awandl
awoft
heSea;
 sy
nthesi
ze t
he chal
l
enge and oppor
tuni
ti
es wi
tht
he appl
i
cat
ion of
i
nter
nat
ional
lawonwarcr
imesandhumani
tar
ianl
aws
 ev
aluat
ethebasi
cst
epsandl
egalpr
ovi
sionsabouti
nter
nat
ionall
aw of
t
reat
ieswhenmaki
ngandi
mpl
ement
ingt
reat
ylawsi
nbet
weenand/
or
amongst
ates
 enunci
atet
he r
egi
onaland i
nter
nat
ionalchar
act
ers of i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ions

6|Page
2024
 anal
yzecr
it
ical
l
yaboutt
her
oleoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ionwi
thi
ts
basi
cobj
ect
ivesofest
abl
i
shment
 anal
yzehowEt
hiopi
arespondst
ovar
ioussour
cesofi
nter
nat
ionall
awand
i
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ionst
opr
otecti
tsnat
ional
int
erest
.

CHAPTERONE:THENATUREANDDEVELOPMENTOFI
NTERNATI
ONAL
LAW
Lear
ningOut
comes

Att
heendoft
hischapt
erst
udent
swi
l
lbeabl
eto:

 I
dent
if
ythesour
cesofi
nter
nat
ional
law
 Def
inei
nter
nat
ional
Law
 Descr
ibet
henat
ureandscopeofi
nter
nat
ional
law
 Exami
net
hehi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ional
law
 I
dent
if
ythesour
cesofi
nter
nat
ional
law

Def
ini
ngI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Dearl
ear
ner
s,coul
dyoudef
inewhatI
nter
nat
ionalLaw
i
s?

I
nfact
,ther
eisno commonl
yaccept
edsi
ngl
edef
ini
ti
onf
ori
nter
nat
ionall
aw
among schol
ars oft
he f
iel
d.Butt
o ment
ion some oft
he commonl
y ci
ted
def
ini
ti
onsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,i
tcanbedef
inedasabodyofl
aws,r
ules,orl
egal
pr
inci
plest
hatar
ebasedoncust
om,
treat
ies,
orl
egi
slat
iont
hatcont
rol
soraf
fect
s
t
her
ight
sanddut
iesofnat
ionsi
nrel
ati
ont
oeachot
her
.Inaddi
ti
on,I
nter
nat
ional
l
awr
efer
stoasetofpr
inci
ples,r
ules,andst
andar
dst
hatgov
ernr
elat
ionshi
psof
nat
ionsandot
herpar
ti
cipant
sini
nter
nat
ionalaf
fai
rs.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sthel
aw

7|Page
2024
oft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.I
nter
nat
ionall
awcr
eat
esanenv
ironmentt
hrough
whi
chst
atesi
nter
actandt
hechancet
oachi
evet
hei
rfor
eignpol
i
cyobj
ect
ives.
I
nter
nat
ionall
awconsi
stsoft
her
ulesandpr
inci
plesofgener
alappl
i
cat
iondeal
i
ng
wi
tht
heconductofst
atesandi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsi
nthei
rint
ernat
ional
r
elat
ions wi
th one-
anot
herand wi
th pr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
s,mi
nor
it
y gr
oups and
t
ransnat
ional
compani
es.

Publ
i
cint
ernat
ionall
awi
sthel
awoft
hepol
i
ticalsy
stem ofnat
ions-
stat
es.I
tisa
di
sti
nctandsel
f-
cont
ainedsy
stem ofl
aw,
independentoft
henat
ionalsy
stem wi
th
whi
chi
tint
eract
s,anddeal
i
ngwi
thr
elat
ions,whi
cht
heydonotef
fect
ivel
ygov
ern.
Fur
ther
mor
e,I
nter
nat
ionall
aw maybeal
sodef
inedast
hatbodyofl
aw whi
chi
s
composedf
ori
tsgr
eat
erpar
toft
hepr
inci
plesandr
ulesofconductwhi
chSt
ates
f
eelt
hemsel
vesboundt
oobser
ve,andt
her
efor
e,docommonl
yobser
vei
nthei
r
r
elat
ionswi
theachot
her
.

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw(
whi
chi
sal
sor
efer
redaspubl
i
cint
ernat
ionall
aw)i
sadi
sti
nct
ive
par
toft
hegener
alst
ruct
ureofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsandi
tcanbeunder
stoodas
ani
ndependentsy
stem ofl
awexi
sti
ngout
sidet
hel
egalor
der
sofpar
ti
cul
arst
ates
andi
tdi
ff
ersf
rom domest
icl
egal
syst
emsi
nanumberofr
espect
s.

Bent
ham (
1748-
1832)whocoi
nedt
hewor
dint
ernat
ionall
awdef
ines,
int
ernat
ional
l
awas

“
acol
l
ect
ionofr
ulesgov
erni
ngr
elat
ionsbet
weenst
ates”
.Thus,i
nit
snar
rowest
sense,
“int
ernat
ionall
aw”r
efer
stol
awsappl
i
cabl
ebet
ween“
stat
es”–awor
dthat
i
nint
ernat
ionall
awwr
it
ingst
ypi
cal
l
yref
erst
oacount
ry,orsov
erei
gnnat
ion-
stat
e,
andnott
oacount
ry’
sconst
it
uentel
ement
s.

Undert
het
radi
ti
onalandnar
row def
ini
ti
onofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,t
oqual
i
fyasa
subj
ecta st
ate had t
o be sov
erei
gn:I
tneeded a t
err
it
ory
,a popul
ati
on,a
gov
ernment
,andt
heabi
l
ityt
oengagei
ndi
plomat
icorf
orei
gnr
elat
ions.St
ates
wi
thi
nthe St
ates,pr
ovi
nces,and cant
ons wer
e notconsi
der
ed subj
ect
s of
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,becauset
heyl
ackedt
hel
egalaut
hor
it
ytoengagei
nfor
eign

8|Page
2024
r
elat
ions.I
naddi
ti
on,i
ndi
vi
dual
sdi
dnotf
allwi
thi
nthedef
ini
ti
onofsubj
ect
sthat
enj
oyedr
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsunderi
nter
nat
ional
law.

Whi
l
etheki
ndofdef
ini
ti
onsgi
venandt
hemeani
ngpr
ovi
dedt
radi
ti
onal
l
y,of
ten
omi
tt
edi
ndi
vi
dual
sandi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions—t
wooft
hemostdy
nami
cand
v
italel
ement
sofmoder
nint
ernat
ionall
aw,t
hemor
econt
empor
arydef
ini
ti
ons
expandt
het
radi
ti
onalnot
ionsofi
nter
nat
ionall
awt
oconf
err
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ions
oni
nter
gov
ernment
ali
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsand ev
enoni
ndi
vi
dual
s.The
Uni
tedNat
ions,f
orexampl
e,i
sani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
iont
hathast
hecapaci
ty
t
oengagei
ntr
eat
yrel
ati
onsgov
ernedbyandbi
ndi
ngunderi
nter
nat
ionall
awwi
th
st
ates and ot
her i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions.I
ndi
vi
dualr
esponsi
bil
i
ty under
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s par
ti
cul
arl
ysi
gni
fi
canti
nthe cont
extofpr
osecut
ing war
cr
imi
nal
sandt
hedev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionalHumanRi
ght
s.Fur
ther
,int
oday
’s
wor
ldi
tisnol
ongeraccur
atet
ovi
ew i
nter
nat
ionall
aw assi
mpl
yacol
l
ect
ionof
r
ules;r
ather
,iti
sar
api
dlydev
elopi
ngcompl
exofr
ulesandi
nfl
uent
ialt
houghnot
di
rect
lybi
ndi
ng pr
inci
ples,pr
act
ices,and asser
ti
onscoupl
ed wi
thi
ncr
easi
ngl
y
sophi
sti
cat
edst
ruct
uresandpr
ocesses.

Thi
s way
,ini
ts moder
n and br
oadestsense,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw came t
o be
under
stoodast
hel
aw t
hatpr
ovi
desnor
mat
ivegui
del
i
nesaswel
lasmet
hods,
mechani
sms,andacommonconcept
uall
anguaget
oint
ernat
ionalact
ors—i
.e.
,
pr
imar
il
ysov
erei
gnst
atesbutal
soi
ncr
easi
ngl
yint
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsand
some i
ndi
vi
dual
s.The r
ange ofsubj
ect
s and act
ors di
rect
lyconcer
ned wi
th
i
nter
nat
ional
lawhaswi
denedconsi
der
abl
y,mov
ingbey
ondt
hecl
assi
cal
quest
ions
ofwar
,peace,
anddi
plomacyt
oincl
udehumanr
ight
s,economi
candt
radei
ssues,
spacel
aw,and i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions.Besi
des,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw maybe
consi
der
edoft
hreeki
nds:t
heuni
ver
sal
,gener
al,conv
ent
ionalorcust
omar
y.The
f
ir
sti
suni
ver
salorest
abl
i
shedbyt
hegener
alconsentofmanki
nd,andbi
ndsal
l
nat
ions.Thesecondi
sfoundedonexpr
essconsent
,andi
snotuni
ver
salandonl
y
bi
ndst
hosenat
ionst
hathav
eassent
edt
oitandi
tcanest
abl
i
shr
ulesappr
opr
iat
e
f
oruni
ver
salappl
i
cat
ion,t
endst
obecomeuni
ver
sali
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thet
hir
dis
f
oundedont
aci
tconsent
,andi
sobl
i
gat
oryont
hosenat
ionswhohav
eadopt
edi
t.

9|Page
2024
A di
sti
nct
ion i
s of
ten made bet
ween har
d and sof
tint
ernat
ionall
aw.Har
d
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw gener
all
yref
erst
oagr
eement
sorpr
inci
plest
hatar
edi
rect
ly
enf
orceabl
ebyanat
ionalori
nter
nat
ionalbody
.Sof
tint
ernat
ionall
aw r
efer
sto
agr
eement
sorpr
inci
plest
hatar
emeantt
oinf
luencei
ndi
vi
dualnat
ionst
orespect
cer
tai
nnor
msori
ncor
por
atet
hem i
ntonat
ionall
aw.Sof
tint
ernat
ionall
awbyi
tsel
f
i
snotenf
orceabl
e.I
tser
vest
oar
ti
cul
atest
andar
dswi
del
yshar
ed,
oraspi
redt
o,by
nat
ions.

Bef
orepr
oceedi
nganyf
urt
her
,toav
oidanyconf
usi
onsanddi
ff
icul
ti
esy
oumi
ght
encount
eri
nunder
standi
ngmeani
ngandt
henat
ureoft
hesubj
ect
,iti
sal
so
i
mpor
tantt
odi
sti
ngui
shi
nter
nat
ional
lawf
rom ot
hert
ypesofl
awandal
sonon-
law.

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s somet
imes r
efer
red t
o as ‘
publ
i
cint
ernat
ionall
aw’t
o
di
sti
ngui
shi
tfr
om pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
aw.Whi
l
ethef
ormergov
ernst
her
elat
ions
ofst
atesandot
hersubj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw amongstt
hemsel
ves,t
hel
att
er
consi
stsoft
her
ulesdev
elopedbyst
atesaspar
toft
hei
rdomest
icl
awt
oresol
ve
t
hepr
obl
emsbet
weenpr
ivat
eper
sonswhi
chi
nvol
veaf
orei
gnel
ement
,ar
iseov
er
whet
hert
hecour
thasj
uri
sdi
cti
onandov
ert
hechoi
ceoft
heappl
i
cabl
elaw:i
n
ot
hert
erms,
publ
i
cint
ernat
ionall
awar
isesf
rom t
hej
uxt
aposi
ti
onofst
ates,
pri
vat
e
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw f
rom t
hej
uxt
aposi
ti
onofl
egalsy
stems.Al
thought
her
ulesof
pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
aw ar
epar
toft
hei
nter
nall
aw oft
hest
ateconcer
ned,t
hey
mayal
sohav
ethechar
act
erofpubl
i
cint
ernat
ional
lawwher
etheyar
eembodi
edi
n
t
reat
ies.Wher
ethi
shappenst
hef
ail
ureofast
atepar
tyt
othet
reat
ytoobser
vet
he
r
uleofpr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
awpr
escr
ibedi
nitwi
l
llayi
topent
opr
oceedi
ngsf
or
br
eachofani
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionowedt
oanot
herpar
ty.Ev
enwher
ether
ules
ofpr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
aw cannott
hemsel
vesbeconsi
der
edasr
ulesofpubl
i
c
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
thei
rappl
i
cat
ionbyast
ateaspar
tofi
tsi
nter
nall
awmaydi
rect
ly
i
nvol
vet
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsoft
hest
ateasamat
terofpubl
i
cint
ernat
ional
l
aw,
forexampl
ewher
ethemat
terconcer
nst
hepr
oper
tyofal
i
ens,
ort
heext
entof
t
hest
ate’
sjur
isdi
cti
on.

Fur
thert
he i
nter
nat
ionalpubl
i
claw shoul
d al
so be di
sti
ngui
shed f
rom t
he

10|Page
2024
‘
Muni
cipall
aw’
.Whi
l
eint
ernat
ionall
aw canbesai
dtoappl
yonl
ybet
weent
hose
ent
it
iest
hatcancl
aimi
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
ty,
muni
cipall
awi
sthei
nter
nall
awof
st
atesandi
tregul
atest
heconductofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandot
herl
egalper
sonswi
thi
n
t
he j
uri
sdi
cti
on.I
tcan be ar
gued t
hatt
he f
unct
ions ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw ar
e
di
ff
erentf
rom t
hef
unct
ionsofmuni
cipall
aw.I
nthemai
n,i
nter
nat
ionall
awi
snot
concer
nedwi
tht
her
ight
sanddut
iesofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,exceptwher
est
ateshav
e
agr
eedt
hatt
hisshoul
dbeso.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw pl
aysamaj
orr
olei
nfaci
l
itat
ing
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.I
tiscl
ear
lyofconsi
der
abl
eimpor
tancei
nthedr
aft
ingof
di
plomat
icdocument
sandt
reat
ies,aswel
las,i
nappr
opr
iat
einst
ances,i
nthe
dr
aft
ingandappl
i
cat
ionofi
nter
nall
egi
slat
ion.I
tshoul
dal
sober
emember
edt
hat
l
aw can nev
erbe t
otal
l
y separ
ated f
rom quest
ions ofpol
i
ticalr
eal
i
ty.I
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,t
hepol
i
ticalandt
hel
egalar
eext
remel
ycl
osel
yint
ert
wined.
I
nter
nat
ionall
awcannotexi
sti
nisol
ati
onf
rom t
hepol
i
ticalf
act
orsoper
ati
ngi
nthe
spher
eofi
nter
nat
ional
rel
ati
ons.

Fur
ther
,atanot
herl
evel
,int
ernat
ionall
aw mustal
so be di
sti
ngui
shed f
rom
i
nter
nat
ionalnon-
law orsomet
imesr
efer
redasi
nter
nat
ionalcomi
tyt
oindi
cat
e
t
hosenor
msofbehav
iort
hatar
eout
sidet
her
ulesofl
aw.Pr
act
icessuchas
sal
uti
ng t
he f
lags off
orei
gn war
shi
ps atsea,whi
ch ar
eimpl
ement
ed sol
ely
t
hroughcour
tesyandar
enotr
egar
dedasl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ng.

Thi
sway
,int
ernat
ionall
awhasbecomeadi
sti
nct
ivepar
toft
hegener
alst
ruct
ure
ofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.Thebasi
ctaskofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
stocont
ri
but
etoa
nor
malf
unct
ioni
ng oft
he i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem and t
o ensur
e peace and a
r
esol
uti
on ofi
nter
nat
ionalpr
obl
ems t
hrough l
egalmeans,on t
he basi
s of
agr
eement
samongsov
erei
gnandequalst
ates.I
ncont
empl
ati
ngr
esponsest
oa
par
ti
cul
ari
nter
nat
ionalsi
tuat
ion,st
ates usual
l
yconsi
derr
elev
anti
nter
nat
ional
l
aws.

Most
lyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw consi
stsofl
ong-
standi
ngcust
oms;pr
ovi
sionsagr
eedt
o
i
ntr
eat
iesandgener
all
yaccept
edpr
inci
plesofl
awr
ecogni
zedbynat
ions.Rul
i
ngs
anddeci
si
onsofi
nter
nat
ionalcour
tsandor
gani
zat
ionsal
socont
ri
but
etot
he

11|Page
2024
gr
owi
ng bodyofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.The pur
posesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
ncl
ude
r
esol
uti
onofpr
obl
emsofar
egi
onalorgl
obalscope(
suchasenv
ironment
al
pol
l
uti
onorgl
obalwar
ming)
,regul
ati
onofar
easout
sidet
hecont
rolofanyone
nat
ion(
suchasout
erspaceort
hehi
ghseas)andadopt
ionofcommonr
ulesf
or
mul
ti
nat
ional
act
ivi
ti
es(
suchasai
rtr
anspor
torpost
alser
vice)
.

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw al
so ai
mst
o mai
ntai
n peacef
uli
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionswhen
possi
ble and r
esol
vei
nter
nat
ionalt
ensi
ons peacef
ull
ywhen t
heydev
elop,t
o
pr
eventneedl
esssuf
fer
ingdur
ingwar
sandt
oimpr
ovet
hehumancondi
ti
ondur
ing
peacet
ime.

Enf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sof
tendi
ff
icul
tbecausenat
ionsar
esov
erei
gn
(
independent
)power
sthatmayputt
hei
rowni
nter
est
saheadoft
hoseoft
he
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.I
naddi
ti
on,t
hemechani
smsofenf
orcementar
eyoung
and notwel
ldev
eloped.Enf
orcementmaybe ef
fect
ivel
yachi
eved,howev
er,
t
hrought
heact
ionsofi
ndi
vi
dualnat
ions,agenci
esofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions
suchast
heUni
tedNat
ions(
UN)
,andi
nter
nat
ionalcour
ts.TheUni
tedNat
ions
Secur
it
yCounci
lcan aut
hor
ize economi
c sanct
ions,di
plomat
ic sanct
ions,or
mi
l
itar
yfor
cet
omai
ntai
norr
est
orei
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y.

Nat
ureandScopeofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Thei
mpor
tantnat
ureandscopeofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsandi
nst
it
uti
onsar
eri
sing
wi
thmor
eandmor
especi
ali
star
eas,suchasi
nter
nat
ionalt
radel
aw,i
nter
nat
ional
env
ironment
all
awanduni
ver
salhumanr
ight
slawset
c.Thi
snat
ureofl
awhasl
ed
i
nter
nat
ionall
awsast
hecent
erofdel
ocal
i
zedordel
i
mit
edwi
thi
nli
tt
lear
easoi
ts
nat
urei
sint
err
elat
ionshi
pwi
thdi
ff
erenti
nter
nat
ionalcust
omsandl
awsofst
ate.
Ev
en i
n many way
s,t
he l
aw ofgl
obal
i
zat
ion i
s a consequent
ialscope of
I
nter
nat
ionall
aw andpr
act
icesacr
osst
hewor
ldt
hrought
rade.Thenat
ureof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw hasdebat
ed i
nter
imsofr
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween sel
f-
cont
ained
r
egi
mesaut
hor
it
yini
nter
nat
ionall
aw andt
hesy
stem asawhol
e.Ther
iseof
speci
ali
zed i
nter
nat
ionall
aw r
ules and mechani
sms hav
e no cl
earaut
hor
it
y
r
elat
ionshi
pb/
ngl
obalgov
ernanceandl
ocalst
ategov
ernancet
hismi
ghtl
eadt
o

12|Page
2024
conf
li
cts bet
ween l
ocalsy
stems and i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stems.So,i
tis an
i
nconsi
stencyoft
hei
nter
pret
ati
onanddev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Whi
l
e
somedy
nami
cnat
ureofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sagai
nstsomenor
mat
ivev
aluesof
st
ate,mor
edet
ail
edandspeci
fi
crul
esofi
nter
nat
ionall
awar
econcer
ningt
hewi
l
l
orpr
ior
it
yofwest
ernst
ates.

I
tisal
sot
ruet
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw hasadecent
ral
i
zedsy
stem becauseofa
v
ari
etyofr
ulesder
ivedf
rom gener
alt
reat
ies,speci
fi
ctr
eat
iesandcust
omar
ylaw
ofwor
ldst
ates.I
nter
msofscope,ani
nter
nat
ionall
aw deci
sioni
ncor
por
ates
i
nter
nat
ionalcour
tsand t
ri
bunal
s'hi
erar
chyofaut
hor
it
ywi
tht
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cour
tofJust
iceatt
hesummi
t.Thescopeofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
svast
.Near
lyev
ery
mat
terofl
egal
regul
ati
onwi
thi
nanat
ionhassomei
nter
nat
ional
count
erpar
t.

Ov
ert
hel
astcent
ury
,adv
ancesi
ncommuni
cat
ionst
echnol
ogy
,gr
owt
hingl
obal
t
radeandt
rav
elandt
headv
entofweaponsofmassdest
ruct
ionhav
eledt
oan
enor
mousexpansi
oni
nther
angeoft
opi
csr
egul
atedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
n
addi
ti
ont
othecl
assi
cmat
ter
sofdi
plomacy
,warandpeace,t
rade,andt
err
it
ori
al
boundar
ies,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw now cov
ersmat
ter
sasdi
ver
seasenv
ironment
al
pr
otect
ion,humanr
ight
s,nucl
eart
est
ing,warcr
imes,out
erspace,chi
l
dcust
ody
,
r
ecogni
ti
onofwi
l
lsandt
est
ament
s,exchangeofpr
isoner
s,andpr
otect
ionof
ar
chaeol
ogi
cal
sit
esandar
ttr
easur
es.

Thef
actt
hatst
atesandot
hernon-
stat
eact
orsar
ethemai
nsubj
ect
soft
he
i
nter
nat
ional l
egal sy
stem i
tsel
f const
it
utes t
he r
ati
onal
e and nat
ure of
i
nter
nat
ionall
awi
stobedi
ff
erentandy
ouwi
l
lst
udyt
hesameundert
hef
oll
owi
ng
heads.

I
nter
nat
ionalLawFaci
li
tat
est
heI
nter
act
ionofLegalEqual
s

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw,atl
eastasor
igi
nal
l
yconcei
ved,i
sdi
ff
erentasi
tisconcer
ned
wi
tht
her
ight
sanddut
iesoft
hest
atest
hemsel
ves.I
nthei
rrel
ati
onswi
theach
ot
her
,iti
snei
therl
i
kel
ynordesi
rabl
ethatar
elat
ionshi
pofl
egalsuper
ior
it
yexi
sts.
St
atesar
elegalequal
sandt
hel
egalsy
stem whi
chr
egul
atest
hei
ract
ionsbet
ween

13|Page
2024
t
hemsel
vesmustr
efl
ectt
his.Suchal
egalsy
stem mustf
aci
l
itat
ethei
nter
act
ionof
t
hesel
egalequal
srat
hert
hancont
rolorcompelt
hem i
napoori
mit
ati
onoft
he
cont
rolandcompul
siont
hatnat
ionall
aw exer
tsov
eri
tssubj
ect
s.Ofcour
se,as
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw dev
elopsandmat
uresi
tmaycomet
oencompasst
hel
egal
r
elat
ions of non-
stat
e ent
it
ies, such as peopl
es, t
err
it
ori
es, i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ions(
gov
ernment
alandnon-
gov
ernment
al)
,indi
vi
dual
sort
ransnat
ional
compani
es,andi
tmustt
hendev
elopi
nst
it
uti
onsandpr
ocedur
eswhi
chi
mit
atei
n
par
tthef
unct
ionsoft
hei
nst
it
uti
onsofnat
ionall
egalsy
stems.I
ndeed,t
her
e-
cast
ingofi
nter
nat
ionall
awasasy
stem basedl
essonst
atesov
erei
gnt
yandmor
e
oni
ndi
vi
duall
i
ber
tyi
sanai
m ofmanycont
empor
aryi
nter
nat
ionall
awy
ersand
t
her
eisnodoubtt
hatv
erygr
eatst
ri
deshav
ebeenmadei
nthi
sdi
rect
ioni
nrecent
y
ear
s.Theest
abl
i
shmentoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
tisper
hapst
hemost
power
fulev
idenceoft
hisdev
elopment
.Howev
er,what
everwemi
ghthopef
ori
n
t
hef
utur
efori
nter
nat
ional
lawi
tiscr
uci
alt
oremembert
hatatt
hev
eryhear
toft
he
sy
stem l
i
esasetofr
ulesdesi
gnedt
oregul
atest
ates’
conductwi
theachot
her
,and
i
tist
hiscent
ralf
actt
hatmakesdet
ail
edanal
ogi
eswi
thnat
ionall
aw mi
sleadi
ng
andi
nappr
opr
iat
e.

I
nter
nat
ionalLawi
stheVi
tal
Mechani
sm f
orConduct
ingI
nter
nat
ionalRel
ati
ons

I
nsi
mpl
eter
ms,i
nter
nat
ionall
awcompr
isesasy
stem ofr
ulesandpr
inci
plest
hat
gov
ernt
hei
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsbet
weensov
erei
gnst
atesandot
heri
nst
it
uti
onal
subj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsuchast
heUni
tedNat
ions,t
heAr
abLeagueandt
he
Af
ri
canUni
on(
for
mer
lyt
heOr
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty)
.Asweshal
lsee,t
hati
s
nott
osayt
hati
nter
nat
ionall
awi
sunconcer
nedwi
tht
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsof
t
hei
ndi
vi
dualornongov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ionand,i
ndeed,i
tmaybebecomi
ng
mor
econcer
nedwi
tht
hem.Rat
her
,ther
ulesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw ar
ecr
eat
ed
pr
imar
il
ybyst
ates,ei
therf
ort
hei
rownpur
posesorasameansoff
aci
l
itat
ingand
cont
rol
l
ing t
he act
ivi
ti
es ofot
heract
ors on t
he i
nter
nat
ionalpl
ane.Rul
es of
i
nter
nat
ionall
awcov
eral
mostev
eryf
acetofi
nter
-st
ateandi
nter
nat
ionalact
ivi
ty.
Ther
ear
elawsr
egul
ati
ngt
heuseoft
hesea,
out
erspaceandAnt
arct
ica.Ther
ear
e
r
ulesgov
erni
ngi
nter
nat
ional
tel
ecommuni
cat
ions,
post
alser
vices,
andt
hecar
ri
age

14|Page
2024
ofgoodsandpassenger
sbyai
randt
het
ransf
erofmoney
.Int
ernat
ionall
awi
sa
pr
imar
ytoolf
ort
heconductofi
nter
nat
ionalt
rade.I
tisconcer
nedwi
thnat
ional
i
ty,
ext
radi
ti
on,t
heuseofar
medf
orce,humanr
ight
s,pr
otect
ionoft
heenv
ironment
,
t
hedi
gni
tyoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualandt
hesecur
it
yofnat
ions.I
nshor
t,t
her
eisv
eryl
i
ttl
e
t
hati
sdonei
nthei
nter
nat
ionalar
enat
hati
snotr
egul
atedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
awand
i
tcannow gov
ernsomeaspect
sofr
elat
ionsbet
weendi
sti
nctuni
tswi
thi
na
sov
erei
gnst
ate,suchast
het
err
it
ori
esoff
eder
alCanadaort
hedev
olv
edr
egi
ons
oft
heUK.

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sthev
italmechani
sm wi
thoutwhi
chani
nter
dependentwor
ld
coul
dnotf
unct
ion.I
nthi
ssense,
int
ernat
ionall
awf
aci
l
itat
est
hef
unct
ioni
ngoft
he
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,ofwhi
chwear
eal
lapar
tandonwhi
chweal
ldepend.
Howev
er,t
hati
snotal
l
.Moder
nint
ernat
ionall
aw al
soseekst
ocont
rolst
atesby
i
nhi
bit
ingordi
rect
ingt
hei
rconductbot
hint
hei
rrel
ati
onswi
thot
herst
ates(
e.g.t
he
l
aw pr
ohi
bit
ing t
heuseofar
med f
orcet
o set
tl
edi
sput
es)and i
nrel
ati
ont
o
i
ndi
vi
dual
s,bot
hindi
vi
dual
sofot
herst
ates(
e.g.i
ssuesconcer
ningt
heexer
ciseof
cr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
on)andi
tsownnat
ional
s(e.
g.t
hel
awofhumanr
ight
s).I
tist
he
ev
olut
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw f
rom asy
stem t
hatwasconcer
nedpr
imar
il
ywi
th
f
aci
l
itat
ingi
nter
nat
ionalcooper
ati
onamongi
tssubj
ect
s(st
ates)
,toasy
stem t
hat
i
snow muchmor
eengagedi
nthecont
rolofi
tssubj
ect
sthati
sthepr
e-emi
nent
f
eat
ureoft
hehi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ional
lawi
nthel
astsev
ent
y-f
ivey
ear
s.

I
nter
nat
ional
Lawi
sbui
lti
ntot
heOr
derofI
nter
nat
ionalRel
ati
ons

Anyappr
eci
ati
onoft
henat
ureofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
spossi
bleonl
ybyr
ecogni
zi
ng
t
hati
tisbui
l
tint
otheor
derofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.Anor
deri
sanendur
ing
pat
ter
nofv
aluesandbehav
ior
swhi
chst
ruct
urest
her
elat
ionshi
psofact
orsov
er
t
ime,
usual
l
ydecadesorev
encent
uri
es.Today
’sor
deri
ncl
udesdemocr
ati
chuman
r
ight
s,andcapi
tal
i
stv
aluesr
isi
ngt
opr
imacywi
tht
hemaj
orst
atesst
ri
vi
ngt
oget
al
ongandt
ryi
ngt
oper
suadel
esserst
atest
oacceptmor
eful
l
ythesameor
der
,
wi
thi
ts deci
dedl
yWest
ern char
act
er.The r
ules ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw hel
pto
est
abl
i
shandper
pet
uat
eapar
ti
cul
arwor
ldor
der
.St
atesv
arygr
eat
lyi
nsi
zeand

15|Page
2024
power
,butal
ltr
ytoshapet
hei
nter
nat
ionalor
derbyi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hecont
entof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Si
ncet
heendoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,theUni
tedSt
ates,wi
th
i
tspowergr
owi
ngt
ohegemonst
atus,
ort
hewor
ld’
smostpower
fulst
ate,
hast
ri
ed
t
o secur
eit
svi
sion ofwor
ld or
dert
hrough i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions and
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.The cr
eat
ion oft
he UN,t
he Wor
ld Bank,t
he Wor
ld Tr
ade
Or
gani
zat
ion(
WTO)
,thepr
omot
ionofhumanr
ight
str
eat
ies,
andmuchel
seoft
he
post
-Second Wor
ld Warst
ruct
ure hav
e come abouti
nlar
ge par
tdue t
o US
i
nfl
uence.I
nthepast
,someobser
ver
scl
aimedt
hatt
hewor
ldor
derhadbegunt
o
r
esembl
enotj
ustaWest
ernbutaPaxAmer
icana,anAmer
icandesi
gnedpeacei
n
par
ti
cul
ar.Anyl
ast
ingAmer
icani
mpr
intont
hegl
obalor
dermaybei
nquest
ion
si
ncet
heUni
tedSt
ateshasbecomehesi
tantt
osuppor
timpor
tantt
reat
ies,
andi
ts
v
aunt
edmi
l
itar
yandeconomi
cpr
owessar
eunder
minedbyt
heseemi
ngl
yendl
ess
Af
ghani
stanandI
raqwar
spl
ust
heshar
pdownwar
dtur
nint
heUSeconomyi
n
2008–2009.

I
nter
nat
ionalLawi
sPosi
ti
vei
nNat
ure

Theener
gypr
opel
l
ingnat
ureofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sposi
ti
ve,notnegat
ive.Of
cour
se,t
he degr
ee ofcul
tur
alconsensus,shar
ed mat
eri
ali
nter
est
s,and t
he
gr
owi
ngsenseofgl
obali
nter
dependencesay
sal
otabouthowwel
lthi
srel
ati
vel
y
non-
coer
civ
e,non-cent
ral
i
zed,l
egalsy
stem can wor
k.Mostdi
plomat
ic and
economi
cexchangesmov
eal
ongsmoot
hly
,andt
omut
ualadv
ant
age,al
though
gener
alwor
ld publ
i
c opi
nion mi
ghthav
e a har
dti
me r
eal
i
zing t
he ev
ery
day
usef
ulnessofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Howev
er,t
her
egul
arpr
act
iceofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
bymostact
orsr
esul
tsi
namor
eor
der
lyandpr
edi
ctabl
ewor
ld.

Hi
stor
icalDev
elopmentofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw:Nat
ural
istvs.Posi
ti
vi
stLaw
I
thasbeen ar
gued t
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sasol
d ashuman exi
stence.I
ts
ar
ti
cul
ati
onandusagear
eti
nker
edi
nor
dert
ober
elev
antt
oexi
sti
ngcondi
ti
onsof
t
hehuman-
race,pr
imar
il
yrepr
esent
edbyt
hedef
ini
ti
onofst
atehoodandal
lfor
ms
of i
nter
act
ions,especi
all
yinv
olv
ing t
hose acr
oss boundar
ies.The gui
ding
pr
inci
plesandcodesofconductar
epr
inci
pleshel
dasi
mpor
tantatv
ari
ousphases

16|Page
2024
ofhumanexi
stence.Fori
nst
ance,mostoft
hel
awsi
nexi
stencebef
oret
heTr
eat
y
ofWest
phal
i
ain1648woul
dhav
ebecomemor
ibundandofnoconsequent
ial
ef
fect
stot
heconduct
sofi
nter
stat
erel
ati
onsi
nthet
went
y-f
ir
stcent
ury
,basi
cal
l
y
becauset
heconceptofst
atehoodi
nbot
heonsar
esi
gni
fi
cant
lydi
ff
erent
.Si
mil
arl
y,
t
hel
awsgui
dingt
heexpl
orat
ionofspacei
ntheni
net
eent
hcent
uryar
esi
gni
fi
cant
ly
di
ff
erentf
rom whatexi
stsatpr
esent
.Thesamecoul
dbesai
dint
heanal
ysi
sof
t
err
it
ori
alwat
ers,whi
ch gui
des t
he Laws oft
he Seas t
oday
.Anot
hercr
it
ical
exampl
eist
hedef
ini
ti
onofhumanr
ight
s,andt
her
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenci
ti
zens
andt
hest
ate.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heconductofwarandt
hedef
ini
ti
onofcr
imesagai
nst
humani
tyar
ewi
del
ydi
ff
erentf
rom whatt
heymeanti
ntheear
lyday
s(i
fthey
exi
sted t
hen)
.Mor
eov
er,t
he adv
entofmul
ti
nat
ionalcor
por
ati
ons and non-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ionsar
erel
ati
vel
yrecentphenomenaai
dedbygl
obal
i
zat
ion,
hence,t
heabsenceofadequat
ear
ti
cul
ati
onoft
hei
rrel
evancei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw
i
ntheanci
enter
a.I
nef
fect
,thecont
ent
sandcont
extoft
hegui
dingpr
inci
plesf
or
i
nter
act
ionsamongst
ateandnon-
stat
eact
orsar
econt
inuousl
yal
ter
edt
osui
tthe
condi
ti
onsofv
ari
ouseons.

TheHi
stor
icalDev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsofnat
ionst
odaydi
rect
lyr
elat
ed
t
hedev
elopmentofWest
erncul
tur
eandUni
tedNat
ionspol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ion.The
economi
cgr
owt
handdev
elopmentofEur
opeannot
ionswi
thst
atessov
erei
gnt
y
andt
hei
nter
-dependencesi
tuat
ionofnat
ion-
stat
erequi
redanaccept
abl
emet
hod
wher
eby i
nter
-st
ater
elat
ions wer
ein accor
dance wi
th commonl
y accept
ed
st
andar
dsofl
aws,r
ulesandi
nter
nat
ionall
aws.But
,thel
awofnat
ionst
ookr
oot
f
ort
hehi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ional
laws.

Anci
entHi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ional
law

Anci
entHi
stor
yoft
hei
nter
nat
ionall
aw sy
stem hadcer
tai
nbasi
cconcept
swi
th
pol
i
ticalr
elat
ionshi
psofanci
entst
atest
housandsofy
ear
sago.Ar
ound1000BC,
f
ori
nst
ance,
asol
emnt
reat
ywassi
gnedbet
weent
her
uler
’sci
ty-
stat
essi
tuat
edi
n
t
hear
eaknownasMesopot
ami
aci
vi
li
zat
ionofci
tyst
atet
reat
y.Thenextmaj
or
i
nst
anceofhi
stor
icalbi
ndi
ngofi
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ywasov
er1,
000A.
Dyear
s’l
ater

17|Page
2024
t
reat
ybet
weenRomeI
I,anci
entEgy
ptandt
hePer
sianki
ngt
oest
abl
i
shet
ernal
peace and br
other
hood. Fr
om an ear
lydat
e manyagr
eement
s wer
e si
gned
bet
weensev
eralki
ngsai
medt
oembedar
it
ual
/cust
om f
orm ofst
atesubser
vience
bet
weent
hepar
ti
esorat
tempt
ingt
ocr
eat
eapol
i
ticalal
l
iancet
ocont
aini
nfl
uence
ov
er-
power
ful
empi
re.

I
ngener
alt
heAnci
entHi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ionall
awwasnotcl
earf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ng
r
eason.

The pr
edomi
nant appr
oach of anci
ent geogr
aphi
cal
l
y and cul
tur
all
y based
ci
vi
li
zat
ionswi
thoutt
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyofst
atesco-
exi
stencewi
thi
na
def
inedf
ramewor
k.

 Lackofcer
tai
nideal
s,suchast
hesanct
it
yofl
aw,i
nvi
olabi
l
ityoft
reat
ies
di
plomat
s’,andast
odayl
ackofi
mpor
tantel
ement
sofst
atessuchast
he
Uni
tedNat
ions.
 Lackoft
henot
ionofauni
ver
sal
communi
tywi
thi
deal
wor
ldor
der
.

TheMedi
evalPer
iodHi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ional
law

TheMedi
evalPer
iodHi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw wasbegunf
rom (
476AD-1500
AD)
.Theer
awaschar
act
eri
zedbyt
heaut
hor
it
yoft
heor
gani
zedChur
chandt
he
compr
ehensi
vest
ruct
ureoft
heHol
yRomanEmpi
rer
eli
giousr
uler
s.Al
lEur
ope
was domi
nat
ed by one r
eli
gi he eccl
on,and t esi
ast
icall
aw appl
i
ed t
o al
l
,
not
wit
hst
andi
ngt
ri
balorr
egi
onalaf
fi
li
ati
ons.Formuchoft
heper
iod,t
her
ewer
e
st
ruggl
esbet
weent
her
eli
giousaut
hor
it
iesandt
her
uler
soft
heHol
yRoman
Empi
re.unt
il476AD,aper
iodexceedi
ng500y
ear
s)wast
hebegi
nni
ngoft
he
medi
eval
per
iodwhi
chwasbr
oughtaboutbyt
hemi
grat
ionofsev
eral
peopl
esf
rom
East
ernEur
opet
oCent
ralAsi
a.Nomadi
cwar
ri
orsoci
eti
eswer
epushedwest
war
d
byot
herpeopl
esbehi
ndt
hem andt
heset
ri
besev
ent
ual
l
ydef
eat
edt
hear
miesof
anagi
ng,
decay
ingRomanEmpi
re.

18|Page
2024
Muchoft
hepol
i
ticsandsoci
etyoft
hemedi
evalper
iodr
efl
ect
sanuneasyr
elat
ion
oft
ri
balcust
omsandt
radi
ti
onalway
swi
thi
mper
ialr
emnant
ssuchasRomanl
aw
and t
heCat
hol
i
cChur
ch.Theul
ti
mat
eresul
twast
hedev
elopmentofanew
pol
i
ticalor
deri
dent
if
iedasFeudalSoci
etyorFeudal
i
sm.Fort
hemostpar
t,weak,
f
ragment
edpol
i
ticalpowerwascompl
ement
edbyaUni
ver
salRomanCat
hol
i
c
Chur
chexer
cisi
ngconsi
der
abl
eaut
hor
it
yinav
ari
etyofcont
ext
s.Thi
scont
rast
bet
weent
heChur
chandSt
ate,anot
herchal
l
engeorpr
obl
em ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
wasweakandf
ragment
edbecauset
heyul
ti
mat
elyr
est
edmor
eonpowert
hanon
aut
hor
it
ywhi
chr
est
edwi
tht
heChur
ch.

Thei
nfl
uenceoft
heChur
chr
efl
ect
eduni
ver
salaut
hor
it
ygr
oundedi
nacommon
r
eli
giouscr
eedbutt
hiswasof
tenhamper
edbyanabsenceofPowerwhi
chr
est
ed
wi
tht
heSt
ate.I
nthi
swaybot
h(Chur
chandSt
ate)wer
edependentoneachot
her
.
Ther
uler
ssoughtf
avorf
rom t
heChur
cht
oenhancet
hei
rlegi
ti
macywhi
l
ethe
Chur
chof
tenr
equi
redt
hepoweroft
heSt
atet
oenf
orceaut
hor
it
ati
vedeci
sionsor
pol
i
cies.

Theseconf
li
ctswer
eev
ent
ual
l
yresol
vedi
nfav
oroft
hePapacy
/aut
hor
it
yoft
he
pope,butt
hev
ict
oryov
ersecul
ari
sm pr
ovedofr
elat
ivel
yshor
tdur
ati
on.Rel
i
gion
andacommonl
egacyder
ivedf
rom t
heRomanEmpi
rewer
est
rongl
yuni
fyi
ng
i
nfl
uences,whi
l
epol
i
ticalandr
egi
onalr
ival
ri
eswer
enot
.Butbef
orear
ecogni
zed
sy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw coul
dbecr
eat
ed,soci
alchangeswer
eessent
ial
.Of
par
ti
cul
ari
mpor
tancedur
ingt
hiser
awer
etheaut
hor
it
yoft
heHol
yRomanEmpi
re
and t
hesupr
anat
ionalchar
act
erofcanon l
aw.Nev
ert
hel
ess,commer
cialand
mar
it
imel
awdev
elopedapace.Engl
i
shl
awest
abl
i
shedt
heLawMer
chant
,acode
ofr
ules cov
eri
ng f
orei
gn t
rader
s,and t
his was decl
ared t
o be ofuni
ver
sal
appl
i
cat
ion.Thr
oughoutEur
ope,mer
cant
il
ecour
tswer
esetupt
oset
tl
edi
sput
es
bet
weent
radesmenatt
hev
ari
ousf
air
s,andwhi
l
eiti
snotpossi
blet
ost
atet
hata
Cont
inent
alLawMer
chantcamei
ntobei
ng,
anet
wor
kofcommonr
egul
ati
onsand
pr
act
icesweav
edi
tswayacr
osst
hecommer
cialf
abr
icofEur
opeandconst
it
uted
anembr
yoni
cint
ernat
ionalt
radel
awi
n15t
hc.Si
mil
arl
y,mar
it
imecust
omsbegan
t
obeaccept
edt
hroughoutt
heCont
inent
.Foundedupont
heSeaLaw,aBy
zant
ine

19|Page
2024
wor
k,manyofwhoser
uleswer
eenshr
inedi
ntheRol
l
sofOl
eroni
nthe12thcent
ury
,
andot
hermar
it
ime,aser
iesofcommonl
yappl
i
edcust
omsr
elat
ingt
othesea
per
meat
ed t
henav
alpower
soft
heAt
lant
icand Medi
ter
ranean coast
s.Such
commer
cial
andmar
it
imecodes,
whi
l
eatt
hisst
agemer
elyexpr
essi
onsofnat
ional
l
egalsy
stems,wer
eamongstt
hef
orer
unner
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw becauset
hey
wer
ecr
eat
edandnur
tur
edbycr
oss-
nat
ionalcont
act
sandr
efl
ect
edt
heneedf
or
r
ulest
hatwoul
dcov
eri
nter
nat
ionalsi
tuat
ions.Suchr
ulesconst
it
utedt
heseeds
f
ori
nter
nat
ionall
aw. Endoft
he14t
hcEur
opeanst
ateswer
echal
l
engedbya
Renai
ssancecompl
exofi
deast
hatchangedt
hef
aceofEur
opeansoci
etyand
usher
edi
nthemoder
ner
aofsci
ent
if
ic,
humani
sti
candi
ndi
vi
dual
i
sti
cthought
.

I
naddi
ti
on,
thecol
l
apseoft
heBy
zant
ineEmpi
recent
eredi
nConst
ant
inopl
ebef
ore
t
heTur
kishar
miesi
n1453dr
ovemanyGr
eekschol
arst
oseeksanct
uar
yinI
tal
y
andenl
i
venWest
ernEur
ope’
scul
tur
all
i
fe.Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofpr
int
ingdur
ingt
he
15th cent
urypr
ovi
dedt
hemeanst
odi
ssemi
nat
eknowl
edge,andt
heunder
mini
ng
off
eudal
i
sm i
nthewakeofeconomi
cgr
owt
handt
her
iseoft
hemer
chantcl
asses
pr
ovi
dedt
hebackgr
oundt
othenew i
nqui
ri
ngat
ti
tudest
aki
ngshape.I
nthi
ser
a
Eur
ope’
s dev
elopi
ng sel
f-
conf
idence mani
fest
ed i
tsel
fin a sust
ained dr
ive
ov
erseasf
orweal
thandl
uxur
yit
emst
oinnov
atenewwor
lds.Byt he15th
heendoft
cent
ury
,theAr
abshadbeenoust
edf
rom t
heI
ber
ianPeni
nsul
aandt
heAmer
icas
r
eached.Ther
iseoft
henat
ion-
stat
esofEngl
and,Fr
anceandSpai
ninpar
ti
cul
ar
char
act
eri
zedt
hepr
ocessoft
hecr
eat
ionoft
err
it
ori
all
yconsol
i
dat
edi
ndependent
uni
ts,i
ntheor
yanddoct
ri
ne,aswel
lasi
nfact
.Thi
sledt
oahi
gherdegr
eeof
i
nter
act
ionbet
weensov
erei
gnent
it
iesandt
hust
heneedt
oregul
atesuchact
ivi
ti
es
i
nagener
all
yaccept
abl
efashi
on.Thepur
sui
tofpol
i
ticalpowerandsupr
emacy
becameov
ertandr
ecogni
zed,
asMachi
avel
l
i’
sThePr
ince(
1513)demonst
rat
ed.

Theci
ty-
stat
esofI
tal
yst
ruggl
eforsupr
emacyandt
hePapacyt
oobecamea
secul
arpower
.Fr
om t
hesehect
icst
ruggl
esemer
ged manyoft
hest
apl
esof
moder
nint
ernat
ionall
i
fe:di
plomacy
,st
atesmanshi
p,t
het
heor
yoft
hebal
anceof
powerand t
he i
dea ofa communi
tyofst
ates.Not
ions such as t
hese ar
e

20|Page
2024
i
mmedi
atel
yappr
eci
abl
eandonecani
dent
if
ywi
tht
hev
ari
ousmaneuv
ersf
or
pol
i
tical supr
emacy such as Al
l
iances,bet
ray
als,mani
pul
ati
ons of st
ate
i
nst
it
uti
onsar
erecogni
zi
ngt
her
oot
sofi
nter
nat
ional
publ
i
csoci
etyr
elat
ion.

I
twast
heev
olut
ionoft
heconceptofani
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyofsepar
ate,
sov
erei
gn,
ifcompet
ing,
stat
es,
thatmar
kst
hebegi
nni
ngofwhati
sunder
stoodby
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.TheRenai
ssancebequeat
hed/
prov
idedt
hepr
erequi
sit
esof
i
ndependent
,cr
it
icalt
houghtandahumani
sti
c,secul
arappr
oacht
oli
feaswel
las
t
hepol
i
ticalf
ramewor
kfort
hef
utur
e.Buti
tist
hel
att
erf
act
orwhi
chi
svi
talt
othe
subsequentgr
owt
h ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.The Ref
ormat
ion and t
he Eur
opean
r
eli
giouswar
sthatf
oll
owedemphasi
zedt
his,asdi
dthegr
owi
ngpoweroft
he
nat
ions.I
nmanyway
sthesewar
smar
kedt
hedecl
i
neofacont
inent
alsy
stem
f
ounded on r
eli
gion and t
he bi
rt
h ofa cont
inent
alsy
stem f
ounded on t
he
supr
emacyoft
hest
ate.Thr
oughoutt
hesecent
uri
est
henecessi
tywasf
eltf
ora
newconcept
ionofhumanaswel
lasst
ater
elat
ionshi
ps.

Thi
ssear
chwaspr
eci
pit
ated,ashasbeeni
nti
mat
ed,byt
hedecl
i
neoft
heChur
ch
andt
her
iseofwhatmi
ghtbet
ermed‘
fr
ee-
thi
nki
ng’
.Thet
heor
yofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
was nat
ural
l
ydeepl
yinv
olv
ed i
nthi
sreappr
aisalofpol
i
ticall
i
fe and i
twas
t
remendousl
yinf
luenced by t
he r
edi
scov
ery of Gr
eco-
Roman i
deas. The
Renai
ssancest
imul
atedar
ebi
rt
hofHel
l
eni
cst
udi
esandi
deasofNat
uralLaw,i
n
par
ti
cul
ar,
becamepopul
ar.Thus,
adi
sti
nctv
alue-
syst
em t
ounder
pini
nter
nat
ional
r
elat
ionswasbr
oughti
ntobei
ngandt
hel
awofnat
ionswasher
aldedaspar
toft
he
uni
ver
sall
awofnat
ure.Wi
tht
her
iseoft
hemoder
nst
ateandt
heemanci
pat
ionof
i
nter
nat
ional
rel
ati
ons,
thedoct
ri
neofsov
erei
gnt
yemer
ged.

Thi
s concept
,fi
rstanal
yzed sy
stemat
ical
l
yin 1576 i
nthe Si
x Li
vres de l
a
R´
epubl
i
quebyJeanBodi
n,wasi
ntendedt
odealwi
tht
hest
ruct
ureofaut
hor
it
y
wi
thi
nthemoder
nst
ate.Bodi
n,whobasedhi
sst
udyuponhi
sper
cept
ionoft
he
pol
i
ticsofEur
oper
athert
hanonat
heor
eti
caldi
scussi
onofabsol
utepr
inci
ples,
emphasi
zedt
henecessi
tyf
orasov
erei
gnpowerwi
thi
nthest
atet
hatwoul
dmake
t
hel
aws.Whi
l
esuchasov
erei
gncoul
dnotbeboundbyt
hel
awshehi
msel
f

21|Page
2024
i
nst
it
uted,hewassubj
ectt
othel
awsofGodandofnat
ure.Thei
deaoft
he
sov
erei
gnassupr
emel
egi
slat
orwasi
nthecour
seoft
imet
ransmut
edi
ntot
he
pr
inci
plewhi
chgav
ethest
at emepowerv
esupr is-̀a-
visot
herst
ates.Thest
ate
was r
egar
ded as bei
ng abov
ethe l
aw.Such not
ions as t
hese f
ormed t
he
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
basi
soft
hel
i
neoft
houghtknownasposi
ti
vi
sm.

Theear
lyt
heor
ist
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw wer
edeepl
yinv
olv
edwi
tht
hei
deasof
Nat
uralLaw andusedt
hem ast
hebasi
soft
hei
rphi
l
osophi
es.I
ncl
udedwi
thi
nthat
compl
exofNat
uralLawpr
inci
plesf
rom whi
cht
heyconst
ruct
edt
hei
rtheor
ieswas
t
hesi
gni
fi
cantmer
gingofChr
ist
ianandNat
uralLaw i
deast
hatoccur
redi
nthe
osophyofStThomasAqui
phi
l nas.Hemai
ntai
nedt
hatNat
uralLawf
ormedpar
tof
hel
t awofGod,
andwast
hepar
ti
cipat
ionbyr
ati
onal
creat
uresi
ntheEt
ernalLaw.I
t
compl
ement
edt
hatpar
toft
heEt
ernalLaw whi
chhadbeendi
vi
nel
yrev
eal
ed.
Reason,decl
aredAqui
nas,wast
heessenceofmanandt
husmustbei
nvol
vedi
n
t
heor
der
ingofl
i
feaccor
dingt
othedi
vi
newi
l
l.Nat
uralLawwast
hef
oundat
ionof
mor
albehav
ioraswel
lasofsoci
alandpol
i
ticali
nst
it
uti
ons,andi
tledt
oat
heor
y
ofcondi
ti
onalaccept
ance ofaut
hor
it
ywi
th unj
ustl
aws bei
ng unaccept
abl
e.
Aqui
nas’v
iews oft
he l
ate 13th cent
ury can be r
egar
ded as basi
cto an
under
standi
ngofpr
esentCat
hol
i
cat
ti
tudes,butshoul
dnotbeconf
usedwi
tht
he
l
ateri
nter
pret
ati
onofNat
uralLaw whi
chst
ressedt
heconcept
sofnat
uralr
ight
s.
But
,lat
erI
nter
nat
ionall
aw begant
oemer
geasasepar
atet
opi
ctobest
udi
ed
wi
thi
nit
,al
thoughder
ivedf
rom t
hepr
inci
plesofNat
ural
Law.

(
Nat
ural
istv
s.posi
ti
vi
stl
aw)

The ‘
nat
ural
ist
’school
,(1632–94)
,whoat
tempt
edt
oident
if
yint
ernat
ionall
aw
compl
etel
yrel
ateswi
tht
hel
aw ofnat
ure.Whi
l
etheexponent
sof‘
posi
ti
vi
sm’
,
school
swhodi
sti
ngui
shedbet
weeni
nter
nat
ionall
aw andNat
uralLaw t
hrough
emphasi
zedpr
act
icalpr
obl
emsandcur
rentst
atepr
act
ices.Ast
heyr
egar
ded
Nat
uralLaw asamor
ali
sti
csy
stem,andmi
sunder
stoodt
hedi
rect
ionofmoder
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
awbydeny
ingt
hev
ali
dit
yoft
her
ulesaboutcust
om.I
tal
sor
efused
t
oacknowl
edget
reat
iesasi
nanywayr
elev
antt
oadi
scussi
onoft
hebasi
sof

22|Page
2024
i
nter
nat
ionall herway‘
aw.Anot nat
ural
ist
s’i
gnor
etheact
ualpr
act
icesofst
atesi
n
f
avorofat
heor
eti
calconst
ruct
ionofabsol
utev
aluest
hatseemedsl
owl
ytodr
if
t
awayf
rom t
hecompl
exi
ti
esofpol
i
tical
real
i
tyoft
hest
ate.

The posi
ti
vi
stschoolf
ounderRi
char
d Zouche i
n Engl
and (
1590–1660)
,who
bel
i
eved t
hat Nat
uralLaw compl
etel
yregar
ds t
he t
radi
ti
onaldoct
ri
nes.Hi
s
concer
nwaswi
thspeci
fi
csi
tuat
ionsdev
elopedf
rom t
hel
aw ofpeaceabov
ea
sy
stemat
icconsi
der
ati
onoft
hel
awofwarandt
heor
eti
calexposi
ti
ons.I
nsi
mil
ar
st
yleBy
nker
shoek(
1673–1743)st
ressedt
hei
mpor
tanceofmoder
npr
act
iceand
v
irt
ual
l
yi ed Nat
gnor uralLaw.Hemadegr
eatcont
ri
but
ionst
othedev
elopi
ng
t
heor
iesoft
her
ight
sanddut
iesofneut
ral
sinwarandaf
tercar
efulst
udi
esoft
he
r
elev
antf
act
sdeci
dedi
nfav
oroft
hef
reedom oft
heseas.

Rat
ional
it
yofPosi
ti
vi
stAppr
oach

Rat
ional
i
tyofPosi
ti
vi
stAppr
oachoni
nter
nat
ionall
awassumpt
ionr
easonoutas
f
oll
ows

Li
kemuchofmoder
nthought
,int
ernat
ionall
aw wasder
ivedf
rom t
heempi
ri
cal
met
hodadopt
edbyt
heRenai
ssance.

I
twasconcer
ned notwi
th an edi
fi
ce/
const
ruct
ion oft
heor
yst
ruct
ured upon
deduct
ions f
rom absol
ute pr
inci
ples,butr
atherwi
thv
iewi
ng ev
ent
s as t
hey
occur
redanddi
scussi
ngact
ual
probl
emst
hathadar
isen.

Empi
ri
cism asf
ormul
atedbyLockeandHumedeni
edt
heexi
stenceofi
nnat
e
pr
inci
plesandpost
ulat
edt
hati
deaswer
eder
ivedf
rom exper
ience.

Thesci
ent
if
icmet
hodofexper
imentandv
eri
fi
cat
ionofhy
pot
hesesemphasi
zed
t
hisappr
oachf
rom t
hephi
l
osophi
calat
ti
tude;i
twasashor
tst
ept
orei
nter
pret
ing
i
nter
nat
ionall
awnoti
nter
msofconcept
sder
ivedf
rom r
easonbutr
atheri
nter
ms
ofwhatact
ual
l
yhappenedbet
weent
hecompet
ingst
ates.

Whatst
atesact
ual
l
ydowast
hekey
,notwhatst
atesoughtt
odogi
venbasi
crul
es
oft
hel
awofnat
ure.

23|Page
2024
Agr
eement
sandcust
omsr
ecogni
zedbyt
hest
ateswer
etheessenceoft
hel
awof
nat
ions.

Posi
ti
vi
sm dev
elopedast
hemoder
nnat
ion-
stat
esy
stem emer
ged,
aft
ert
hePeace
ofWest
phal
i
ain1648,f
rom t
her
eli
giouswar
s.I
naddi
ti
on,i
tcoi
nci
ded wi
th
t
heor
iesofsov
erei
gnt
ysuchast
hosepr
opoundedbyBodi
nandHobbes,whi
ch
under
li
ned t
he supr
eme poweroft
he sov
erei
gn and l
ed t
o not
ions oft
he
sov
erei
gnt
yofst
ates.

I
ngener
al,
Element
sofbot
hposi
ti
vi
sm andnat
ural
i
sm appear
edbasedonNat
ural
Lawpr
inci
plesy
etwaspr
act
ical
l
yor
ient
ed.But
,posi
ti
vi
sm i
ntr
oducedt
hedoct
ri
ne
oft
heequal
i
tyofst
atesi
ntoi
nter
nat
ionall
aw wi
tht
hedecl
ari
ngt
hatasmal
l
r
epubl
i
cwasnol
essasov
erei
gnt
hant
hemostpower
fulki
ngdom,
justasadwar
f
wasasmuchamanasagi
ant
.Bydi
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weenl
awsofconsci
enceand
l
awsofact
ionandst
ati
ngt
hatonl
ythel
att
erwer
eofpr
act
icalconcer
nmi
nimi
zed
t
hei
mpor
tanceofNat
ural
Law.

I
roni
cal
l
y/par
adoxi
cal
l
y,att
he same t
ime t
hatposi
ti
vi
stt
houghtappear
ed t
o
demol
i
sht
hephi
l
osophi
calbasi
soft
hel
awofnat
ureandr
elegat
e/downgr
adet
hat
t
heor
yto hi
stor
y,i
treemer
ged i
n a moder
n gui
se r
epl
ete/
abandoni
ng wi
th
si
gni
fi
cancef
ort
hef
utur
e.

Nat
uralLaw gav
ewayt
otheconceptofnat
uralr
ight
s.I
twasani
ndi
vi
dual
i
sti
c
asser
ti
on ofpol
i
ticalsupr
emacy
.The i
dea oft
he soci
alcont
ract
,thatan
agr
eementbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
sPr
e-dat
edandj
ust
if
iedci
vi
lsoci
ety
,emphasi
zed
t
hecent
ralr
oleoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,and whet
hersuchat
heor
ywasi
nter
pret
ed
pessi
mist
ical
l
yto demand an absol
ute sov
erei
gn as Hobbes decl
ared,or
opt
imi
sti
cal
l
ytomeanacondi
ti
onalaccept
anceofaut
hor
it
yasLockemai
ntai
ned,
i
tcoul
dnotf
ailt
obear
evol
uti
onar
ydoct
ri
ne.Ther
ight
sofmanconst
it
utet
he
hear
toft
he Amer
ican and Fr
ench Rev
olut
ions and t
he essence ofmoder
n
democr
ati
csoci
ety
.

Yet
,ont
heot
herhand,
thedoct
ri
neofNat
uralLawhasbeenempl
oyedt
opr
eser
ve

24|Page
2024
t
heabsol
utenessofsov
erei
gnt
yandt
hesanct
it
yofpr
ivat
epossessi
ons.The
t
heor
yhasar
eact
ionar
yaspectbecausei
tcoul
dbear
guedt
hatwhatwas,ought
t
obe,
sincei
tev
olv
edf
rom t
hesoci
alcont
ractorwasdi
vi
nel
yor
dai
neddependi
ng
uponhowsecul
aroneconst
ruedt
hel
awofnat
ure.

TheEar
lyModer
nAgeHi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ional
law

Fr
om t
hebegi ngof17th t
nni o18th cent
uryEur
opeani
ntel
l
ect
ual
spr
ovi
dedt
he
i
deasofr
ati
onal
i
sm phi
l
osophi
est
hatcont
ri
but
edt
otheev
olut
ionoft
hedoct
ri
ne
ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
nthe19thcent
uryapr
act
icalexpansi
onofposi
ti
vi
stv
iewson
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

TheCongr
essofVi
enna,att
heendof Napol
eoni
cwar
s,t
henew i
nter
nat
ional
or
derwhi
chwast
obeenshr
inedbasedupont
heEur
opeanbal
anceofpower
.
I
nter
nat
ionall
awbecameapar
tofci
vi
li
zat
ion,
forwest
ernChr
ist
ianst
ates,
wor
ld.
Ov
erseast
radeand f
orei
gn nat
ion’
sdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionscoul
d ent
eri
ntot
he
consentofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw West
ernpower
s.I
nthey
earofi
mper
ial
i
sm and
par
adoxi
cal
l
y,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw becamegeogr
aphi
cal
l
yint
ernat
ional
i
zedt
hrough
t
he expansi
on oft
he Eur
opean empi
res,and i
tbecame l
essUni
ver
sal
i
sm i
n
concept
ionandmor
e,t
heor
eti
cal
l
yaswel
laspr
act
ical
l
y,ar
efl
ect
ionofEur
opean
v
aluesofi
mper
ial
i
sm.Thi
stheme,t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenuni
ver
sal
i
sm and
par
ti
cul
ari
sm,appear
sti
me and agai
nini
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
s cent
uryal
so
i
ncl
udedcer
tai
nel
ement
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw byt
hest
atesofsomer
egi
ons,
especi
all
ywi
thr
egar
dto,l
essdi
plomat
icasy
lum andt
het
reat
mentoff
orei
gn
ent
erpr
isesand nat
ional
s.Ther
ear
emanyot
herf
eat
urest
hatmar
kthe19th
cent
ury
.

Sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionemer
gedt
othr
eat
ent
hemul
ti
nat
ionalempi
resofCent
raland
East
ernEur
ope,whi
l
enat
ional
i
sm r
eachedi
tspeaki
ntheuni
fi
cat
ionsofGer
many
andI
tal
yandbegant
oexhi
bitf
eat
uressuchasexpansi
oni
sm anddoct
ri
nesof
r
aci
alsuper
ior
it
y.Democr
acybr
oughtt
othei
ndi
vi
dualpol
i
ticali
nfl
uenceandasay
i
n gov
ernment
.Ital
so br
oughthome t
he r
eal
i
ties ofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,f
orwar
s

25|Page
2024
becamet
heconcer
nofal
l
.Conscr
ipt
ion/
mobi
l
izat
ionwasi
ntr
oducedt
hroughout
t
heCont
inentandl
argenat
ionalar
miesr
epl
acedt
hesmal
lpr
ofessi
onalf
orces.
TheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionmechani
zedEur
ope,cr
eat
edt
heeconomi
cdi
chot
omyof
capi
talandl
aborandpr
opel
l
edWest
erni
nfl
uencet
hroughoutt
hewor
ld.Al
lthese
f
act
orscr
eat
edanenor
mousi
ncr
easei
nthenumberandv
ari
etyofbot
hpubl
i
cand
pr
ivat
e i
nter
nat
ional i
nst
it
uti
ons, and i
nter
nat
ional l
aw gr
ew r
api
dly t
o
accommodat
ethem.

Thedev
elopmentoft
radeandcommuni
cat
ionsnecessi
tat
edgr
eat
eri
nter
nat
ional
co-
oper
ati
onasamat
terofpr
act
icalneed.I
n1815,t
heFi
nalActoft
heCongr
ess
ofVi
enna est
abl
i
shed t
he pr
inci
ple off
reedom ofnav
igat
ion wi
thr
egar
dto
i
nter
nat
ionalwat
erway
sandsetupaCent
ralCommi
ssi
onoft
heRhi
net
oregul
ate
i
tsuse.

I
n 1856 a commi
ssi
on f
ort
he Danube was cr
eat
ed and a numberofot
her
Eur
opean r
iver
s al
so became t
he subj
ectofi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
s and
ar
rangement
s.I
n1865t
heI
nter
nat
ionalTel
egr
aphi
cUni
onwasest
abl
i
shedandi
n
1874t
heUni
ver
sal
Post
alUni
on.

Eur
opean conf
erences pr
oli
fer
ated/
flour
ished and cont
ri
but
ed gr
eat
lyt
othe
dev
elopmentofr
ulesgov
erni
ngt
hewagi
ngofwar
.TheI
nter
nat
ionalCommi
tt
eeof
t
heRedCr
oss,
foundedi
n1863,
hel
pedpr
omot
etheser
iesofGenev
aConv
ent
ions
begi
nni
ng i
n1864 deal
i
ng wi
tht
he‘
humani
zat
ion’ofconf
li
ct,and t
heHague
Conf
erencesof1899and1907est
abl
i
shedt
hePer
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ionand
deal
twi
tht
het
reat
mentofpr
isoner
sandt
hecont
rolofwar
far
e.Numer
ousot
her
conf
erences,conv
ent
ionsandcongr
essesemphasi
zedt
heexpansi
onoft
her
ules
ofi
nter
nat
ional
lawandt
hecl
osenet
wor
kofi
nter
nat
ional
rel
ati
ons.

Moder
nagehi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ional
Law

TheModer
nagehi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ionalcov
ers19th ct
o21th ci
nthesey
ear
s
Eur
opeanst
ateswer
edev
ast
atedbyWWIandWWI
IcasesSel
f-
conf
idencef
aded,
i
fsl
owl
y,t
he edi
fi
ce weakened and t
he uni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
ed assumpt
ionsof

26|Page
2024
pr
ogr
esswer
eincr
easi
ngl
ydoubt
edamongci
vi
li
zedEur
opeanst
ates.Themost
i
mpor
tantl
egacyoft
he1919PeaceTr
eat
yfr
om t
hepoi
ntofv
iewofi
nter
nat
ional
r
elat
ionswast
hecr
eat
ionoft
heLeagueofNat
ions.TheLeagueofNat
ions
consi
stedofanAssembl
yandanexecut
iveCounci
l
,buti
twascr
ippl
edf
rom t
he
st
artbyt
heabsenceoft
heUni
tedSt
atesandt
heSov
ietUni
onf
ormostofi
tsl
i
fe
andr
emai
nedabasi
cal
l
yEur
opeanor
gani
zat
ion.Whi
l
eitdi
dhav
ecer
tai
nmi
nor
successeswi
thr
egar
dtot
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ionalor
der
,itf
ail
edwhen
conf
ront
edwi
thdet
ermi
nedaggr
essor
s.Japani
nvadedChi
nai
n1931andt
wo
y
ear
slat
erwi
thdr
ew f
rom t
he League.I
tal
yat
tacked Et
hiopi
a,and Ger
many
embar
kedunhi
nder
eduponaser
iesofi
nter
nalandext
ernalaggr
essi
ons.The
Sov
ietUni
on,i
naf
inalgest
ure,wasexpel
l
ed f
rom t
heor
gani
zat
ion i
n 1939
f
oll
owi
ng i
tsi
nvasi
on ofFi
nland.Nev
ert
hel
ess,much usef
ulgr
oundwor
kwas
achi
evedbyt
heLeaguei
nit
sshor
texi
stenceandt
hishel
pedt
oconsol
i
dat
ethe
Uni
tedNat
ionsl
ateron.

ThePer
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ional
Just
icewassetupi
n1921atTheHagueand
wassucceededi
n1946byI
CJ.TheI
LOwasest
abl
i
shedsoonaf
tert
heendoft
he
WWIand st
il
lexi
stst
oday
,and many ot
heri
nter
nat
ionali
nst
it
uti
ons wer
e
i
naugur
atedori
ncr
easedt
hei
rwor
kdur
ingt
hisper
iod.Ot
heri
deasofI
Lthatf
ir
st
appear
edbet
weent
hewar
sincl
udedt
hesy
stem ofmandat
es,bywhi
chcol
oni
es
oft
hedef
eat
edpower
swer
eadmi
nist
eredbyt
heAl
l
iesf
ort
hebenef
itoft
hei
r
i
nhabi
tant
srat
hert
hanbei
ngannexedout
ri
ght
,andt
heat
temptwasmadet
o
pr
ovi
de a f
orm ofmi
nor
it
ypr
otect
ion guar
ant
eed byt
he League.Thi
slat
ter
cr
eat
ionwasnotagr
eatsuccessbuti
tpav
edt
hewayf
orl
aterconcer
ntosecur
e
humanr
ight
s.

Af
tert
het
raumaofWWI
ItheLeaguewassucceededbyt
heUNOsi
n1946,whi
ch
t
ri
edt
oremedymanyoft
hedef
ect
sofi
tspr
edecessor
.Itest
abl
i
shedi
tssi
teat
New Yor
k,r
efl
ect
ingt
her
eal
i
tiesoft
heshi
ftofpowerawayf
rom Eur
ope,and
det
ermi
nedt
obecomeat
rul
yuni
ver
sali
nst
it
uti
on.Theadv
entofdecol
oni
zat
ion
f
ulf
il
ledt
hisexpect
ati
onandt
heGener
alAssembl
yoft
heUNscur
rent
lyhas192
memberst
ates.Manyoft
het
rendswhi
chf
ir
stcamet
opr
omi
nencei
nthe19th
27|Page
2024
cent
uryhav
econt
inuedt
othi
sday
.Thi
sexpansi
onofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
ntot
he
f
iel
dofeconomi
cswasamaj
ordev
el he20th cent
opmentoft uryandi
sev
idenced
i
nmy
riadway
s,f
orexampl
e,byt
hecr
eat
ionoft
heGener
alAgr
eementonTar
if
fs
andTr
ade,t
heUni
tedNat
ionsConf
erenceonTr
adeandDev
elopment
,andt
he
est
abl
i
shmentoft
heI
nter
nat
ional
Monet
aryFundandWor
ldBank.Thei
nter
est
sof
t
he new st
ates oft
he Thi
rd Wor
ld ar
e of
ten i
n conf
li
ctwi
tht
hose oft
he
i
ndust
ri
ali
zednat
ions,
wit
nessdi
sput
esov
ernat
ional
i
zat
ions.

Thev
asti
ncr
easei
nthenumberofi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
sandcust
oms,t
he
st
rengt
heni
ngoft
hesy
stem ofar
bit
rat
ionandt
hedev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionshav
eest
abl
i
shedt
heessenceofi
nter
nat
ional
lawasi
texi
stst
oday
.

Ef
fect
ivenessofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Much t
heor
eti
calcont
rov
ersyhas been waged ov
ert
he nat
ure and basi
s of
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw andamongot
her
sit
slegal
i
tyi
sputi
nquest
ionbydi
ff
erent
schol
arsei
therbycompar
ingi
twi
thmuni
ci
pall
awsorbyl
ooki
ngati
tsdi
sti
nct
f
eat
ures.

Accor
dingt
osomeschol
arst
her
eisnot
hingi
nthenor
m orr
ulei
tsel
fthatmakesi
t
l
egal
;rat
heri
tist
hewhol
est
ruct
uret
hroughwhi
cht
henor
mispr
oduced,appl
i
ed
andenf
orcedt
hatdef
inesi
tsl
egal
i
tyandl
egi
ti
macy
.Thewayact
orsper
cei
vea
sy
stem ofr
ulesmat
ter
sindet
ermi
ningi
fiti
sconsi
der
edl
egalornon-
legali
nsof
ar
ashow t
heyper
cei
vet
heobl
i
gat
ionst
hatder
ivef
rom i
t.Someadv
ocat
esof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw suchasRi
char
dFal
kadoptanagnost
icv
iew ofi
nter
nat
ional
l
egal
i
ty.Hepr
oposest
otaket
heexi
stenceofl
aw asagi
venf
actandj
udgei
ts
ef
fi
ciency wi
thr
egar
dto hi
stor
icaldev
elopment
s.Ot
herschol
ars emphasi
ze
i
mpor
tantf
unct
ionsofl
awt
hatar
enotdependedoncent
ral
enf
orcementaut
hor
it
y,
namel
ytheexpr
essi
onandcommuni
cat
ionofnor
msandv
aluesi
nor
dert
ocl
aim
l
egal
i
tyf
ort
hesy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ionalr
ules.Howev
er,t
het
hreeassumpt
ions
neat
lysummar
izet
hepoi
ntsar
oundwhi
cht
hedebat
esabouti
nter
nat
ionall
aw
ef
fect
ivenessst
il
l.

28|Page
2024
Fi
rst
,itseemst
obenear
lyi
mpossi
blet
othi
nkaboutl
egal
i
tyandasy
stem ofl
aw
wi
thoutacent
rall
awenf
orci
ngaut
hor
it
y,somet
hingskept
icsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
ar
enotget
ti
ngt
ir
edofpoi
nti
ngout
.

Second,l
aw i
ssomehow di
sti
nctf
rom f
orce,y
etpar
adoxi
cal
l
yrel
i
anton an
aut
hor
it
ati
vest
ruct
uret
hati
sabl
etoempl
oyf
orcet
oful
fi
llamongot
her
sit
s
f
unct
ionofl
i
mit
ingt
heunr
est
rai
nedexer
ciseofpower
.

Thi
rd,
lawi
sanaut
onomous,
sel
f-
suf
fi
cientf
iel
dthatcanbemar
kedof
f,i
nsev
eral
i
mpor
tantway
s,f
rom t
heot
herdi
scour
ses,v
agar
iesandconf
li
ctsofsoci
aland
pol
i
ticall
i
fe.Theset
hreepoi
ntsar
eamongt
her
easonswhyi
nter
nat
ionall
awhas
beenaper
ipher
alent
erpr
isei
nLegalSt
udi
esandI
nter
nat
ionalRel
ati
onsal
i
ke.
Thosewhodi
sput
ethel
egal
nat
ureofi
nter
nat
ional
lawpoi
ntt
oanumberofpi
eces
ofev
idencet
osust
aint
hei
rcase.TheHi
stor
icalchal
l
engesofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw
hav
elackedef
fect
ivenessf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eason.

1.TheLackofLaw-
maki
ngI
nst
it
uti
ons

Thedi
sti
nctf
eat
uresofi
nter
nat
ionall
awdonothav
elawmaki
ngI
nst
it
uti
onsatal
l
l
evel
sofsov
erei
gnst
atesbutsi
mpl
ytr
eatpar
tofst
atesandt
hesef
eat
ureswoul
d
notbyanychancet
akeawayt
hel
egal
i
tyofi
nter
nat
ionall
awasanyhumanbei
ng
cannotbeot
her
wisej
ustbecausei
thasdi
ff
erentchar
act
eri
sti
csf
rom di
ff
erent
st
ates.Ev
enso,i
tcannev
erbedeni
edt
hatt
heconsequencesofi
tsdi
sti
nct
ive
f
eat
ureshav
enotweakenedi
tsef
fect
iveness.

Asr
egar
ds,
int
ernat
ionall
awasl
aw,
thear
gumentoft
hecr
it
icscent
eredupont
he
absenceofal
egi
sl
atur
eandmor
erecent
ly,upont
het
opi
cofsanct
ionand
compl
i
ancewi
thoutr
ecogni
zi
ngt
hehi
stor
ical
,st
ruct
ural
andf
unct
ional
dif
fer
ences
bet
weenl
egalsy
stemswi
thi
nst
atesandt
hei
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem ast
he
necessar
yst
art
ingpoi
ntofanal
ysi
s.Wi
thoutal
egi
slat
uret
ocr
eat
elaws,j
udi
ciar
y
hav
ing a hi
erar
chyofj
udges t
o set
tl
e di
sput
es and an accept
ed sy
stem of
execut
ionoft
hosel
aws,how canoneacceptauni
ver
salsy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awt
her
efor
eift
hisi
sthecase?I
tist
ruet
hati
nter
nat
ionall
awhasnoor
gani
zed

29|Page
2024
bodi
est
olegi
slat
eit
slawssi
ncet
her
eisnoaut
hor
it
ysuper
iort
oindependent
st
ates.Wecannotconcl
udet
hatl
awsar
enotf
ormul
atedf
ort
her
egul
ati
onof
st
atesi
nthei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

Theabsenceofaut
hor
it
ati
vel
aw-
maki
ngmachi
ner
yis,ofcour
se,t
hecauseof
uncer
tai
ntyofmanyoft
hepr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
not
heroccasi
ons,t
he
absenceofal
egi
slat
iveaut
hor
it
ywasar
guedbyt
ryi
ngt
oshow t
hati
nmany
communi
ti
eswi
thoutaf
ormall
egi
slat
iveaut
hor
it
yasy
stem ofl
aw wasi
nfor
ce
andbei
ngobser
ved,
andt
hatsuchl
awdi
dnotl
osei
tsbi
ndi
ngnat
uref
rom t
hel
aw
ofanyst
atewi
that
ruel
egi
slat
iveaut
hor
it
y.Thesamei
str
uei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw
because ev
en i
fiti
str
ue t
hatt
her
eis no det
ermi
nantsov
erei
gn l
egi
slat
ive
aut
hor
it
yint
he i
nter
nat
ionalf
iel
dthe pr
ocedur
efor
mul
ati
ng t
hese r
ules of
i
nter
nat
ionall
egi
sl
ati
onbymeansofi
nter
nat
ionalconf
erenceort
hroughexi
sti
ng
i
nter
nat
ionalor
gans i
s pr
act
ical
l
yas set
tl
ed i
fnotas ef
fi
cientas anyst
ate
l
egi
slat
ivepr
ocedur
e.

Ar
athercl
earandconv
inci
ngwayofexpl
aini
ngwasgi
venbyani
nter
nat
ionall
aw
wr
it
err
egar
ding t
he quest
ion ofl
egi
slat
ion bydi
sti
ngui
shi
ng t
he f
ormaland
mat
eri
alsour
cesofl
aw.Asnosuchconst
it
uti
onal
machi
ner
yofl
awmaki
ngexi
sts
f
ort
hecr
eat
ionofr
ulesofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
nasenset
hatf
ormalsour
cesdonot
exi
sti
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Howev
er,
thev
eryf
actt
hati
nter
nat
ionall
awi
scr
eat
edby
st
atest
hemsel
vesi
nthepr
ocessoft
hei
rcooper
ati
on,woul
dnotenabl
etohav
ea
supr
a-nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionwi
thal
egi
slat
iveaut
hor
it
y,unl
i
kemuni
cipall
aw.I
nthe
cont
extoft
hej
udi
cialbr
ancht
hei
nter
nat
ionalcour
tofj
ust
iceonl
ydat
esf
rom
1920andasi
tdoesnotpossesscompul
sor
yjur
isdi
cti
onov
eri
tssubj
ect
s,namel
y
st
ates,ev
enadi
sput
ethati
scapabl
eofl
egalanal
ysi
smaynotber
efer
redt
othe
cour
t.

2.LackofSanct
ioncoer
civ
e

Theot
herobj
ect
iont
olegal
i
tyofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw ar
guest
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw
doesnotmeett
hedef
ini
ti
onof‘
l
aw’whi
chi
spr he19th cent
opoundedbyt ury
anal
yti
calposi
ti
vi
sts.Thati
sLawi
sbyi
tsv
erynat
ureacoer
civ
eor
der
.Acoer
civ
e

30|Page
2024
or
deri
sasy
stem ofr
ulespr
escr
ibi
ngcer
tai
npat
ter
nsofbehav
iorbypr
ovi
ding
coer
civ
emeasur
esassanct
ionst
obet
akeni
ncaseofcont
rar
ybehav
ioror
,what
amount
sit
’st
hesame;i
ncaseofv
iol
ati
onoft
hel
aw.Howev
er,t
hecont
rov
ersi
al
quest
ioni
sthepr
esenceofsanct
ionunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw av
ail
abl
etosecur
e
obser
vanceofi
tsr
ules.Atoneext
remet
hisi
sav
iew t
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sa
sy
stem wi
thoutsanct
ion. Thati
swhyknownwr
it
ersofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw l
i
ke
Aust
inandmanyot
her
s,putt
hel
egal
i
tyofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
ntoquest
ionbyt
aki
ng
t
hei
deat
hatsi
ncet
her
eisnosupr
a-nat
ionalaut
hor
it
ywhi
chcani
mposesanct
ion,
t
her
eisno sanct
ioncoer
civ
eunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw whi
chwi
l
lmakei
tonl
y
i
nter
nat
ionalmor
ali
ty.Todi
ff
erent
iat
eint
ernat
ionall
awandmor
ali
tyi
stol
ookat
t
her
esponsebyapar
ti
cul
arsubj
ectofi
nter
nat
ionall
awwhi
chi
ssupposedt
obe
boundbyapar
ti
cul
arr
uleofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Consi
dert
her
ulei
nquest
ionl
egal
l
y
bi
ndi
ngorasamor
aldut
y(i
nter
nat
ional
mor
ali
ty)
.

Unl
i
kemuni
ci
pall
aw t
her
eisnoor
gani
zedappar
atusofcoer
cion(
cour
t,pol
i
ce,
andar
my)i
nint
ernat
ionall
awwhi
chdef
endst
hei
nter ,notofonesi
est ngl
est
ate,
butofal
lst
atespar
ti
cipat
ingi
nint
ernat
ionali
nter
cour
se.Ont
heot
herhand,
ther
e
ar
eaconsi
der
abl
enumberofgr
eatschol
arswhoar
guet
hatl
awi
snotanar
bit
rar
y
cr
eat
ionofhumanwi
l
landt
hati
tisol
dert
hant
hecr
eat
ionandor
gani
zat
ionoft
he
v
ari
ouspower
soft
hesoci
ety
.”So,
fort
heef
fect
ivenessoft
hel
aw,
codes,
judges
andagent
sofpubl
i
cfor
cesshoul
dappl
ythel
aw,
butt
heydonotcr
eat
eit
.Ther
ule
ofl
awexi
stsnotonl
ybef
oreaconst
rai
nti
sor
gani
zedi
nor
dert
osanct
ioni
t.

Butev
enahumanbei
ngi
sconsci
ousofi
t;t
heexi
stenceoft
heobj
ect
iver
uleof
l
awi
sindependentoft
hesanct
ion.Ther
ear
eot
her
swhosayt
hatwhet
herornot
coer
cioni
sani
nher
entel
ementoft
heconceptofl
aw,orl
aw canexi
stwi
thout
sanct
ions,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
nbot
hcases,al
egaldi
sci
pli
ne.Asf
ort
hedi
ff
erent
v
iews,i
nter
nat
ionall
awl
acksr
ulesconcer
ningor
gani
zedmeansofcompensat
ion
agai
nstt
hosewhoar
efoundgui
l
tyofv
iol
ati
onofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Butt
hisdoes
notgi
veusst
rongev
idencet
odenyt
hepr
esenceofsanct
ion,
but
,att
hesamet
ime
we mustconf
ess t
hati
n many r
espect
s sanct
ion t
o pr
ove weakness of
i
nter
nat
ional
lawbecauset
her
eisf
requentv
iol
ati
onofi
t.

31|Page
2024
Howev
er,
suchv
iol
ati
onsar
ewel
lpubl
i
cizedandst
ri
keatt
hehear
toft
hesy
stem,
t
he cr
eat
ion and pr
eser
vat
ion ofi
nter
nat
ionalpeace and j
ust
ice. Butwhen
domest
icl
awsar
evi
olat
ednobodydar
est
odenyt
heexi
stenceofl
awsoassaul
t
oni
nter
nat
ional
legal
rul
espoi
ntupt
hei
rweaknessnott
hei
rval
i
dit
yandnecessi
ty.
Thus,despi
tet
heoccasi
onalgr
ossv
iol
ati
on,t
hev
astmaj
ori
tyoft
hepr
ovi
sionsof
i
nter
nat
ional
lawar
efol
l
owed.

3.LackofEf
fect
iveness

Thei
nef
fi
ci
encyofi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
srel
atedwi
tht
hei
deaofl
ackofenf
orcement
mechani
smsbutanef
fect
ivel
egalsy
stem shoul
dnotbemeasur
edi
nter
msof
puni
shmentempl
oyedr
atheri
tisi
nter
msofdet
err
enceofv
iol
ati
ons.Mal
col
m
Shawar
guest
hatt
heor
ist
swhoconcent
rat
eonsanct
ionandf
orceasexpr
essi
on
oft
hel
egalchar
act
erofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,mi
sunder
stoodt
her
oleofsanct
ion.
I
nst
ead off
ocusi
ng on sanct
ions,Shaw pr
oposes t
o use obl
i
gat
ion as a
det
ermi
nantoft
hel
egalchar
act
erofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thus,
aspoi
ntedabov
elaw
orl
egal
i
tyi
snott
hecapaci
tyofacer
tai
nrul
ebuti
sther
esul
tofanongoi
ng
pr
ocesst
hati
nvol
vesi
nst
it
uti
onsandpr
act
ices.

4.I
tisdet
ermi
nedbyt
hesel
f-
int
erestofst
ates

Somet
imes an obj
ect
ion i
s made t
oint
ernat
ionall
aw on t
he i
dea t
hati
tis
det
ermi
nedbyt
hesel
f-
int
erestofi
ndi
vi
dualst
ates.St
ateswer
eindependentand
f
reeagent
sandaccor
dingl
ytheycoul
donl
ybeboundwi
tht
hei
rownconsent
.Wi
th
t
hef
ormul
ati
onofI
nter
nat
ionall
aw,byi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
s,whi
chcr
eat
es
r
ulesbi
ndi
ngupont
hesi
gnat
oryandcust
omar
yrul
eswhi
char
ebasi
cal
l
yst
ate
pr
act
ices r
ecogni
zed byt
he communi
tyatl
arge as l
ayi
ng down pat
ter
ns of
conduct
sthathav
etobecompl
i
edwi
th,st
atesacceptorconsentt
othegener
al
sy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Obv
iousl
y,i
fst
atesdi
dnoti
nsi
stonr
espectf
ort
hese
r
ulesi
nter
nat
ionall
aw woul
dnotexi
st.Butwhati
stost
opast
atef
rom si
mpl
y
i
gnor
ingi
nter
nat
ionall
aw pr
oceedi
ngsuponi
tsi
nter
esti
sreci
proci
tywhi
chi
sa
mor
epower
ful
inst
rumentt
obeconsent
edt
hansanct
ionsandpr
essur
es.

32|Page
2024
Theul
ti
mat
ereasont
hati
mpelst
atest
ouphol
dtheobser
vanceofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awi
ncl
udesawi
sht
omai
ntai
nar
eput
ati
onf
orr
eli
abi
l
ity
,topl
ayani
nfl
uent
ialr
ole
asar
esponsi
blememberoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,andadesi
ret
ofost
er
communi
cat
ionsand t
our
ism. I
n si
mpl
eter
ms,t
o someext
entatl
east
,the
pr
obl
em ofbi
ndi
ng f
orceofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw ul
ti
mat
elyr
esol
vesi
tsel
fint
oa
pr
obl
em di
ff
erentf
rom t
hatoft
heobl
i
gat
orychar
act
erofl
awi
ngener
al.

Sour
cesofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Dearl
ear
ner
s,cany
oument
ionsomeoft
hesour
cesofi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw?

Moder
nint
ernat
ionall
awcandev
elopf
rom t
hreemai
nsour
ces:t
reat
ies,cust
oms,
andt
hegener
all
yaccept
edpr
inci
plesofl
aw der
ivedf
rom nat
ionall
egalsy
stems
t
hroughoutt
hewor
ld.I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsal
sopl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthe
f
ormat
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
law.

Tr
eat
ies

Tr
eat
ies ar
e wr
it
ten agr
eement
s bet
ween t
wo or mor
e sov
erei
gn st
ates.
I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsmayal
sobegi
vent
hecapaci
tyt
omaket
reat
ies,ei
ther
wi
thsov
erei
gnst
atesorot
heri
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions.TheVi
ennaConv
ent
ion
ont
heLawofTr
eat
iespr
ovi
desaconcept
ualcl
ari
fi
cat
ionoft
reat
ywheni
tdef
ines
t
het
erm as:

an i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementconcl
uded bet
ween St
ates i
n wr
it
ten f
orm and
gover
nedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,whet
herembodi
edi
nasi
ngl
einst
rumentori
ntwo
ormor
erel
atedi
nst
rument
sandwhat
everi
tspar
ti
cul
ardesi
gnat
ion.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesoft
reat
y:bi
l
ater
alt
reat
yandmul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
y-(
1).anof
fi
cial
agr
eementcoul
dber
egar
dedasabi
l
ater
alt
reat
yifi
tinv
olv
esonl
ytwoSt
ates(
2).
mul
ti
lat
eral
treat
y-i
fiti
nvol
vest
hreeormor
eSt
ates.

Hi
stor
yisr
epl
etewi
thnumer
oust
reat
iest
hatSt
atesandnon-
stat
eact
orshav
e
concl
udedsi
ncet
imei
mmemor
ial
.Someoft
hesear
e:

33|Page
2024
The1648PeaceTr
eat
yofWest
phal
ia-t
hisendedt
heThi
rt
yYear
s’Wari
nEur
ope
andest
abl
i
shedt
hepr
inci
pleoft
hesov
erei
gnt
yofnat
ions;

1919Tr
eat
yofVer
sai
ll
es-t
hatf
ormal
l
yendedWor
ldWarI
;

3.Br
ett
onWoodsAgr
eement
-thatest
abl
i
shedr
ulesf
orcommer
cialandf
inanci
al
r
elat
ionsamongmaj
ori
ndust
ri
alst
ates;

4.
1947Par
isPeaceTr
eat
ies-
thatf
ormal
l
yendedWor
ldWarI
I;

5.1947I
nter
-Amer
icanTr
eat
yofReci
procalAssi
stance;

1949Nor
thAt
lant
icTr
eat
y;

1959Ant
arct
icTr
eat
ySy
stem-t
hatsetasi
deAnt
arct
icaasasci
ent
if
icpr
eser
ve;

Asnot
edear
li
er,t
wot
ypesoft
reat
ycanbei
dent
if
ied,namel
y,bi
l
ater
alt
reat
yand
mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
y.Thef
ormeri
sani
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementconcl
udedbet
ween
t
wost
ateswhi
l
ethel
att
eri
sconcl
udedbet
weent
hreeormor
est
ates.I
tisal
so
v
erypossi
blet
ohav
eabi
l
ater
alt
reat
ywher
ethepar
ti
esar
emor
ethant
wo.For
i
nst
ance,
atr
eat
ybet
weenacount
ryandani
nter
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ionwhose
member
sar
enat
ion-
stat
esl
i
ket
heEur
opeanUni
onort
heAf
ri
canUni
on.Aswi
th
mostcont
ract
sandagr
eement
sther
ear
eal
sor
ulest
hatgui
det
he‘
concl
usi
on
pr
ocedur
eoft
reat
ies.Accor
dingl
y,LawofTr
eat
iesi
sdescr
ibedas:

asetofi
nter
nat
ionalpr
inci
plesandr
ulesr
egul
ati
ngt
heconcl
usi
onpr
ocedur
eof
t
reat
ies,aswel
last
he i
ssuesofoper
ati
on,amendment
sand modi
fi
cat
ions,
t
ermi
nat
ion,
suspensi
onandi
nval
i
dit
yoft
reat
ies.

Sour
cesofI
nter
nat
ionalLawofTr
eat
iessi
gni
fyt
hebasi
sfr
om whi
cht
her
ulesand
r
egul
ati
onsgui
dingt
heconcl
usi
onpr
ocedur
eoft
het
reat
ycomei
ntoexi
stence
wi
th bi
ndi
ng f
orce.Sev
eralf
act
ors hav
e cont
ri
but
ed t
othe dev
elopmentof
I
nter
nat
ionalLaw ofTr
eat
iesandt
hef
act
orsconst
it
utei
tssour
ces.Themaj
or
sour
cesofI
nter
nat
ional
LawofTr
eat
iesi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ngs:

34|Page
2024
Of
fi
cialcount
ryt
reat
yser
ies;i
nter
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
iont
reat
yser
ies;of
fi
cial
gazet
tes;
stat
utor
ycompi
l
ati
ons;
per
iodi
cal
li
ter
atur
e.

Tr
eat
iesofst
atesi
ncl
ude,I
nter
nat
ionalPact
s,Gener
alAct
s,Char
ter
s,St
atut
es,
Decl
arat
ions,
andCov
enant
s,agr
eement
,conv
ent
ionandpr
otocol
.Al
ltheset
erms
r
efert
oasi
mil
art
ransact
ion,t
hecr
eat
ionofwr
it
tenagr
eement
swher
ebyt
he
st
atespar
ti
ci
pat
ingbi
ndt
hemsel
vesl
egal
l
ytoacti
napar
ti
cul
arwayort
osetup
par
ti
cul
arr
elat
ionsbet
weent
hemsel
ves.Aser
iesofcondi
ti
onsandar
rangement
s
ar
elai
doutwhi
cht
hepar
ti
esobl
i
get
hemsel
vest
ocar
ryout
.But
,thenamechosen
gener
all
ydoesnotaf
fectt
hel
egalst
atusoft
heagr
eement
.Asl
ongast
hepar
ti
es
i
ntendt
het
extt
obebi
ndi
ng,i
tisat
reat
y.Tr
eat
iesmayi
ncor
por
ater
ulesof
cust
om ordev
elopnew l
aw.Thepr
esentsy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw r
emai
ns
l
argel
yconsensualandcent
eredont
hesov
erei
gnst
ate.I
tiswi
thi
nthedi
scr
eti
on
ofeach st
atet
o par
ti
cipat
eint
he negot
iat
ion of
,ort
o si
gn orr
ati
fy,any
i
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
y.Li
kewi
se,eachmemberst
ateofani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion
suchast
heUNi
sfr
eet
orat
if
yanyconv
ent
ionadopt
edbyt
hator
gani
zat
ion.Tr
eat
y
l
awt
husi
scr
eat
edbyt
heexpr
esswi
l
lofst
ates.

Tr
eat
iesandconv
ent
ionswer
e,unt
ilt
he20t
hcent
ury
,usual
l
ybi
l
ater
al(
bet
ween
t
wo nat
ions)
, but some mul
ti
lat
eral t
reat
ies r
esul
ted f
rom i
nter
nat
ional
conf
erenceshel
dint
he18t
hct
o19t
hcent
ury
,bef
oreper
manenti
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionswer
ecr
eat
ed.Suchconf
erencespl
ayedani
mpor
tantpar
tint
he
dev
elopmentoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
legal
syst
em,
someexempl
aryconf
erences.

TheCongr
essofVi
enna,whi
cht
hroughi
tcont
ri
but
edt
othebodyofi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw.I
test
abl
i
shedr
ulesf
ordi
plomat
icpr
ocedur
eandt
het
reat
mentofdi
plomat
ic
env
oys.

TheConf
erenceofPar
is(
1856)wasconv
enedt
oter
minat
etheCr
imeanWar
.

I
tal
soadopt
edt
heDecl
arat
ionofMar
it
imeLaw t
hatabol
i
shedpr
ivat
eer
ing(
the
useofpr
ivat
eshi
psdur
ingwar
)andl
ett
ersofmar
que(
li
censesgi
vent
opr
ivat
e
ci
ti
zenst
oar
m shi
psandat
tackenemymer
chant
s),moder
nizedt
her
ight
sof

35|Page
2024
neut
ral
sdur
ingmar
it
imewarandr
equi
redbl
ockadest
obeef
fect
ive.

TheDecl
arat
ionofPar
isal
soi
nit
iat
edt
hepr
act
iceofal
l
owi
ngnat
ionsot
hert
han
t
heor
igi
nal
signat
ori
est
oaccede(
becomeapar
tyt
o)t
oanagr
eement
.

I
n1864aconf
erenceconv
enedi
nGenev
a,Swi
tzer
land,att
hei
nvi
tat
ionoft
he
Swi
ssgov
ernment
.

Theconf
erenceappr
oved aconv
ent
ion f
ort
hepr
opert
reat
mentofwounded
sol
dier
sont
hebat
tl
efi
eldandt
hepr
otect
ionofmedi
calper
sonnel
;manynat
ions
subsequent
lyaccededt
othi
sconv
ent
ion,
thef
ir
stGenev
aConv
ent
ion.

The 1899 conf


erence adopt
ed a Conv
ent
ion f
ort
he Paci
fi
c Set
tl
ementof
I
nter
nat
ionalDi
sput
es,whi
chcr
eat
edt
hePer
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ioni
nThe
Haguet
oset
tl
edi
sput
esbet
weennat
ions.

I
naddi
ti
on,t
reat
ies(
ori
nter
nat
ionalconv
ent
ions)ar
eamor
emoder
nandmor
e
del
i
ber
atemet
hodaccor
dingt
o(Ar
ti
cle38)‘
i
nter
nat
ionall
awconv
ent
ions,
whet
her
gener
alorpar
ti
cul
ar,est
abl
i
shi
ngr
ulesexpr
essl
yrecogni
zedbyt
hecont
ract
ing
st
ates.The obl
i
gat
ory nat
ure of t
reat
ies i
sfounded upon t
he cust
omar
y
i
nter
nat
ional
lawpr
inci
plet
hatagr
eement
sar
ebi
ndi
ng.

Tr
eat
iesmaybedi
vi
dedi
nto‘
l
aw-
maki
ng’t
reat
ies,whi
char
eint
endedt
ohav
e
uni
ver
sal
orgener
alr
elev
ance,
and‘
tr
eat
y-cont
ract
s’,
whi
chappl
yonl
ybet
weent
wo
orasmal
lnumberofst
ates.Suchadi
sti
nct
ioni
sint
endedt
oref
lectt
hegener
alor
l
ocalappl
i
cabi
l
ityofapar
ti
cul
art
reat
yandt
her
angeofobl
i
gat
ionsi
mposed.I
t
cannotber
egar
dedashar
dandf
astandt
her
ear
emanygr
ayar
easofov
erl
apand
uncer
tai
nty
.Tr
eat
ies ar
e expr
ess agr
eement
s and ar
eaf
orm ofsubst
it
ute
l
egi
slat
ionunder
takenbyst
ates.Theybearacl
oser
esembl
ancet
ocont
ract
sina
super
fi
cialsensei
nthatt
hepar
ti
escr
eat
ebi
ndi
ngobl
i
gat
ionsf
ort
hemsel
ves,but
t
heyhav
eanat
ureoft
hei
rownwhi
chr
efl
ect
sthechar
act
eroft
hei
nter
nat
ional
sy
stem.Thenumberoft
reat
iesent
eredi
ntohasexpandedov
ert
hel
astcent
ury
;
wi
tnesst
hegr
owi
ngnumberofv
olumesoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsTr
eat
yort
he
i
mpor
tantUni
tedKi
ngdom Tr
eat
y.Theyf
ulf
il
lav
italr
olei
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ions.

36|Page
2024
Asgov
ernment
alcont
rol
sincr
easeandt
het
echnol
ogi
calandcommuni
cat
ions
r
evol
uti
onsaf
fecti
nter
nat
ionall
i
fe,
thenumberofi
ssueswhi
chr
equi
resomef
orm
ofi
nter
-st
ater
egul
ati
onmul
ti
pli
es.Formanywr
it
ers,t
reat
iesconst
it
utet
hemost
i
mpor
tantsour
cesofi
nter
nat
ionall
awast
heyr
equi
ret
heexpr
essconsentoft
he
cont
ract
ing par
ti
es.Tr
eat
ies ar
ethus seen as super
iort
o cust
om,whi
ch i
s
r
egar
dedi
nanyev
entasaf
orm oft
aci
tagr
eement
.Asexampl
esofi
mpor
tant
t
reat
ies,one may ment
ion t
he Char
teroft
he Uni
ted Nat
ions,t
he Genev
a
Conv
ent
ionsont
het
reat
mentofpr
isoner
sandt
hepr
otect
ionofci
vi
li
ansandt
he
Vi
ennaConv
ent
iononDi
plomat
icRel
ati
ons.Al
lki
ndsofagr
eement
sexi
st,
rangi
ng
f
rom t
her
egul
ati
onofout
erspaceexpl
orat
iont
othecont
rolofdr
ugsandt
he
cr
eat
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
financi
alanddev
elopmenti
nst
it
uti
ons.Par
ti
est
hatdonot
si
gnandr
ati
fyt
hepar
ti
cul
art
reat
yinquest
ionar
enotboundbyi
tst
erms.Thi
sisa
gener
alr
uleandwasi
l
lust
rat
edi
ntheNor
thSeaCont
inent
alShel
fcaseswher
e
WestGer
many

hadnotr
ati
fi
edt
her
elev
antConv
ent
ionandwast
her
efor
eundernoobl
i
gat
iont
o
heedi
tst
erms.Howev
er,
wher
etr
eat
iesr
efl
ectcust
omar
ylawt
hennon-
par
ti
esar
e
bound,notbecausei
tisat
reat
ypr
ovi
sionbutbecausei
treaf
fi
rmsar
uleorr
ules
ofcust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw.Si
mil
arl
y,non-
par
ti
esmaycomet
oacceptt
hat
pr
ovi
sionsi
napar
ti
cul
art
reat
ycangener
atecust
omar
ylaw,dependi
ngal
way
s
upont
henat
ureoft
heagr
eement
,thenumberofpar
ti
cipant
sandot
herr
elev
ant
f
act
ors.Whi
l
erecogni
zi
ngt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
reat
ies,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
hehuman
r
ight
sfi
eld,cont
aini
ngpot
ent
ialnor
m-cr
eat
ingpr
ovi
sions,i
scl
ear
lygoi
ngt
oof
ar.
Thedangerwoul
d beofasmal
lnumberofst
atesl
egi
slat
ing f
oral
l
,unl
ess
di
ssent
ingst
atesact
ual
l
yent
eredi
ntocont
rar
ytr
eat
ies.Thi
swoul
dconst
it
utet
oo
r
adi
cal
adepar
tur
efort
hecur
rentpr
ocessofl
aw-
for
mat
ionwi
thi
nthei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

Cer
tai
ntr
eat
iesat
temptt
oest
abl
i
sha‘
regi
me’
whi
chwi
l
l,ofnecessi
ty,
alsoex
tend
t
o nonpar
ti
es.The Uni
ted Nat
ions Char
ter
,forexampl
e,i
nit
s cr
eat
ion ofa
def
ini
ti
vef
ramewor
kfort
he pr
eser
vat
ion ofi
nter
nat
ionalpeace and secur
it
y,
decl
aresi
nar
ti
cle2(
6)t
hat‘
theor
gani
zat
ionshal
lensur
ethatst
ateswhi
char
enot

37|Page
2024
member
soft
heUni
tedNat
ionsacti
naccor
dancewi
tht
hesePr
inci
ples[
li
stedi
n
ar
ti
cle2]sof
arasmaybenecessar
yfort
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ionalpeace
andsecur
it
y’.Onecanal
sopoi
ntt
othe1947Gener
alAgr
eementonTar
if
fsand
Tr
ade(
GATT)whi
chsetupacommoncodeofconducti
nint
ernat
ionalt
radeand
hashadani
mpor
tantef
fectonnon-
par
tyst
atesaswel
l
,bei
ngnow t
ransmut
ed
i
ntot
he Wor
ld Tr
ade Or
gani
zat
ion.On t
he same t
heme,t
reat
ies may be
const
it
uti
vei
nthatt
heycr
eat
eint
ernat
ionali
nst
it
uti
onsandactasconst
it
uti
ons
f
ort
hem,
out
li
ningt
hei
rpr
oposedpower
sanddut
ies.

ThePhasesofTr
eat
ies’
Concl
usi
ons

Concl
usi
oni
sani
ntegr
alpar
toft
reat
ymaki
ng;t
hisi
sbecauset
hepr
ovi
sionsof
t
he t
reat
y woul
d onl
ytake ef
fectaf
tert
he concl
usi
on.The concl
usi
on of
i
nter
nat
ional
treat
ieshasbeendescr
ibedas:

t
hepr
ocessofbecomi
ngcont
ract
ualnor
msofi
nter
nat
ionall
awandt
hef
ormat
ion
ofanagr
eementbet
weenSt
ates,
expr
essedi
nsuccessi
vest
ages,
andl
egalact
ion,
whosecont
entdependsonmut
uali
nter
est
s,i
ntent
ions,posi
ti
ons,l
egi
slat
ionand
pr
act
icesoft
hepar
ti
es,
thesubst
ance,
obj
ectandpur
poseagr .
eement

Ar
ti
cle6oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionoft
heLawofTr
eat
ies1969expr
essl
yst
atest
he
f
undament
alr
ightev
erySt
atepossessest
oconcl
udeat
reat
y.So,
concl
usi
onmay
r
efert
oasanexpr
essi
onofconsentbyaSt
atet
hroughi
tsof
fi
cial
repr
esent
ati
ve(
s)
t
obeboundbyi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
s.I
not
herwor
ds,concl
usi
onmaybesai
d
t
obei
ncongr
uencewi
tht
hef
inaladopt
ionofat
reat
y,t
hati
s,“
thef
inalst
ageofi
ts
concl
usi
on”
.Concl
usi
onhasal
sobeenseenas“
Int
ernat
ional
Agr
eementwhent
he
st
atecl
ear
lyexpr
essedt
hei
rwi
l
ltobeboundbyi
t”
.

I
tshoul
dbebor
nei
nmi
ndatt
hisj
unct
uret
hatt
heconcl
usi
onoft
reat
yisa
t
echni
calandr
igor
ouspr
ocess;i
tisacompl
expr
ocessconsi
sti
ngofsuccessi
ve
st
ages,subst
agesandl
egalact
ionswhi
chi
ncl
udebutnotl
i
mit
edt
opr
epar
ati
on
andadopt
ionoft
het
reat
ytext
,si
gni
ng,r
ati
fi
cat
ion,andexchangeofi
nst
rument
s
ofr
ati
fi
cat
ion.Consequent
ly,t
heconcl
usi
onofi
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
iesr
equi
resa

38|Page
2024
st
ep-
by-
stepappr
oachandi
nvol
vesal
ongpr
ocessasar
esul
toft
he“
compl
exi
ty
ofobj
ect
sofcont
ract
s,t
henat
ureandnumberofpar
ti
cipant
s”.

Ar
ti
cles9,
10and11oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
iesof1969sum
upt
hest
agesoft
heconcl
usi
onoft
reat
ies.Speci
fi
cal
l
y,i
tident
if
iedt
hreest
ages
v
iz.
,(1.
)theadopt
ionoft
het
ext
;(2.
)theest
abl
ishmentoft
heaut
hent
ici
tyoft
he
t
ext
;and(
3.)consentt
obebound.

Wi
thr
espectt
othef
ir
stst
aget
hedr
aftoft
het
extoft
het
reat
yisadopt
edby
agr
eementofal
lthepar
ti
est
othet
reat
yandi
nthecaseofmul
ti
lat
eralagr
eement
byt
het
wo-
thi
rdsmaj
ori
tyoft
hepar
ti
es.Thesecondst
agei
scar
ri
edoutby
si
gnat
ure;si
gnat
ureandr
efer
endum ori
nit
ial
i
ngbyt
her
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
he
St
atespar
ti
ci
pat
ingi
nthedr
aft
ingoft
het
extoft
het
reat
yinor
dert
oest
abl
i
shi
tas
“
aut
hent
ic”and“
def
ini
ti
ve”
.Thet
hir
dandf
inalst
agei
nvol
vesconsentt
obebound
whi
chcanbei
nthef
orm ofsi
gnat
ure,
rat
if
icat
ionoraccessi
on,
whi
ch,
byandl
arge,
dependsont
hemannerpr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthet
reat
yit
sel
f.

I
tcoul
dbeaddedher
ethati
nor
derf
orat
reat
ytobev
ali
dSt
atesmustent
eri
nto
t
het
reat
ythr
oughi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
veswhi
chmustbeart
hehi
ghesti
nst
rument
sof
St
atespower
,fori
nst
ance,t
hePr
esi
dent
,Pr
ime-
Mini
ster
,At
tor
ney
-Gener
aloft
he
Feder
ati
onorMi
nist
erofFor
eignAf
fai
rs.

Var
iat
ionsi
nNamesofTr
eat
ies

Ther
e ar
evar
ious nomencl
atur
es by whi
ch t
reat
ies can be r
efer
red.The
di
ff
erencesi
nter
minol
ogyr
efl
ectt
hepr
ocedur
eorf
ormal
i
tyi
nthepr
ocessesof
maki
ngt
het
reat
y.Asexpl
ainedbySt
arke(
1977)
,thesear
esomeoft
henames
t
hatt
reat
iesar
eknownby
:

1.
Conv
ent
ion-t
hisi
susedf
oramul
ti
lat
erali
nst
rument
.Fur
ther
mor
e,i
tincl
udes
i
nst
rument
s adopt
ed by t
he or
gans of i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
zat
ions, e.
g.;
I
nter
nat
ional
LaborConf
erence.

2.
Prot
ocol
-iti
sanagr
eementt
hati
slesst
hanat
reat
yinr
espectoff
ormal
i
ty.Thi
s
agr
eementi
susual
l
ynoti
ntheHeadsofSt
atef
orm.Thet
erm subsumest
he
39|Page
2024
f
oll
owi
ngi
nst
rument
s:

Ani
nst
rumentl
owert
hanaConv
ent
ionanddr
awnupbyt
hesamenegot
iat
ors.
Thi
sisal
socal
l
edaPr
otocol
ofSi
gnat
ure.

Ananci
l
lar
yinst
rumentt
oaConv
ent
ion,butofani
ndependentchar
act
erand
oper
ati
onandsubj
ectt
oindependentr
ati
fi
cat
ion.

Anal
toget
heri
ndependentt
reat
y.

Ar
ecor
dofcer
tai
nunder
standi
ngs.

3.
Agr
eement
-thi
sinst
rumenti
slessf
ormalt
hanat
reat
yorConv
ent
ion,andal
so
noti
nHeadsofSt
atef
orm.I
tisusual
l
yappl
i
edt
oagr
eement
sofmor
eli
mit
ed
scope and wi
thf
ewerpar
ti
es t
han t
he or
dinar
yConv
ent
ion.Al
so,i
tis onl
y
empl
oyedf
oragr
eement
sofat
echni
caloradmi
nist
rat
ivenat
ureonl
y,si
gnedby
t
her
epr
esent
ati
vesofGov
ernmentDepar
tment
s,butnotsubj
ectt
orat
if
icat
ion.

4.
Arr
angement
-thi
sisusedf
orat
ransact
ionofpr
ovi
sional
ort
empor
arynat
ure.

5.Pr
ocès-
Ver
bal
-iti
sbot
hthesummar
yoft
hepr
oceedi
ngsandconcl
usi
onsofa
di
plomat
icconf
erenceandal
sot
her
ecor
doft
het
ermsofagr
eementr
eached
bet
weent
hepar
ti
es.Fur
ther
mor
e,i
tisusedt
orecor
danexchangeordeposi
tof
r
ati
fi
cat
ions,orf
oranadmi
nist
rat
iveagr
eementofapur
elymi
norchar
act
er,ort
o
ef
fectami
noral
ter
ati
ont
oaConv
ent
ion.I
tisusual
l
ynotsubj
ectt
orat
if
icat
ion.

6.
Stat
ute-t
hiscanbecat
egor
izedi
ntot
hree:

A col
l
ect
ionofconsi
stentr
ulesr
elat
ingt
othef
unct
ioni
ngofani
nter
nat
ional
i
nst
it
uti
on.

Acol
l
ect
ionofr
ulesl
aiddownbyi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementast
othef
unct
ioni
ng
underi
nter
nat
ional
super
visi
onofapar
ti
cul
arent
it
y.

Anaccessor
yinst
rumentt
oaConv
ent
ionset
ti
ngoutcer
tai
nregul
ati
onst
obe
appl
i
ed.

40|Page
2024
7.
Decl
arat
ion-t
hemeani
ngcanbeexpr
essedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s:

Apr
opert
reat
y

Ani
nfor
mal
inst
rumentappendedt
oat
reat
yorConv
ent
ion

Ani
nfor
mal
agr
eementwi
thr
espectt
oamat
terofmi
nori
mpor
tance

A r
esol
uti
on by a di
plomat
ic conf
erence,enunci
ati
ng some pr
inci
ples f
or
obser
vancebyal
lst
ates.

8.
ModusVi
vendi
-thi
sisani
nst
rumentr
ecor
dingani
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementofa
pr
ovi
sionalchar
act
eri
ntended t
o be r
epl
aced byan ar
rangementofa mor
e
per
manentanddet
ail
ednat
ure.I
tisusual
l
ymadei
nani
nfor
malwayandr
equi
res
nor
ati
fi
cat
ion.

9.
Exchange ofNot
es (
Let
ter
s)-t
hisi
s an i
nfor
malmet
hod i
n whi
ch St
ates
subscr
ibet
ocer
tai
nunder
standi
ngsasbi
ndi
ngont
hem.I
tcoul
dbeef
fect
ed
t
hrought
hedi
plomat
icormi
l
itar
yrepr
esent
ati
vesoft
heconcer
nedSt
ates.I
tcoul
d
bebi
l
ater
alormul
ti
lat
eral
.

10.
FinalAct
-ref
erst
oani
nst
rumentwhi
chr
ecor
dst
hewi
ndi
ngupofpr
oceedi
ngs
oft
heConf
erencesummonedt
oconcl
udeaConv
ent
ion.I
tsummar
izest
het
erms
ofr
efer
enceoft
heConf
erence,andenumer
atest
heSt
atesorHeadsofSt
ates
r
epr
esent
ed,t
he del
egat
es t
hat par
ti
cipat
ed i
nthe di
scussi
ons,and t
he
i
nst
rument
sadopt
ed byt
heConf
erence.Fur
ther
mor
e,i
tset
soutr
esol
uti
ons,
decl
arat
ionsandr
ecommendat
ionsadopt
edbyt
heConf
erencewhi
chwer
enot
i
ncor
por
atedaspr
ovi
sionsoft
heConv
ent
ion.I
tmayal
socont
aini
nter
pret
ati
ons
ofpr
ovi
sionsi
nthef
ormali
nst
rument
sadopt
edbyt
heConf
erence.TheFi
nalAct
doesnotr
equi
rer
ati
fi
cat
ion.

11.
Gener
alAct
-thi
sisat
reat
ythatcoul
dbeofei
therf
ormal
ori
nfor
mal
char
act
er.

Cust
om

Cust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw i
sapar
tofunwr
it
tenwhi
chder
ivesf
rom t
heact
ual

41|Page
2024
pr
act
icesofnat
ionsov
ert
ime.I
tist
obeaccept
edasl
aw;t
hecust
om mustbe
l
ong-
standi
ng,wi
despr
ead,andpr
act
i nauni
cedi for
m andconsi
stentwayamong
nat
ions.Cust
omsmaybededucedf
rom t
her
ulesandst
atement
scont
ainedi
n
t
reat
ies.Thesenewcust
omsmaybeconsi
der
edbi
ndi
ngev
enont
hosest
atest
hat
di
dnotsi
gnandr
ati
fyt
heor
igi
nalt
reat
y.Whet
herornott
heyar
eembodi
edi
na
wr
it
tent
reat
y,cust
omsbecomepar
tofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw becauseofcont
inued
accept
ancebyt
hegr
eatmaj
ori
tyofnat
ions.Somecust
omar
yint
ernat
ional
lawhas
beencodi
fi
edi
nrecenty
ear
s.Forexampl
e,t
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawof
Tr
eat
ies,whi
ch wasappr
oved i
n 1969 and t
ookef
fecti
n 1980,codi
fi
ed t
he
cust
omar
ylaw t
hatt
reat
ies bet
ween sov
erei
gn st
ates ar
e bi
ndi
ng on t
hei
r
si
gnat
ori
esandmustbef
oll
owedi
ngoodf
ait
h.

I
nanypr
imi
ti
vesoci
etycer
tai
nrul
esofbehav
ioremer
geandpr
escr
ibewhati
s
per
mit
tedandwhati
snot
.Suchr
ulesdev
elopal
mostsubconsci
ousl
ywi
thi
nthe
gr
oupandar
emai
ntai
nedbyt
hemember
soft
hegr
oupbysoci
alpr
essur
esand
wi
tht
heai
dofv
ari
ousot
hermor
etangi
blei
mpl
ement
s.Theyar
enot
,atl
easti
n
t
heear
lyst
ages,wr
it
tendownorcodi
fi
ed,andsur
viv
eul
ti
mat
elybecauseofwhat
canbecal
l
edanaur
aofhi
stor
icall
egi
ti
macy
.Ast
hecommuni
tydev
elopsi
twi
l
l
moder
nizei
tscodeofbehav
iorbyt
hecr
eat
ionofl
egalmachi
ner
y,suchascour
ts
andl
egi
slat
ure.Cust
om,f
ort
hisi
show t
heor
igi
nalpr
ocesscanbedescr
ibed,
r
emai
nsandmayal
socont
inuet
oev
olv
e.I
tisr
egar
dedasanaut
hent
icexpr
essi
on
oft
heneedsandv
aluesoft
hecommuni
tyatanygi
vent
ime.

Cust
om wi
thi
ncont
empor
aryl
egalsy
stems,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
hedev
elopedwor
ld,i
s
r
elat
ivel
ycumber
someanduni
mpor
tantandof
tenofonl
ynost
algi
cval
ue.But
,in
i
nter
nat
ionall
awont
heot
herhandi
tisady
nami
csour
ceofl
awi
nthel
i
ghtoft
he
nat
ureoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem andi
tsl
ackofcent
ral
i
zedgov
ernmentor
gans.
Theexi
stenceofcust
omar
yrul
escanbededucedf
rom t
hepr
act
iceandbehav
ior
ofst
atesandt
hisi
swher
ethepr
obl
emsbegi
n.Howcanonet
ellwhenapar
ti
cul
ar
l
i
neofact
ionadopt
edbyast
ater
efl
ect
sasl
egalr
uleori
smer
elypr
ompt
edby
cour
tsorci
vi
li
ty.

42|Page
2024
Ther
ear
edi
sagr
eement
sast
othev
alueofacust
omar
ysy
stem i
nint
ernat
ional
l
aw.Somewr
it
ersdenyt
hatcust
om canbesi
gni
fi
cantt
odayasasour
ceofl
aw,
not
ingt
hati
tist
oocl
umsyandsl
ow-
mov
ingt
oaccommodat
etheev
olut
ionof
i
nter
nat
ionall
awanymor
e,whi
l
eot
her
sdecl
aret
hati
tisady
nami
cpr
ocessofl
aw
cr
eat
ionandmor
eimpor
tantt
hant
reat
iessi
ncei
tisofuni
ver
salappl
i
cat
ion.
Anot
herv
iew r
ecogni
zes t
hatcust
om i
s ofv
alue si
nce i
tis act
ivat
ed by
spont
aneousbehav
iorandt
husmi
rr
orst
hecont
empor
aryconcer
nsofsoci
ety
.
Howev
er,si
ncei
nter
nat
ionall
aw now hast
ocont
endwi
thamassi
vei
ncr
easei
n
t
hepaceandv
ari
etyofst
ateact
ivi
ti
esaswel
lashav
ingt
ocomet
oter
mswi
th
manydi
ff
erentcul
tur
alandpol
i
ticalt
radi
ti
ons,t
her
oleofcust
om i
sper
cei
vedt
o
bemuchdi
mini
shed.

Awi
dev
ari
etyofconf
li
cti
ngbehav
ior
,iti
snoteasyt
oisol
atet
heemer
genceofa
newr
uleofcust
omar
ylawandt
her
ear
eimmensepr
obl
emsi
nvol
vedi
ncol
l
ati
ng
al
lthenecessar
yinf
ormat
ion.i
snotal
way
sthebesti
nst
rumentav
ail
abl
efort
he
r
egul
ati
onofcompl
exi
ssuest
hatar
isei
nwor
ldaf
fai
rs,
buti
npar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ions
i
tmaymeett
hecont
ingenci
esofmoder
nli
fe.

Aswi
l
lbeseen,i
tispossi
blet
opoi
ntt
osomet
hingcal
l
ed‘
i
nst
ant
’cust
omar
ylaw
i
ncer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancest
hatcanpr
escr
ibev
ali
drul
eswi
thouthav
ingt
ounder
goa
l
ongper
iodofgest
ati
on,
andcust
om canandof
tendoesdov
etai
lneat
lywi
thi
nthe
compl
i
cat
edmechani
smsnow oper
ati
ngf
ort
hei
dent
if
icat
ionandpr
ogr
essi
ve
dev
elopmentoft
hepr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Mor
ethant
hat
,cust
om does
mi
rr
or t
he char
act
eri
sti
cs of t
he decent
ral
i
zed i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem.I
tis
democr
ati
cint
hatal
lst
atesmayshar
eint
hef
ormul
ati
onofnewr
ules,
thought
he
pr
eceptt
hatsomear
emor
eequalt
hanot
her
sint
hispr
ocessi
snotwi
thouti
ts
gr
ainoft
rut
h.I
fthei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyi
sunhappywi
thapar
ti
cul
arl
awi
tcan
bechangedr
elat
ivel
yqui
ckl
ywi
thoutt
henecessi
tyofconv
eni
ngandsuccessf
ull
y
compl
eti
ngawor
ldconf
erence.I
tref
lect
stheconsensusappr
oacht
odeci
sion
maki
ngwi
tht
heabi
l
ityoft
hemaj
ori
tyt
ocr
eat
enewl
awbi
ndi
nguponal
l
,whi
l
ethe
par
ti
cipat
ionofst
atesencour
agest
hei
rcompl
i
ancewi
thcust
omar
yrul
es. I
ts
i
mpr
eci
sionmeansf
lexi
bil
i
tyandambi
gui
tyI
ndeed,t
hecr
eat
ionoft
heconceptof

43|Page
2024
t
heexcl
usi
veeconomi
czonei
nthel
awoft
heseamaybeci
tedasanexampl
eof
t
hispr
ocess.Theessenceofcust
om accor
dingt
oar
ti
cle38i
sthati
tshoul
d
const
it
ute‘
evi
denceofagener
alpr
act
iceaccept
edasl
aw’
.Thus,i
tispossi
blet
o
det
ectt
wobasi
cel
ement
sint
hemake-
upofacust
om.Thesear
ethemat
eri
al
f
act
s,t
hati
s,t
heact
ualbehav
iorofst
atesandt
hepsy
chol
ogi
calorsubj
ect
ive
bel
i
eft
hatsuchbehav
iori
s‘l
aw’
.Cust
omar
ylawhowst
atesbehav
einpr
act
icet
hat
f
ormst
hebasi
sbutev
idenceofwhatast
atedoescanbeobt
ainedf
rom numer
ous
sour
ces.Obv
iousex
ampl
esi
ncl
udeadmi
nist
rat
iveact
s,l
egi
slat
ion,deci
sionsof
cour
tsandact
ivi
ti
esont
hei
nter
nat
ionalst
age,
forexampl
etr
eat
y-maki
ng.Ast
ate
i
snotal
i
vingent
it
y,butconsi
stsofgov
ernment
aldepar
tment
sandt
housandsof
of
fi
cial
sandst
ateact
ivi
tyi
sspr
eadt
hroughoutawhol
erangeofnat
ionalor
gans.
Ther
e ar
ethe st
ate’
slegalof
fi
cer
s,l
egi
slat
ivei
nst
it
uti
ons,cour
ts,di
plomat
ic
agent
sandpol
i
tical
leader
s.

Eachoft
heseengagesi
nact
ivi
tywhi
chr
elat
est
othei
nter
nat
ionalf
iel
dand
t
her
efor
eonehast
oexami
neal
lsuchmat
eri
alsour
cesandmor
einor
dert
o
di
scov
erev
idenceofwhatst
atesdo.Theobv
iouswayt
ofi
ndouthow count
ri
es
ar
ebehav
ingi
stor
eadt
henewspaper
s,consul
thi
stor
icalr
ecor
ds,l
i
stent
owhat
gov
ernment
alaut
hor
it
iesar
esay
ingandper
uset
hemanyof
fi
cial
publ
i
cat
ions.

Ther
e ar
e al
so memoi
rs ofv
ari
ous pastl
eader
s,of
fi
cialmanual
s on l
egal
quest
ions,di
plomat
ici
nter
changesandt
heopi
nionsofnat
ionall
egaladv
isor
s.Al
l
t
hesemet
hodsar
eval
uabl
einseeki
ng t
o det
ermi
neact
ualst
atepr
act
ice.I
n
addi
ti
on,onemaynot
eresol
uti
onsi
ntheGener
alAssembl
y,comment
smadeby
gov
ernment
sondr
aft
spr
oducedbyt
heI
nter
nat
ionalLawCommi
ssi
on,deci
sions
oft
hei
nter
nat
ionalj
udi
ciali
nst
it
uti
ons,deci
sionsofnat
ionalcour
ts,t
reat
iesand
t
hegener
alpr
act
iceofi
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions.

I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions i
nfactmay be i
nst
rument
ali
nthe cr
eat
ion of
cust
omar
ylaw.Forexampl
e,t
heAdv
isor
yOpi
nionoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tof
Just
icedecl
ari
ngt
hatt
heUni
tedNat
ionspossessedi
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tywas
par
tl
ybasedont
heact
ualbehav
ioroft
heUN.TheI
nter
nat
ionalLawCommi
ssi
on

44|Page
2024
has poi
nted out t
hat ‘
recor
ds of t
he cumul
ati
ve pr
act
ice of i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionsmayber
egar
dedasev
idenceofcust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw wi
th
r
efer
encet
ost
ates’r
elat
ionst
otheor
gani
zat
ions.TheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imeCour
t
hasal
sonot
edt
hatev
idenceoft
heexi
stenceofr
ulesandpr
inci
plesmaybef
ound
i
nresol
uti
onsadopt
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yandt
heSecur
it
yCounci
loft
he
Uni
tedNat
ions.

Cust
omsusedt
obet
hemosti
mpor
tantsour
ceofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,unt
ilt
he
el
evat
ionoft
reat
iesandconv
ent
ionsconsequentupont
her
adi
calt
ransf
ormat
ion
oft
hei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem.Cust
omsar
erul
est
hatev
olv
edt
hroughl
onghi
stor
ical
pr
ocessesand ev
ent
ual
l
ycul
minat
ed i
nthei
raccept
ance byt
he i
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyast
hebasi
sforl
egalconductandmanagementofr
elat
ionshi
ps.The
hi
stor
yofi
nter
nat
ionall
awwoul
dbei
ncompl
etewi
thoutr
elay
ingt
hehi
stor
yoft
he
r
olepl
ayedbycust
oms.Fori
nst
ance,
inanci
entGr
eece,
thebasi
crul
esofwarand
peacewer
eresul
tsoft
hecommonusagesaccor
dedt
hem byt
heGr
eekci
ty-
st
ates.

Cust
omar
yrul
esar
eknownt
ohav
eemer
gedt
hroughusagesorpr
act
icesunder
t
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hreecondi
ti
ons:

Di
plomat
icr
elat
ions bet
ween St
ates-t
hisi
nvol
ves act
s and decl
arat
ions by
r
epr
esent
ati
vesofst
ates,suchas;st
atesmen,opi
nionsofl
egaladv
iser
stost
ate
gov
ernment
s, bi
l
ater
al t
reat
ies, pr
ess r
eleases or of
fi
cial st
atement
s by
gov
ernmentar
eal
lconsi
der
edaspossi
blef
ormsofusagesaccept
abl
etost
ates.

Pr
act
iceofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions-t
hepr
act
iceofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions
mayl
eadt
othedev
elopmentofcust
omar
yrul
esofl
awconcer
ningt
hei
rst
atus,
or
t
hei
rpower
sandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties.

St
atel
aws,
deci
sionsofst
atecour
ts,
andst
atemi
l
itar
yoradmi
nist
rat
ivepr
act
ices-
t
hismaybeext
ract
edf
rom of
fi
cialbooksordocument
s,suchasmi
l
itar
y,nav
al,
andai
r-
for
cemanual
s,ort
hei
nter
nalr
egul
ati
onsofeachst
ate’
sdi
plomat
icand
consul
arser
vices.Compar
isons may pr
ovi
de ev
idence ofuni
for
mit
yint
he

45|Page
2024
pr
ocessesadopt
edbyst
ates.

I
nher
enti
ntheadopt
ionofcust
oms,i
sthepr
act
icesofSt
atesov
eral
ongper
iod,
sucht
hatt
heact
ionsbecomet
henor
mst
hatar
eaccept
abl
est
andar
dst
odeser
ve
adopt
ionf
ort
hepur
posesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
ntheanal
ysi
sofst
atepr
act
ice
howev
er,t
he act
ivi
ti
es of t
he or
gans of gov
ernment
, and i
ndeed, t
he
r
epr
esent
ati
vesofgov
ernmentar
eessent
iali
nthedet
ermi
nat
ionofpr
act
ices
r
elev
antt
oint
ernat
ionall
aw.Ther
easonbei
ngt
hatt
heconceptoft
heSt
atei
san
abst
ract
ion,composedoft
hreeor
gans,andwhosedeci
sionsar
eexecut
edby
per
sonal
i
ties.

Cont
empor
arydi
scour
sesont
heef
fectofcust
omsasasour
ceofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awhasf
ocusedont
hepoi
ntwher
ether
eisadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
heact
ionsof
st
atesandwhatt
heycl
aim t
o bear
epr
esent
ati
onoft
hel
aw.Thi
sseemi
ng
i
ncoher
encet
endst
owar
dsar
eject
ionofst
ates’pr
act
iceandr
educi
ngt
oamer
e
ev
idenceofanopi
nionofl opi
aw( nioj
uri
s).

Wi
tht
heexi
sti
ngnat
ureandchar
act
eroft
hei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem,
iti
sar
guedt
hat
i
tist
hesuper
-power
sandt
hedev
elopedwor
ldt
hatpar
adet
hecapaci
tyt
hrough
t
hei
ract
ionst
othedev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Howev
er,t
hemostv
iabl
e
opt
ionf
orcont
ri
but
ingt
othedev
elopmentoft
hei
nter
nat
ionall
awsy
stem maybe
t
hei
rpar
ti
ci
pat
ionandcont
ri
but
ionati
nter
nat
ionalgat
her
ings,especi
all
yatt
he
l
eveloft
heUN Gener
alAssembl
y.Of
tent
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icewi
l
l
consi
derGener
alAssembl
yresol
uti
onsasi
ndi
cat
iveofcust
omar
yint
ernat
ional
l
aw.Thi
sisequal
l
yfr
aughtwi
thanomal
i
esbecauset
hel
ess-
power
fulst
atest
end
t
othel
i
neoft
hei
rbenef
act
ors-t
hepower
fulst
ates,whenv
oti
ngorexpr
essi
ng
t
hei
rposi
ti
onsoni
ssues.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
o not
ethatt
her
eisanaccept
abl
epr
ocessofest
abl
i
shi
nga
cust
omar
yrul
eofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thepr
act
icet
hatl
eadsupt
othepr
ocessmust
be“
common,consi
stentandconcor
dant
”.I
nconsi
der
ati
onoft
henat
ureoft
he
i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem,t
her
eisacav
eatt
hatsay
sthepr
act
icedoesnotnecessar
il
y
hav
etoi
nvol
veal
loft
hest
atesi
nthesy
stem,howev
er,ar
epr
esent
ati
onoft
he

46|Page
2024
gener
alwi
l
ltoaccor
dwi
thsuchpr
act
icei
sessent
ial
,andt
hosewhosei
nter
est
s
woul
dbeaf
fect
edmustbeact
ivei
nthepr
ocessesofsuchpr
act
ice.I
nthecaseof
adi
sput
e,acust
omar
yrul
eofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw maybeappl
i
edwhenast
ate
accept
sther
uleappl
i
edt
oitort
het
wost
atesi
nvol
vedi
nthedi
sput
ear
eapar
tof
t
hegr
oupofst
atesi
nwhi
cht
hecust
omar
yrul
eofi
nter
nat
ional
lawappl
i
es.

Al
though,t
hest
andar
dist
hataSt
atecandi
sagr
eewi
tht
heappl
i
cat
ionofa
par
ti
cul
arl
awr
elat
ingt
oit
sowncase;butt
hismayonl
ybeaccept
abl
eift
heSt
ate
hadmadei
tsopposi
ngposi
ti
onknownt
hroughper
sist
entobj
ect
ionov
eraper
iod
oft
ime,and notwhen t
he mat
tercomes up f
oradj
udi
cat
ion.I
tis howev
er
uncommont
hatasi
ngl
eSt
atewoul
dsucceedi
nsuchanobj
ect
ion,becausemost
r
ulesofi
nter
nat
ional
lawhav
euni
ver
sal
appl
i
cat
ion.

Fi
nal
l
y,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
obeawar
ethatt
hecont
inuoust
ransf
ormat
ionoft
he
i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem,andt
hesubsequentdev
elopment
smakei
timper
ati
vet
hat
cust
omsi
nint
er-
stat
erel
ati
onsar
enotl
i
mit
edt
olong-
ter
m pr
act
ices,but
,in
appr
opr
iat
eci
rcumst
ances,t
her
eisal
sot
hei
ssueof“
inst
antcust
om”
.Int
his
r
espect
,thel
engt
hoft
imeofpr
act
icesnol
ongerst
andsasabar
ri
ert
othe
f
ormat
ionofanewr
uleofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
shasgener
ateddebat
eaboutt
he
sui
tabi
l
ityoft
hewor
d“cust
om”i
nthecasesofcer
tai
npr
act
ices.Bet
hatasi
tmay
,
t
hel
ear
ningpoi
nti
sthatcust
om asanaccept
abl
esour
ceofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s
notl
i
mit
edbyt
imeorper
iodofpr
act
ice.

Gener
alr
ecogni
zedPr
inci
plesofl
aw

Thephr
ase“
gener
alr
ecogni
zedpr
inci
plesofl
aw”appear
sint
hest
atut
eoft
he
Per
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ional
Just
icewhi
chwasest
abl
i
shedi
n1921.Thecour
t
wasdi
rect
edt
odeci
dedi
sput
esbr
oughtbef
orei
tont
hebasi
sofexi
sti
ngt
reat
y
l
awandcust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw.Someoft
hedi
plomat
sandl
awy
ersdr
aft
ing
t
hest
atut
eoft
hecour
tfear
ed howev
er,t
hatdi
sput
esmi
ghtar
iseov
ernew
i
nter
nat
ionali
ssuesf
orwhi
cht
her
ewoul
dbenoset
tl
edcust
om orappl
i
cabl
e
t
reat
y.

47|Page
2024
Theydeci
ded,andt
henat
ionsv
oti
ngf
ort
hest
atut
eagr
eed,t
oaddat
hir
dsour
ce
ofl
aw “
gener
alpr
inci
plesofl
aw r zedbyci
ecogni vi
li
zednat
ions”i
nser
tedi
nto
ar
ti
cle38 asa sour
ceofl
aw,t
o cl
oset
hegap t
hatmi
ghtbeuncov
ered i
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
awandsol
vet
hispr
obl
em whi
chi
sknownl
egal
l
yasnonl
i
quet
.The
quest
ionofgapsi
nthesy
stem i
sani
mpor
tantone.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oappr
eci
atet
hatwhi
l
ether
emaynotal
way
sbeani
mmedi
ateand
obv
ious r
ule appl
i
cabl
eto ev
eryi
nter
nat
ionalsi
tuat
ion,‘
ever
yint
ernat
ional
si
tuat
ioni
scapabl
eofbei
ngdet
er nedasamat
mi terofl
aw’t
oal
l
owt
hecour
tto
dr
awuponwi
del
yrecogni
zedl
egalpr
inci
plesi
nnat
ionall
aw.I
nthi
sway
,thecour
t
woul
d nothav
etor
efuse t
o set
tl
e a di
sput
e because oft
he absence of
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

Gener
alpr
inci
plest
hathav
ebeenappl
i
edbyt
hecour
tandi
tssuccessor
,the
Uni
tedNat
ionsI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice,
incl
udet
he“
cleanhands”doct
ri
ne(
it
i
simpr
opert
oaccusesomeoneofmi
sconductt
hatt
heaccuserhasal
soengaged
i
n),
thepr
inci
plet
hati
ndi
vi
dual
sshoul
dnotbeaj
udgei
nthei
rowndi
sput
e,andt
he
pr
inci
pleofr
esj
udi
cat
a(acaset
hati
sdeci
dedcannotbet
ri
edagai
n).Gener
all
y
r
ecogni
zedpr
inci
plesofl
aw i
nanysy
stem orsi
tuat
ionmayv
erywel
lar
isewhen
t
hecour
tisconsi
der
ingacasebef
orei
treal
i
zest
hatt
her
eisnol
aw cov
eri
ng
exact
lyt
hatpoi
nt,nei
therpar
li
ament
aryst
atut
enorj
udi
cialpr
ecedent
.Insuch
i
nst
ancest
hej
udgewi
l
lpr
oceedt
odeducear
ulet
hatwi
l
lber
elev
ant
,byanal
ogy
f
ormalr
eadyexi
sti
ngr
ulesordi
rect
lyf
rom t
hegener
alpr
inci
plest
hatgui
det
he
l
egalsy
stem,whet
hert
heyar
eref
err
edt
oasemanat
ingf
rom j
ust
ice,equi
tyor
consi
der
ati
onsofpubl
i
cpol
i
cy.Suchasi
tuat
ioni
sper
hapsev
enmor
eli
kel
yto
ar
isei
nint
ernat
ionall
awbecauseoft
her
elat
iveunder
dev
elopmentoft
hesy
stem
i
nrel
ati
ont
otheneedswi
thwhi
chi
tisf
aced.

Ther
ear
evar
iousopi
nionsast
owhatt
hegener
alpr
inci
plesofl
aw conceptar
e
i
ntendedt
oref
ert
o.Somewest
ernschool
soft
houghtr
egar
ditasanaf
fi
rmat
ion
ofNat
uralLawconcept
s,whi
char
edeemedt
ounder
li
ethesy
stem ofi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw andconst
it
utet
hemet
hodf
ort
est
ingt
hev
ali
dit
yoft
heposi
ti
ve(
i.
e.man-

48|Page
2024
made)r
ules.Ot
herwr
it
ers,par
ti
cul
arl
yposi
ti
vi
sts,t
reati
tasasub-
headi
ngunder
t
reat
yandcust
omar
ylaw andi
ncapabl
eofaddi
ngany
thi
ngnew t
oint
ernat
ional
l
awunl
essi
tref
lect
stheconsentofst
ates.

Sov
ietschol
arsl
i
keTunki
nsubscr
ibedt
othe‘
gener
alr
ecogni
zedpr
inci
plesofl
aw’
asr
eit
erat
ingt
hef
undament
alpr
ecept
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,f
orexampl
e,t
hel
aw
ofpeacef
ulco-
exi
stence,
whi
chhasal
readybeensetouti
ntr
eat
yandcust
om l
aw.
Bet
weent
heset
woschol
arsar
epr
epar
edt
oacceptt
hatt
hegener
alpr
inci
plesdo
const
it
uteasepar
atesour
ceofl
awbutoff
air
lyl
i
mit
edscopeandt
hisi
sref
lect
ed
i
nthe deci
sions oft
he Per
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
ice and t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice.I
tisnotcl
ear
,howev
er,
inal
lcases,
whet
herwhati
s
i
nvol
vedi
sagener
alpr
inci
pleofl
awappear
ingi
nmuni
cipalsy
stemsoragener
al
pr
inci
pleofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Butper
hapst
hisi
snotat
err
ibl
yser
iouspr
obl
em
si
ncebot
hmuni
cipall
egalconcept
sandt
hoseder
ivedf
rom exi
sti
ngi
nter
nat
ional
pr
act
icecanbedef
inedasf
all
i
ngwi
thi
nther
ecogni
zedcat
chmentar
ea.

I
ntheAdmi
nist
rat
iveTr
ibunalcase,t
heCour
tdeal
twi
tht
hepr
obl
em oft
he
di
smi
ssalofmember
soft
heUni
tedNat
ionsSecr
etar
iatst
affandwhet
hert
he
Gener
alAssembl
yhadt
her
ightt
oref
uset
ogi
veef
fectt
oawar
dst
othem madeby
t
her
elev
antTr
ibunal
.Ingi
vi
ng i
tsnegat
iver
epl
y,t
heCour
temphasi
zed t
hat
:
Accor
ding t
o awel
l
-est
abl
ished and gener
all
yrecogni
zed pr
inci
pleofl
aw,a
j
udgmentr
ender
edbysuchaj
udi
cialbodyi
sresj
udi
cat
aandhasbi
ndi
ngf
orce
bet
weent
hepar
ti
est
othedi
sput
e.Thequest
ionofr
esj
udi
cat
awasdi
scussedi
n
somedet
aili
ntheGenoci
deConvent
ion(
Bosni
aandHer
zegovi
nav.Ser
biaand
Mont
enegr
oandRwandaHut
usvsTut
si)case,wher
ethei
ssuef
ocusedont
he
meani
ngoft
he1996deci
sionoft
heCour
trej
ect
ingpr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionst
o
j
uri
sdi
cti
on.TheCour
temphasi
zedt
hatt
hepr
inci
ple‘
si
gni
fi
est
hatt
hedeci
sionsof
t
heCour
tar
enotonl
ybi
ndi
ngont
hepar
ti
es,butar
efi
nal
,int
hesenset
hatt
hey
cannotbe r
eopened by t
he par
ti
es as r
egar
ds t
he i
ssues t
hathav
e been
det
ermi
ned,sav
ebypr
ocedur
es,ofanexcept
ionalnat
ure,speci
all
ylai
ddownf
or
t
hatpur
pose.

49|Page
2024
Thatpr
inci
plesi
gni
fi
est
hatt
hedeci
sionsoft
heCour
tar
enotonl
ybi
ndi
ngont
he
par
ti
es,butar
efi
nal
,int
hesenset
hatt
heycannotber
eopenedbyt
hepar
ti
esas
r
egar
ds t
he i
ssues t
hathav
e been det
ermi
ned,sav
e by pr
ocedur
es,ofan
except
ionalnat
ure,
speci
all
ylai
ddownf
ort
hatpur
pose.
’TheCour
tnot
edt
hatt
wo
pur
poses,onegener
alandonespeci
fi
c,under
pinnedt
hepr
inci
pleofr
esj
udi
cat
a,
i
nter
nat
ional
l
yaswel
lasnat
ional
l
y.Thef
ir
str
efer
redt
othest
abi
l
ityofl
egal
r
elat
ionst
hatr
equi
rest
hatl
i
tigat
ioncomet
oanend.Thesecondwast
hati
tisi
n
t
hei
nter
estofeachpar
tyt
hatani
ssuewhi
chhasal
readybeenadj
udi
cat
edi
nfav
or
oft
hatpar
tynotbear
guedagai
n.

I
twasemphasi
zedt
hatdepr
ivi
ngal
i
tigantoft
hebenef
itofaj
udgmenti
thad
al
readyobt
ainedmusti
ngener
albeseenasabr
eachoft
hepr
inci
plesgov
erni
ng
t
hel
egalset
tl
ementofdi
sput
es.Ast
heCour
tnot
edt
hatt
hepr
inci
pleappl
i
ed
equal
l
ytopr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionsj
udgment
sandmer
it
sjudgment
sandt
hatsi
nce
j
uri
sdi
cti
onhadbeenest
abl
i
shedbyv
irt
ueoft
he1996j
udgment
.wasnotopent
o
apar
tyt
oasser
tincur
rentpr
oceedi
ngst
hat
,att
hedat
etheear
li
erj
udgmentwas
gi
ven,t
heCour
thadnopowert
ogi
vei
t,becauseoneoft
hepar
ti
escoul
dnowbe
seent
ohav
ebeenunabl
etocomebef
orei
t.Thi
swoul
dbet
ocal
linquest
iont
he
f
orceasr
esj
udi
cat
aoft
heoper
ati
vecl
auseoft
hej
udgment
.

Fur
ther
,theCour
tint
hepr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionphaseoft
heRi
ghtofPassagecase
st
atedt
hat
:

i
tisar
uleofl
awgener
all
yaccept
ed,aswel
lasoneact
eduponi
nthepastbyt
he
Cour
t,t
hat
,oncet
heCour
thasbeenv
ali
dlysei
zedofadi
sput
e,uni
l
ater
alact
ionby
t
her
espondentst
atei
nter
minat
ingi
tsDecl
arat
ion[
i.
e.accept
ingt
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onof
t
heCour
t]
,i
nwhol
eori
npar
t,cannotdi
vestt
heCour
tofj
uri
sdi
cti
on’
’

TheCour
thasal
soconsi
der hepr
edt inci
pleofest
oppelwhi
chpr
ovi
dest
hatapar
ty
t
hathasacqui
escedi
napar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ioncannott
henpr
oceedt
ochal
l
engei
t.I
n
heTempl
t ecaset
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
iceappl
i
edt
hedoct
ri
ne,buti
nthe
Ser
bian Loans case i
n 1929,i
n whi
ch Fr
ench bondhol
der
s wer
e demandi
ng
pay
menti
ngol
dfr
ancsasagai
nstpapermoneyuponaser
iesofSer
bianl
oans,
the

50|Page
2024
Cour
tdecl
aredt
hepr
inci
plei
nappl
i
cabl
e.I
naddi
ti
on,t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tof
Just
ice r
eli
ed heav
il
yupon t
he muni
cipall
aw conceptoft
he l
i
mit
ed l
i
abi
l
ity
companyandemphasi
zedt
hati
ftheCour
twer
etodeci
det
hecasei
ndi
sregar
dof
t
her
elev
anti
nst
it
uti
onsofmuni
cipall
aw i
twoul
d,wi
thoutj
ust
if
icat
ion,i
nvi
te
ser
ious l
egaldi
ff
icul
ti
es.I
twoul
dlose t
ouch wi
thr
eal
i
ty,f
ort
her
e ar
e no
cor
respondi
ngi
nst
it
uti
onsofi
nter
nat
ional
lawt
owhi
cht
heCour
tcoul
dresor
t.

Howev
er,i
nter
nat
ionall
awdi
dnotr
efert
othemuni
cipall
awofapar
ti
cul
arst
ate,
butr
athert
other
ulesgener
all
yaccept
edbymuni
cipall
egalsy
stemswhi
ch,
int
his
case,
recogni
zet
hei
deaoft
hel
i
mit
ed.

I
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalcour
tandOr
gani
zat
ions

Judi
cial
deci
sionsr
ender
edbyi
nter
nat
ional
cri
minal
cour
tsar
eimpor
tantel
ement
s
i
nident
if
ying and conf
ir
ming i
nter
nat
ionall
egalr
ules.The mosti
mpor
tant
i
nter
nat
ionalcr
imecour
tsar
etheUNI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice,whi
chmai
nly
handl
esl
egal
disput
esbet
weennat
ions.

TheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
t,whi
chpr
osecut
esi
ndi
vi
dual
sforgenoci
de,war
cr
imes,
andot
herser
iouscr
imesofi
nter
nat
ionalconcer
n.I
naddi
ti
on,
Resol
uti
ons
anddeci
si
onsoft
heUN andot
heri
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsnow al
sohav
ea
gr
eatr
oleont
hev
iewsandpr
act
icesofsov
erei
gnst
ates,somet
imesl
eadi
ngt
o
r
api
dfor
mat
ionofcust
omar
yint
ernat
ional
law.

St
ateshav
egi
venav
eryf
ew i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions,suchast
heEur
opean
Uni
onandt
heUNSecur
it
yCounci
l
,thepowert
oenactdi
rect
lybi
ndi
ngmeasur
es.
The f
ir
st i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
zat
ions emer
ged i
n t
he 19t
h cent
ury af
ter
t
echnol
ogi
caladv
ancessuchast
het
elegr
aph,t
elephonet
oget
herwi
thar
isei
n
i
nter
nat
ionalt
rade,cr
eat
ed a need f
orper
manenti
nter
nat
ionali
nst
it
uti
onst
o
r
egul
atepr
obl
emst
hatexceedednat
ionalboundar
ies.Theear
li
estor
gani
zat
ions
oft
hist
ypewer
especi
ali
zedbodi
essuchast
heI
nter
nat
ionalTel
egr
aphi
cUni
on
(
1865)andt
heUni
ver
sal
Post
alUni
on(
1874)
.

Af
terWor
ld WarIEur
opean count
ri
es cr
eat
ed t
he League ofNat
ions,an

51|Page
2024
or
gani
zat
ionwi
thagener
almandat
etomai
ntai
npeaceandpr
eventwar
.The
League’
scov
enantwaspar
toft
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
lessi
gnedi
n1919t
oof
fi
cial
l
y
endt
hewar
.Pur
suantt
opr
ovi
sionsi
nthecov
enant
,thePer
manentCour
tof
I
nter
nat
ionalJust
icewasest
abl
i
shedi
n1921ast
hewor
ld’
sfi
rsti
nter
nat
ional
cour
t.I
tsr
olewast
odeci
dei
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
est
hatwer
evol
unt
ari
l
ysubmi
tt
ed
t
othecour
tbyt
henat
ionsi
nvol
vedandt
oissueadv
isor
yopi
nionsondi
sput
es
r
efer
redt
oitbyt
heLeague.Al
thought
hecour
thel
pedt
odev
elopi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
i
tsj
udgeswer
ehamper
edbyt
hel
ackofuni
ver
salagr
eementonmanyaspect
sof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Af
terWor
ldWarI
Iin1945t
heLeagueofNat
ionswasr
epl
aced
byt
heUni
tedNat
ionsandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icesucceededast
he
Per
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
ice.TheUni
tedNat
ionsChar
tercr
eat
ed
el
abor
atemachi
ner
yformai
ntai
ningpeaceandsecur
it
yandf
orsol
vi
ngdi
sput
es
amongnat
ions.I
tal
sospeci
fi
cal
l
ydi
rect
edt
heGener
alAssembl
ytoencour
aget
he
pr
ogr
essi
vedev
elopmentandcodi
fi
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Tocar
ryoutt
his
t
ask,
theGener
alAssembl
ycr
eat
edt
wosubsi
diar
yor
gans:
Thesear
e:

TheI
nter
nat
ional
LawCommi
ssi
on(
1947)

The Commi
ssi
on on I
nter
nat
ionalTr
ade Law (
1966) a l
andmar
kint
he
dev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
awoccur
redi
n1998ataUNdi
plomat
icconf
erence
i
nRome,I
tal
y,when120count
ri
esadopt
edat
reat
ytoest
abl
i
sht
hewor
ld’
sfi
rst
per
manent i
nter
nat
ionalcr
imi
nalcour
t.Of
fi
cial
l
y est
abl
i
shed i
n 2002,t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
t(I
CC)oper
atesi
ndependent
lyoft
heUni
tedNat
ions
andhast
hepowert
oini
ti
atei
nvest
igat
ionsandpr
osecut
ionsofwarcr
imi
nal
s,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hoseaccusedofgenoci
de,cr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty,andot
herser
ious
cr
imes.Unl
i
kepr
evi
ouswarcr
imest
ri
bunal
s,suchast
hosecr
eat
edi
nresponset
o
at
roci
ti
esi
nthef
ormerYugosl
avi
aandi
nRwanda,t
heI
CC’
sjur
isdi
cti
oni
snot
l
i
mit
edt
ospeci
fi
cconf
li
cts.

Judi
cial
deci
sions

Ast
he‘
’
art
icl
e38’
’Judi
cialdeci
sionsi
sut
il
izedasasubsi
diar
ymeansf
ort
he
det
ermi
nat
ion ofr
ules ofl
aw oract
ualsour
ce ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Judi
cial

52|Page
2024
deci
sionscanbeofi
mmenseori
mpor
tantr
olet
oint
ernat
ionall
aw.I
naddi
ti
on,
v
irt
ueof‘
’
art
icl
e59’
’oft
heSt
atut
eoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icedeci
sions
hav
enobi
ndi
ngf
orceexceptasbet
weent
hepar
ti
esandi
nrespectoft
hecase
underconsi
der
ati
on.TheCour
thasst
ri
vent
ofol
l
ow i
tspr
evi
ousj
udgment
sand
i
nser
tameasur
eofcer
tai
ntywi
thi
nthepr
ocesssot
hatwhi
l
ethedoct
ri
neof
pr
ecedentknownast
hecommonl
aw.Wher
ebyt
her
uli
ngsofcer
tai
ncour
ts
f
oll
owedbyot
hercour
tsdonotexi
sti
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.But
,st
il
lfi
ndsst
ate
di
sput
esquot
ejudgment
soft
hePer
manentCour
tandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tof
Just
iceasaut
hor
it
ati
vedeci
sionsandt
hesedeci
sionsar
eser
vingast
hesour
ces
ofi
nter
nat
ional
law.

TheI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icei
tsel
fwi
l
lcl
osel
yexami
nei
tspr
evi
ousdeci
sions
andwi
l
lcar
eful
l
ydi
sti
ngui
sht
hosecaseswhi
chi
tfeel
sshoul
dnotbeappl
i
edt
o
t
hepr
obl
em bei
ngst
udi
ed.Butj
ustasEngl
i
shj
udges,f
orexampl
e,cr
eat
elaw i
n
t
hepr
ocessofi
nter
pret
ingi
t,sot
hej
udgesoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice
somet
imesdoal
i
ttl
emor
ethanmer
ely‘
det
ermi
ne’
it.

I
naddi
ti
ont
othePer
manentCour
tandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice,t
he
phr
ase‘
j
udi
ci
aldeci
sions’al
soencompassesi
nter
nat
ionalar
bit
ralawar
dsandt
he
r
uli
ngsofnat
ionalcour
ts.Ther
ehav
ebeenmanyi
nter
nat
ionalar
bit
ralt
ri
bunal
s,
suchast
hePer
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ioncr
eat
edbyHagueConf
erencesof1899
and1907andt
hev
ari
ousmi
xed-
clai
mst
ri
bunal
s,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heI
ran–USCl
aims
Tr
ibunal
,and,al
thought
heydi
ff
erf
rom t
hei
nter
nat
ionalcour
tsi
nsomeway
s,
manyoft
hei
rdeci
sionshav
ebeenext
remel
ysi
gni
fi
canti
nthedev
elopmentof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
scanbeseeni
ntheexi
stenceandnumberoft
heRepor
tsof
I
nter
nat
ionalAr
bit
ralAwar
dspubl
i
shedsi
ncei
nter
nat
ionall
aw1948byt
heUni
ted
Nat
ions.

I
nter
nat
ionalLawandMuni
cipal
Law

Dearl
ear
ner
s,di
scusst
hedi
ff
erencebet
weeni
nter
nat
ionall
awandmuni
cipal
l
aw.

53|Page
2024
Muni
cipalLawi
sdef
inedast
hei
nter
nall
awofanat
ionorst
ate.I
tisal
sor
efer
red
t
oast
hel
aw whi
chgov
ernst
hebehav
iorandconductofi
ndi
vi
dual
saswel
las
or
gani
zat
ionswi
thi
nacount
ry.I
tisapar
tofDomest
icLaw whi
chi
ncl
udesl
ocal
l
awsandr
ules,
suchasgov
ernt
owns,
cit
ies,
dist
ri
ctsorpr
ovi
nceswi
thi
nacount
ry.
Thedi
sti
nctf
eat
ureofmuni
cipalLawi
sit
smet
hodofenf
orcement
.Iti
sty
pical
l
y
enf
orcedt
hrought
het
hreemai
nmechani
smsofast
ate,namel
ythel
egi
slat
ure,
execut
iveandt
hej
udi
ciar
y.

Thel
egi
slat
ureenact
sthel
awwhi
l
ethej
udi
ci
aryensur
escompl
i
ancebyi
mposi
ng
sanct
ionsf
ornon-
compl
i
ance.Si
mpl
yput
,thosewhodonotobeyorcompl
ywi
th
Domest
icLaw wi
l
lbepuni
shedi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw byacour
torj
udi
cial
body
.Muni
ci
palLaw most
lycompr
isesSt
atut
esorAct
sofPar
li
amentandal
so
i
ncl
udesaccept
edcust
oms.

I
ncont
rastt
omuni
cipalLaw,t
heenf
orcementofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw i
sgener
all
y
basedont
heconsentandaccept
anceofst
ates.Thus,anat
ioncanchoosenott
o
acceptandcompl
ywi
tht
her
ulesofaconv
ent
ionort
reat
y.Howev
er,i
npr
act
ice,
st
atesar
eof
tenunderobl
i
gat
iont
ocompl
ywi
thcer
tai
nrul
esi
nInt
ernat
ionall
aw
suchascust
omsandper
empt
orynor
ms.

I
nter
nat
ionalLaw hasaj
udi
cialbodyi
nthef
orm oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tof
Just
ice.Howev
er,unl
i
kecour
tswi
thi
nanat
ion,t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice
r
esol
vesdi
sput
esori
ssuesbet
weenst
ates.I
tdoesnoti
mposepuni
shmenti
nthe
same manneras cour
ts underDomest
ic Law.I
nter
nat
ionalLaw has t
oday
expanded t
oincl
ude r
ules t
hatgov
ernt
he r
ight
s and obl
i
gat
ions bet
ween
i
ndi
vi
dual
sandor
gani
zat
ionsofnat
ions,al
soknownasPr
ivat
eInt
ernat
ionalLaw.
Thus,r
ulesgov
erni
ngt
her
elat
ionsbet
weenst
atest
ypi
cal
l
yfal
lwi
thi
nthepur
view
ordi
sci
pli
neofPubl
i
cInt
ernat
ional
Law.

Muni
cipall
aw i
s a bodyofl
aw whi
ch gov
erns t
he domest
ic af
fai
rs oft
he
gov
ernmentanddeal
swi
thi
ssuesbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
swi
tht
headmi
nist
rat
ive
appar
atus.Whi
l
eint
ernat
ionall
awi
sthebodyoft
hel
awpr
imar
il
ydeal
i
ngwi
tht
he
r
elat
ionsbet
weenst
ates.Ther
oleoft
hest
atei
nthemoder
nwor
ldi
sacompl
ex

54|Page
2024
one.Accor
dingt
othel
egalt
heor
yofst
ate,eachst
atei
ssov
erei
gnandequal
.
I
nter
dependence and t
he cl
ose-
kni
tchar
act
erofcont
empor
aryi
nter
nat
ional
commer
cialandpol
i
ticalsoci
etyensur
est
hatv
irt
ual
l
yanyact
ionofast
atecoul
d
wel
lhav
epr
ofoundr
eper
cussi
onsupont
hesy
stem asawhol
eandt
hedeci
sions
underconsi
der
ati
onbyot
herst
ates.Thi
shasl
edt
oani
ncr
easi
ngi
nter
penet
rat
ion
ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw anddomest
icl
aw acr
ossanumberoff
iel
ds,suchashuman
r
ight
s,env
ironment
alpol
i
ciesand i
nter
nat
ionali
nvest
mentl
aw. Ther
iseand
ext
ensi
onofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw quest
ionsbegi
ntoar
isepar
all
eli
ngt
her
olepl
ayed
byt
hest
atewi
thi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem andconcer
nedwi
tht
her
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weent
hei
nter
nall
egalor
derofapar
ti
cul
arcount
ryandt
her
ulesandpr
inci
ples
gov
erni
ngt
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyasawhol
e.

Themuni
cipalcour
trul
eand i
nter
nat
ionall
aw maybebr
oughtf
orwar
d asa
def
ense t
o a char
ge t
hatseeki
ng t
o pr
eventa gr
eatcr
ime (
essent
ial
l
y of
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw)wascl
aimedwi
thr
egar
dtot
heal
l
egedof
fenseofcr
imi
nal
damage.Wher
eav
esseli
s bei
ng pr
osecut
ed i
n domest
icl
aw r
egar
ded as
t
err
it
ori
alorwat
ersl
awbuti
nint
ernat
ionall
awwoul
dbet
reat
edaspar
toft
hehi
gh
seasorext
rat
err
it
ori
all
aw.Fur
ther
,ther
ear
ecaseswher
ethesamesi
tuat
ion
comesbef
orebot
hnat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionalcour
ts,whi
chmayr
efert
oeach
ot
her
’sdeci
si
onsi
nacompl
expr
ocessofi
nter
act
ion.

Forexampl
e,t
hef
ail
ureoft
heUSAt
oal
l
owi
mpr
isonedf
orei
gnnat
ional
saccesst
o
consul
arassi
stancei
nvi
olat
ionoft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
iononConsul
arRel
ati
ons,
1963wast
hesubj
ectofcase-
law bef
oret
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice,t
he
I
nter
-Amer
icanCour
tofHumanRi
ght
sandUSAcour
ts,whi
l
ether
eisagr
owi
ng
t
endencyf
ordomest
iccour
tst
obeusedt
oaddr
essv
iol
ati
onsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.

Cont
ri
but
ionofMuni
cipal
Rul
esi
nInt
ernat
ional
Law

Thegener
alr
uleofmuni
cipall
aw wi
thi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalspher
eofast
atecan
j
ust
if
yit
sel
fbyr
efer
ri
ngt
oit
sdomest
icl
egalsi
tuat
ion.I
tisnodef
enset
oan
i
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
iont
oar
guet
hatt
hest
ateact
edi
nsuchamannerbecausei
t

55|Page
2024
wasf
oll
owi
ngt
hedi
ctat
esofi
tsownmuni
cipall
aws.Ther
easonsf
ort
hisi
nabi
l
ity
t
oputf
orwar
dint
ernalr
ulesasanexcuset
oev
adei
nter
nat
ionalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyar
e
obv
ious.Anyot
hersi
tuat
ionwoul
dper
miti
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
obeev
adedbyt
he
si
mpl
emet
hodofdomest
icl
egi
slat
ion.Att
hesamet
imei
nter
nat
ionall
awi
sone
par
tofmuni
cipal
law.

I
naddi
ti
on,st
atepr
act
iceanddeci
sionsofcaseshav
eest
abl
i
shedt
hispr
ovi
sion
andt
her
ebypr
event
edcount
ri
esi
nvol
vedi
nint
ernat
ionall
i
tigat
ionf
rom pl
eadi
ng
muni
cipall
aw asamet
hodofci
rcumv
ent
ingi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Ar
ti
cle27oft
he
Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
ies,
1969l
aysdownt
hati
nsof
arast
reat
ies
ar
e concer
ned,a par
tymaynoti
nvoke t
he pr
ovi
sionsofi
tsi
nter
nall
aw as
j
ust
if
icat
ionf
ori
tsf
ail
uret
ocar
ryoutani
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
,whi
l
ear
ti
cle
46(
1)pr
ovi
dest
hatast
atemaynoti
nvoket
hef
actt
hati
tsconsentt
obeboundby
at
reat
yhasbeenexpr
essedi
nvi
olat
ionofapr
ovi
sionofi
tsi
nter
nall
awr
egar
ding
compet
encet
oconcl
udet
reat
iesasi
nval
i
dat
ingi
tsconsent
.

Thi
sissounl
esst
hev
iol
ati
onofi
tsi
nter
nall
aw i
nquest
ionwas‘
mani
festand
concer
nedar
uleoff
undament
ali
mpor
tance’
.Ar
ti
cle46(
2)i
nter
nat
ional
lawst
ates
t
hatsuchav
iol
ati
oni
smani
festwher
eitwoul
dbeobj
ect
ivel
yev
identt
oanyst
ate
conduct
ingi
tsel
fint
hemat
teri
naccor
dancewi
thnor
malpr
act
iceandi
ngood
f
ait
hofmuni
ci
pall
aw.TheCour
tal
sot
ookt
hev
iewt
hat‘
ther
eisnogener
all
egal
obl
i
gat
ionf
orSt
atest
okeept
hemsel
vesi
nfor
medofl
egi
slat
iveandconst
it
uti
onal
dev
elopment
sin ot
herSt
ates whi
ch ar
e ormay become i
mpor
tantf
ort
he
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsoft
heseSt
ates’
.Howev
er,suchnomor
esupr
emacyof
i
nter
nat
ionall
awov
ermuni
cipall
awbut
,ini
nter
nat
ionall
awt
ri
bunal
sdonothav
e
t
hepr
ovi
sionsofdomest
icl
egi
slat
ionpr
ocedur
e.Thecont
ri
but
ionsofmuni
cipal
l
awf
ori
nter
nat
ional
lawar
econcer
nedasaf
undament
alr
uleornecessar
y.

Whati
sthekeyDi
ff
erencebet
weenmuni
cipalandi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw?

TheKeyDi
ff
erencesbet
weenmuni
cipal
andI
nter
nat
ional
Lawar
egi
venbel
ow:

56|Page
2024
a)I
nter
nat
ional
Law

I
tisadopt
edbySt
atesasacommonr
uleofact
ionbyandf
orSt
ates

I
tis der
ived f
rom cust
oms and t
radi
ti
ons,t
reat
ies and gener
alpr
inci
ples of
i
nter
nat
ional
dimensi
on.

I
tpr
esumabl
ygov
ernst
her
elat
ionshi
pamongSt
ates

I
tpr
oducescol
l
ect
ivel
i
abi
l
ityi
ncaseofv
iol
ati
onsandsanct
ionsf
orer
ri
ngSt
ates.

b)Muni
cipalLaw

I
ssuedbyapar
ti
cul
arpol
i
ticalsuper
iorf
ort
heobser
vanceoft
hoseundert
he
aut
hor
it
ywi
thi
naSt
ate;

Enact
mentf
rom t
hel
aw-
maki
ngbodyaut
hor
it
y;

Gov
ernst
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sandt
heSt
ate;

I
fther
eisav
iol
ati
on ofa muni
cipall
aw,t
he aggr
iev
ed par
ty wi
l
lav
ail
admi
nist
rat
iveandj
udi
cial
processeswi
thi
nthest
ate.

Enf
orcementi
sunder
takenbyal
awenf
orcementar
m oft
heSt
ate.

Subj
ect
sofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whoar
esubj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw?

St
ates

St
ates ar
e an i
ncr
easi
ng r
ange ofsubj
ect
s,act
ors and par
ti
cipant
sint
he
i
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem,
stat
esr
emai
nbyf
art
hemosti
mpor
tantl
egalper
sons.
Anddespi
tet
her
iseofgl
obal
i
zat
ionwi
thal
lit
ssubsequentef
fect
s,st
atesr
etai
n
t
hei
rat
tract
ionast
hepr
imar
yfocusf
ort
hesoci
alact
ivi
tyofhumanki
ndandt
hus
f
ort
heaf
fai
rsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
sexpl
i
cit
lyaf
fi
rmst
hatonl
yst
atesar
e
subj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw. Howev
er,di
ff
erentpr
act
iceshav
ebeenabl
eto

57|Page
2024
di
spr
ovet
he “
onl
y st
ates t
hesi
s” as v
ari
ous i
nsur
gent
s and bel
l
iger
ent
s,
i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsand char
ter
ed compani
eswer
e al
latone t
ime or
anot
hert
reat
edaspossessi
ngt
hecapaci
tyt
obecomesubj
ect
sasi
nter
nat
ional
per
sons.Not
wit
hst
andi
ngt
hisempi
ri
calev
idenceandpr
act
icesofst
atesposes
asi
nter
nat
ionall
egalper
sonal
i
tyi
mpl
i
est
hatst
ateshav
ecer
tai
nri
ght
stoenj
oy
andr
esponsi
bil
i
tiest
odi
schar
ges,
takenunderi
nter
nat
ional
law.

The1933Mont
evi
deoConv
ent
iononRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
atesi
nit
s‘’
Art
icl
e1’
’
hasl
aiddownt
hebasi
ccr
it
eri
aforanent
it
ytobeconsi
der
edasst
atehoodi
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw subj
ect
s.Accor
dingt
othi
sar
ti
cle,ast
atei
sani
nter
nat
ional
per
sonbecauseast
ateshoul
dpossessaper
manentpopul
ati
on;
adef
inedt
err
it
ory
;
agov
ernment
;andt
hecapaci
tyt
oent
eri
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herst
ates.Hence,
f
ulf
il
li
ngt
hesecr
it
eri
awi
l
lconf
erast
atet
ohav
ecer
tai
nfundament
alr
ight
sbyt
he
v
irt
ue of t
he i
nter
nat
ional l
egal sy
stem. The second r
eason st
ate has
i
ndependenceper
hapsandt
heout
standi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
ctost
atesov
erei
gnt
y.
Thi
swasdef
inedi
ntheDr
aftDecl
arat
ionont
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
ates
pr
epar
edi
n1949byt
heI
nter
nat
ionalLawCommi
ssi
onast
hecapaci
tyofast
ate
t
opr
ovi
def
ori
tsownwel
l
-bei
nganddev
elopmentbei
ngf
reef
rom t
hedomi
nat
ion
ofot
herst
ates,pr
ovi
dingi
tdoesnoti
mpai
rorv
iol
atet
hei
rlegi
ti
mat
eri
ght
s.By
i
ndependence,onei
sref
err
ingt
oal
egalconceptandi
tisnodev
iat
ionf
rom
i
ndependencet
o besubj
ectt
other
ulesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Anypol
it
icalor
economi
c dependence t
hatmay i
nreal
i
ty exi
stdoes notaf
fectt
he l
egal
i
ndependenceandsov
erei
gnt
yoft
hest
ate.

Thest
art
ingpoi
ntf
ort
heconsi
der
ati
onoft
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsofst
ates
wi
thi
nthe i
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem r
emai
ns t
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw per
mit
s
f
reedom ofact
ionf
orst
ates,unl
esst
her
eisar
uleconst
rai
ningt
his.Howev
er,
suchf
reedom exi
stswi
thi
nandnotout
sidet
hei
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem andi
tis
t
her
efor
eint
ernat
ionall
aw whi
ch di
ctat
es t
he scope and cont
ent of t
he
i
ndependenceofst
atesandnott
hest
atest
hemsel
vesi
ndi
vi
dual
l
yanduni
l
ater
all
y.
Thenot
ionofi
ndependencei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
mpl
i
esanumberofr
ight
sand
dut
ies:f
orexampl
e,t
her
ightofast
atet
oex
erci
sej
uri
sdi
cti
onov
eri
tst
err
it
oryand

58|Page
2024
popul
ati
on,
ort
her
ightt
oengageuponanactofsel
f-
def
ensei
ncer
tai
nsi
tuat
ions.
I
timpl
i
est
hedut
ynott
oint
erv
enei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofot
hersov
erei
gnst
ates
t
oo.Wi
thi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem i
nter
nat
ionall
aw pr
ovi
desl
egalaut
hor
it
yfor
st
atespr
imar
il
y.Buti
nter
nat
ional
lawcani
nter
fer
ewi
thmostcr
it
ical
debat
eissues
ofst
atesuchas:
issuessov
erei
gnt
y,war
,thebi
ospher
e,andhumanr
ight
s.

I
nter
nat
ional
Organi
zat
ions

I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionshav
epl
ayedacr
uci
alr
olei
nthespher
eofi
nter
nat
ional
per
sonal
i
tysubj
ect
s.Si
ncet
heni
net
eent
hcent
uryagr
owi
ngnumberofsuch
or
gani
zat
ionshav
e appear
ed and t
husr
aised t
he i
ssue ofi
nter
nat
ionall
egal
per
sonal
i
ty.I
npr
inci
plei
tisnow wel
lest
abl
i
shedt
hati
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions
mayi
ndeedpossessobj
ect
ivei
nter
nat
ional
legal
per
sonal
i
ty.

Whet
hert
hatwi
l
lbesoi
nanypar
ti
cul
ari
nst
ancewi
l
ldependupont
hepar
ti
cul
ar
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hatcase.Whet
heranor
gani
zat
ionpossessesper
sonal
i
tyi
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw wi
l
lhi
ngeuponi
tsconst
it
uti
onalst
atus,i
tsact
ualpower
sand
pr
act
ice.Si
gni
fi
cantf
act
orsi
nthi
scont
extwi
l
lincl
udet
hecapaci
tyt
oent
eri
nto
r
elat
ionswi
thst
atesandot
heror
gani
zat
ionsandconcl
udet
reat
ieswi
tht
hem and
t
hest
atusi
thasbeengi
venundermuni
cipall
aw.Suchel
ement
sar
eknowni
n
i
nter
nat
ional
lawast
hei
ndi
ciaofper
sonal
i
ty.
TheConsequencesofLegal
Per
sonal
it
yunderI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

The abov
e sur
vey of exi
sti
ng and possi
ble subj
ect
s of i
nter
nat
ionall
aw
demonst
rat
esbot
hther
angeofi
nter
act
ionupont
hei
nter
nat
ional
scenebyent
it
ies
ofal
lty
pesandt
hepr
essur
esuponi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
ocomet
oter
mswi
tht
he
cont
empor
aryst
ruct
ureofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.TheI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tcl
ear
ly
r
ecogni
zedt
hemul
ti
pli
cit
yofmodel
sofper
sonal
i
tyi
nst
ressi
ngt
hat‘
thesubj
ect
s
ofl
aw i
nanyl
egalsy
stem ar
enotnecessar
il
yident
icali
nthei
rnat
ureori
nthe
ext
entoft
hei
rri
ght
s.Ther
ear
e,howev
er,t
wobasi
ccat
egor
ies:obj
ect
iveand
qual
i
fiedper
sonal
i
ty.

I
nthef
ormercase,t
heent
it
yissubj
ectt
oawi
der
angeofi
nter
nat
ionalr
ight
sand
dut
iesandi
twi
l
lbeent
it
ledt
obeaccept
edasani
nter
nat
ionalper
sonbyanyot
her

59|Page
2024
i
nter
nat
ionalper
sonwi
thwhi
chi
tisconduct
ingr
elat
ions.I
not
herwor
ds,t
he
cr
eat
ionofanobj
ect
ivei
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tywi
l
lofnecessi
tybehar
dert
o
achi
eveandwi
l
lrequi
ret
heact
ioni
nessenceoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyasa
whol
eorasubst
ant
ialel
ementofi
t.TheCour
tnot
edi
ntheRepar
ati
oncaset
hat
:
f
if
tyst
ates,r
epr
esent
ingt
hev
astmaj
ori
tyoft
hemember
soft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty,
hav
ethepower
,inconf
ormi
tywi
thi
nter
nat
ional
law,
tobr
ingi
ntobei
ng
anent
it
ypossessi
ngobj
ect
ivei
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tyandnotmer
elyper
sonal
i
ty
r
ecogni
zedbyt
hem al
one,
toget
herwi
thcapaci
tyt
obr
ingi
nter
nat
ional
cl ms.
ai

Al
lthest
atedent
it
iesmaybeeasi
l
ycont
ainedwi
thi
nthecat
egor
yofqual
i
fied
per
sonal
i
ty,possessi
ngal
i
mit
edr
angeofr
ight
sanddut
iesv
ali
dasagai
nstt
hose
accept
ingt
hei
rper
sonal
i
ty.Ther
ear
enopr
esetr
ulesgov
erni
ngt
heext
entofr
ight
s
anddut
iesofi
nter
nat
ionalper
sons.Thi
swi
l
ldependupont
het
ypeofent
it
y
concer
ned,i
tscl
aimsandex
pect
ati
ons,f
unct
ionsandat
ti
tudeadopt
edbyt
he
i
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

Theexcept
ionher
ewoul
dbest
ateswhi
chent
eruponl
i
fewi
thanequalr
angeof
r
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ions.Thoseent
it
ieswi
thobj
ect
iveper
sonal
i
tywi
l
l,i
tissuggest
ed,
benef
itf
rom amor
eel
ast
icper
cept
ionoft
heext
entoft
hei
rri
ght
sanddut
iesi
nthe
f
orm ofawi
deri
nter
pret
ati
onofi
mpl
i
edpower
sthr
oughpr
act
ice.Howev
er,i
nthe
caseofqual
i
fiedsubj
ect
simpl
i
edpower
swi
l
lbemor
edi
ff
icul
ttodemonst
rat
eand
acceptandt
her
angeoft
hei
rri
ght
sanddut
ieswi
l
lbemuchmor
eli
mit
ed.The
pr
esumpt
ion,
thus,
wil
loper
atet
heot
herway
.

The pr
eci
se cat
alog ofr
ight
sand dut
iesi
saccor
dingl
yimpossi
blet
oli
sti
n
adv
ance;i
twi
l
lvar
yfr
om case t
o case.The capaci
tyt
ofunct
ion on t
he
i
nter
nat
ionalscene i
nlegalpr
oceedi
ngsofsome descr
ipt
ion wi
l
lnotbe t
oo
uncommon,whi
l
ethepowert
omaket
reat
ieswi
l
lbel
esswi
despr
ead.Ast
othi
s
t
heI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Commi
ssi
onnot
edt
hat‘
agr
eement
sconcl
udedbet
ween
ent
it
ies ot
her t
han st
ates or t
han i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
zat
ions seem t
oo
het
erogeneousagr
oupt
oconst
it
uteagener
alcat
egor
y,andt
her
elev
antbodyof
i
nter
nat
ionalpr
act
icei
sasy
ett
ooexi
guousf
ort
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofsucha

60|Page
2024
gener
alcat
egor
ytobei
nfer
redf
rom i
t’
.

Theext
entt
owhi
chsubj
ect
smaybei
nter
nat
ional
l
yresponsi
blei
sal
souncl
ear
,
al
thoughi
ngener
alsuchanent
it
ywi
l
lpossessr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
otheext
entofi
ts
r
ight
sanddut
ies;butmanypr
obl
em ar
easr
emai
n.Si
mil
arl
y,cont
rov
ersyi
sthe
nor
m-cr
eat
ingr
oleofsuchdi
ver
seent
it
ies,butt
hepr
act
iceofal
lint
ernat
ional
per
sonsi
scer
tai
nlyr
elev
antmat
eri
aluponwhi
cht
odr
awi
nanel
uci
dat
ionoft
he
r
ulesandpr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
hecont
extoft
heent
it
yin
quest
ion.

I
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tyt
huscent
ers,
notsomuchupont
hecapaci
tyoft
heent
it
y
assucht
opossessi
nter
nat
ional
right
sanddut
ies,
asupont
heact
ual
att
ri
but
ionof
r
ight
sand/
ordut
iesont
hei
nter
nat
ional
planeasdet
ermi
nedbyav
ari
etyoff
act
ors
r
angi
ng f
rom cl
aims made t
o pr
escr
ibed f
unct
ions.Pr
ocedur
alcapaci
tywi
th
r
egar
dtoenf
orcementi
simpor
tantbutnotessent
ial
,buti
nthecaseofnon-
i
ndi
vi
dualent
it
iest
hecl
aimantwi
l
lhav
etobei
n‘suchaposi
ti
ont
hati
tpossesses,
i
nregar
dtoi
tsmember
s,r
ight
swhi
chi
tisent
it
ledt
oaskt
hem t
orespect
’Thi
s,
not
edt
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
t,expr
essed‘
theessent
ialt
estwher
eagr
oup,
whet
her
composedofst
ates,oft
ri
besorofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,i
scl
aimedt
obeal
egalent
it
y
di
sti
nctf
rom i
tsmember
s’.

I
nter
nat
ionalpubl
iccompani
es

Thi
sty
peofI
nter
nat
ionalpubl
i
ccompani
es’ent
it
y,whi
chmaybeknownbya
v
ari
etyofnames,f
orexampl
emul
ti
nat
ionalpubl
i
cent
erpr
isesori
nter
nat
ional
bodi
es cor
por
ate,i
s char
act
eri
zed i
n gener
alby an i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
pr
ovi
ding f
or co-
oper
ati
on bet
ween gov
ernment
al ent
erpr
ises and pr
ivat
e
ent
erpr
ises.Such ent
erpr
isesmayv
arywi
del
yin const
it
uti
onalnat
ureand i
n
compet
ences.Theper
sonal
i
tyquest
ionwi
l
ldependupont
hedi
ff
erencesbet
ween
muni
cipalandi
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
ty.I
ftheent
it
yisgi
venar
angeofpower
sand
i
s di
stanced suf
fi
cient
lyf
rom muni
cipall
aw,an i
nter
nat
ionalper
son maybe
i
nvol
ved,
buti
twi
l
lrequi
recar
efulconsi
der
ati
onoft
heci
rcumst
ances.I
nanycase
t
heybearl
egalper
sonal
i
tyt
ovar
yingdegr
ees.I
nter
nat
ionalpubl
i
ccompani
esar
e

61|Page
2024
di
rect
lysubj
ect
ed.

Tr
ansnat
ional
Cor
por
ati
ons

Anot
herpossi
ble subj
ectofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s Tr
ansnat
ionalCor
por
ati
ons
t
hrough a candi
dat
e of i
nter
nat
ional per
sonal
i
tyi
s t
he t
ransnat
ional or
mul
ti
nat
ionalent
erpr
ise.Var
iousTr
ansnat
ionalCor
por
ati
onsar
eav
eryi
mpor
tant
phenomenon i
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ions.The pr
ivat
e busi
ness or
gani
zat
ions
compr
isi
ngsev
erall
egalent
it
iesl
i
nkedt
oget
herbypar
entcor
por
ati
onsandot
her
s
di
sti
ngui
shedbysi
zeandmul
ti
nat
ionalspr
ead.I
nther
ecenty
earani
ncr
easi
ng
amountofpr
act
icehasbeenev
identont
hei
nter
nat
ionalpl
anedeal
i
ngwi
thsuch
cor
por
ati
ons.Whathasbeensoughti
sasetofgui
del
i
nesgov
erni
ngt
hemaj
or
el
ement
soft
hei
nter
nat
ionalconductoft
heseent
it
ies.Howev
er,pr
ogr
esshas
beensl
ow andsev
eralcr
uci
ali
ssuesr
emai
ntober
esol
ved,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hel
egal
ef
fect
,ifany
,ofsuchgui
del
i
nes.Thequest
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tyof
t
ransnat
ional
cor
por
ati
onsr
emai
nsanopenone.

Nat
ional
li
ber
ati
onMov
ementgr
oups(
NLMGs)

TheNLMGsal
soconst
it
utesubj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thei
ncr
easi
ngst
atusof
NLMGsdur
ingt
hedecol
oni
zat
ionper
iodi
nAf
ri
ca,butal
sot
hef
actt
hati
nmany
casest
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyt
urnedt
obodi
esot
hert
hant
heNLMGsi
n
cont
rov
ersi
alsi
tuat
ionsr
elat
edwi
thwhi
teset
tl
evi
olence.TheUN t
rust
eeshi
p
sy
stem per
mit
tedt
hehear
ingwhi
tei
ndi
vi
dualpet
it
ioner
sandt
hiswasext
endedt
o
al
lcol
oni
alt
err
it
ori
es.I
n1977,t
heGener
alAssembl
yFour
thCommi
tt
eev
otedt
o
per
mitr
epr
esent
ati
vesofcer
tai
nNLMGsf
rom Por
tugal
’
s,Zi
mbabweandSout
h
Af
ri
cant
err
it
ori
est
opar
ti
cipat
eini
tswor
kdeal
i
ngwi
thsucht
err
it
ori
alv
iol
ence
whi
tewi
tht
hebl
ack.

I
n addi
ti
on,t
he UN Secur
it
y Counci
lal
so per
mit
ted t
he Pal
est
ine Li
ber
ati
on
Or
gani
zat
ionmov
ementgr
oups(
PLOMGs)t
opar
ti
cipat
eini
tsdebat
eswi
tht
he
samer
ight
sofpar
ti
cipat
ionasconf
err
eduponamemberst
atenotamemberof
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
,al
thought
hisdi
drai
seser
iousconst
it
uti
onalquest
ions.Thus,
t
hepossi
bil
i
tyofobser
verst
atusi
ntheUNandr
elat
edor
gansf
orNLMGsappear
s

62|Page
2024
t
o hav
e been af
fi
rmat
ivel
y set
tl
ed i
nint
ernat
ionalpr
act
ice.The quest
ion of
i
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
ty,howev
er,i
smor
ecompl
exandmor
esi
gni
fi
cant
,and
r
ecour
semustbemadet
ost
atepr
act
ice.

Whet
herext
ensi
vest
ater
ecogni
ti
onofal
i
ber
ati
onmov
ementi
sofi
tsel
fsuf
fi
cient
t
oconf
ersuchst
atusi
sst
il
lacont
rov
ersi
ali
ssue.Thei
ncr
easei
nthet
err
it
ori
al
and j
uri
sdi
cti
onalcompet
ence oft
he Pal
est
ini
an Aut
hor
it
y est
abl
i
shed as a
consequenceoft
hesear
rangement
srai
sedt
hequest
ionofl
egal
per
sonal
i
ty.Whi
l
e
Pal
est
ini
an st
atehood has cl
ear
ly not been accept
ed by t
he i
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty,
thePal
est
ini
anAut
hor
it
ycanber
egar
dedaspossessi
ngsomef
orm of
l
i
mit
edi
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
ty.Suchaper
sonal
i
ty,howev
er,der
ivesf
rom t
he
agr
eement
sbet
ween I
sraeland t
he PLOMGsand exi
stssepar
atel
yfr
om t
he
per
sonal
i
tyoft
hePLOMGsasNLMGs,whi
chr
eli
esupont
her
ecogni
ti
onoft
hir
d
par
ti
esandr
ecogni
zedassubj
ectt
oint
ernat
ional
laws.

I
ndi
vi
dual
s

Thequest
ionabl
est
atusofI
ndi
vi
dual
sini
nter
nat
ionall
awi
sdi
rect
lycl
osel
ybound
upwi
tht
her
isei
nthei
nter
nat
ional
prot
ect
ionofhumanr
i s.Suchaswarcr
ght imes,
pi
racy and genoci
de di
rect
ly mi
ghtas subj
ect
stot
he i
nter
nat
ionall
aw as
i
nter
nat
ionalper
sons.The essence ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw has al
way
s been i
ts
ul
ti
mat
econcer
nfort
hehumanbei
ngandt
hiswascl
ear
lymani
festi
ntheNat
ural
Law or
igi
ns ofcl
assi
cali
nter
nat
ionall
aw.The gr
owt
h ofposi
ti
vi
stt
heor
ies,
par
ti
cul
arl
yint
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,obscur
edt
hisandemphasi
zedt
hecent
ral
i
ty
andev
enexcl
usi
vi
tyoft
hest
atei
nthi
sregar
d.I
ndi
vi
dual
scanbesubj
ect
edt
o
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,moder
npr
act
icedoesdemonst
rat
ethati
ndi
vi
dual
shav
ebecome
i
ncr
easi
ngl
yrecogni
zedaspar
ti
cipant
sandsubj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
shas
occur
redpr
imar
il
ywi
tht
hedev
elopmentoft
hehumanr
ight
slaw.Thel
i
nkbet
ween
t
hest
ateandt
hei
ndi
vi
dualf
ori
nter
nat
ionall
awpur
poseshashi
stor
ical
l
ybeent
he
conceptofnat
ional
i
ty.Thi
swasandr
emai
nscr
uci
al,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
hespher
esof
j
uri
sdi
cti
onandt
hei
nter
nat
ionalpr
otect
ionoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualbyt
hest
ate.I
tisof
ten

63|Page
2024
not
edt
hatt
hecl
aim ofani
ndi
vi
dualagai
nstaf
orei
gnst
ate,
forexampl
e,becomes
subsumed undert
hatofhi
s nat
ionalst
ate.Each st
ate has t
he capaci
tyt
o
det
ermi
newhoar
etobei
tsnat
ional
sandt
hisi
stober
ecogni
zedbyot
herst
ates
i
nsof
arasi
tisconsi
stentwi
thi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
alt
houghi
nor
derf
orot
herst
ates
t
oacceptt
hisnat
ional
i
tyt
her
ehast
obeagenui
neconnect
ionbet
weent
hest
ate
andt
hei
ndi
vi
duali
nquest
ion.I
ndi
vi
dual
sasagener
alr
ulel
ackst
andi
ngt
oasser
t
v
iol
ati
onsofi
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
iesi
ntheabsenceofapr
otestbyt
hest
ateof
nat
ional
i
ty,al
thoughst
atesmayagr
eet
oconf
erpar
ti
cul
arr
ight
soni
ndi
vi
dual
s
whi
chwi
l
lbeenf
orceabl
eunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
independent
lyofmuni
cipall
aw.
Buther
e,t
hequest
ionoft
hel
egalper
sonal
i
tyofi
ndi
vi
dual
sunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
ext
endst
oquest
ionsofdi
rectcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyal
so.I
tisnow est
abl
i
shed
t
hati
nter
nat
ionall
awpr
oscr
ibescer
tai
nhei
nousconducti
namannert
hati
mpor
ts
di
recti
ndi
vi
dual
cri
minal
responsi
bil
i
ty.

Anot
hersetofi
ssuesr
egar
dingt
heappl
i
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
oindi
vi
dual
s
i
nvol
vescaseswher
esi
ngl
ecount
ri
esappr
ehendandt
rysuspect
s.Wher
ethose
i
ndi
vi
dual
sar
ebei
ngt
ri
edf
orcr
imesi
nthecount
ryt
hathasaccusedt
hem,t
he
casesf
allsquar
elyunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Butagr
owi
ngphenomenoni
sfor
count
ri
est
ocapt
ureandt
ryaccusedi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imi
nal
sforcr
imest
hatdi
dnot
occurwi
thi
nthecount
ryact
ing.Theappl
i
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
awt
oindi
vi
dual
s
f
orhei
nouscr
imesbr
ingssomesat
isf
act
ion.I
tiseasyt
oar
guet
hati
nter
nat
ional
bor
der
sshoul
dnotbebar
ri
erst
ojust
ice.

And,i
ndeed,t
heWor
ldCour
trecent
lyaf
fi
rmedl
i
mit
sont
her
ightofacount
ryt
o
usei
tssov
erei
gnt
ytor
efuset
oext
radi
teani
ndi
vi
dualaccusedofi
nter
nat
ional
cr
imes.Li
byabr
oughtasui
tint
heI
CJcl
aimi
ngt
hatt
heUNsanct
ionsi
mposedon
i
tforr
efusi
ngt
osur
rendert
hemenaccusedofi
nter
nat
ionalt
err
ori
sm wer
ea
v
iol
ati
on ofLi
bya'
s sov
erei
gnt
y.The I
CJ r
eject
ed Li
bya'
s asser
ti
on,and t
he
gov
ernmenti
nTr
ipol
ibegannegot
iat
ionst
oext
radi
tet
het
wosuspect
s.Sev
eral
count
ri
es hav
e ar
rest
ed and t
urned ov
ert
oint
ernat
ionalt
ri
bunal
sindi
vi
dual
s
accusedofwarcr
imesi
ntheBal
kansandi
nRwanda.Yet
,inmanycaseswhent
he
t
heor
yoft
hegl
obalr
eachofj
ust
icei
sappl
i
edt
orealsi
tuat
ions,t
hecompl
exi
ti
es

64|Page
2024
andconcer
nsoft
heabst
racti
deabecomet
roubl
esome.Onei
ssuei
sthedi
ff
icul
ty
ofensur
ingaf
airt
ri
al.Onewayt
oav
oidt
hepr
obl
emsoft
ryi
ngf
orei
gnnat
ional
s
f
orv
iol
ati
onsoft
hel
awi
nthecount
ryt
hati
sbr
ingi
ngt
heaccusat
ionand,
per
haps,
someoft
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esofl
egal
l
yext
radi
ti
ngori
l
legal
l
yappr
ehendi
ngpeopl
ewoul
d
bet
oest
abl
i
shaper
manentI
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
Cour
t(I
CC)
.

Summar
y
I
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sabodyofl
aws,r
ules,orl
egalpr
inci
plest
hatar
edev
eloped
basedoncust
om,t
reat
ies,orl
egi
slat
ionandt
hatcont
roloraf
fectt
her
ight
sand
dut
iesofnat
ionsi
nrel
ati
ont
oeachot
her
.Thescopeofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsand
i
nst
it
uti
onsar
emor
efocusedonar
eas,suchasi
nter
nat
ionalt
rade,i
nter
nat
ional
env
ironment
,peaceandsecur
it
yanduni
ver
salhumanr
ight
sissuesamongt
he
wor
ldst
ates.TheHi
stor
icalDev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
awsofnat
ionst
oday
di
rect
lyr
elat
edt
othedev
elopmentofWest
erncul
tur
eandUni
tedNat
ionspol
i
tical
or
gani
zat
ion.The Nat
ural
i
stv
s.posi
ti
vi
stl
aw school
s pl
ay a gr
eatr
olei
n
i
dent
if
yingi
nter
nat
ional
lawandt
hel
awofnat
urei
nthemoder
ner
a.

I
n addi
ti
on,t
he most common hi
stor
icalchal
l
enges of I
nter
nat
ionalLaw
dev
elopmentandEf
fect
ivenessar
etheLackofl
aw-
maki
ngI
nst
it
uti
ons,Lackof
Sanct
ion coer
civ
e abi
l
ity
,lack of ef
fect
ivel
egal sy
stem t
o enf
orcement
mechani
smsandsel
f-
int
erestofst
ates.I
ntheModer
ner
aint
ernat
ionall
aw can
dev
elop f
rom t
hreemai
n sour
ces:t
heset
reat
ies,cust
oms,and t
hegener
all
y
accept
edpr
inci
plesofl
aw der
ivedf
rom nat
ionall
egalsy
stemst
hroughoutt
he
wor
ld.I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsal
sopl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthef
ormat
ionof
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

Muni
cipalLaw i
sdi
ff
erentf
rom i
nter
nat
ionall
aw si
ncemuni
cipall
aw i
sthe
i
nter
nall
aw ofanat
ionorst
atewhi
chgov
ernst
hebehav
iorandconductof
i
ndi
vi
dual
saswel
lasor
gani
zat
ionswi
thi
nacount
ry.But
,int
ernat
ionall
aw i
sthe
bodyofl
awwhi
chgov
ernst
heconductandbehav
iorofnat
ionsi
nthei
nter
nat
ional
sy
stem andi
tal
soser
vesasav
italst
ruct
uret
hatgui
dest
hef
orei
gnr
elat
ionsof

65|Page
2024
nat
ions.Most common subj
ect
ive bodi
es of i
nter
nat
ionall
aw ar
e St
ates,
I
nter
nat
ional Or
gani
zat
ions, I
nter
nat
ional publ
i
c compani
es, Tr
ansnat
ional
Cor
por
ati
ons,
Nat
ional
li
ber
ati
onMov
ementgr
oups(
NLMGs)andI
ndi
vi
dual
s.

Sel
f-
CheckExer
cise
Def
ineI
nter
nat
ional
Law.

Di
scusst
henat
ureandscopeoft
heI
nter
nat
ional
Law

Ex
plai
nthehi
stor
icaldev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw basedonNat
ural
i
stand
Posi
ti
vi
stv
iews.

Anal
yzet
heef
fect
ivenessofi
nter
nat
ional
Law

Ment
ionandel
abor
atesomeofsour
cesofi
nter
nat
ional
law

Di
scusst
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenI
nter
nat
ional
lawandmuni
cipal
law.

Li
standdi
scusssubj
ect
sofi
nter
nat
ional
law.

CHAPTERTWO:RECOGNI
TION,
ANDSTATERESPONSI
BILI
TYUNDER
I
NTERNATI
ONALLAW
Lear
ningOut
comes

Att
heendoft
hischapt
erst
udent
swi
llbeabl
eto:

Descr
ibet
heconcept
sofr
ecogni
ti
onofst
ateandgov
ernment

Sor
toutst
ater
esponsi
bil
i
ties

Ex
ami
nedi
plomat
icl
aw/
immuni
ty

I
dent
if
ytheenf
orcementmechani
smsofI
nter
nat
ional
law

66|Page
2024
Recogni
ti
onofSt
ateandGov
ernment

Dearl
ear
ner
s,di
scusst
hei
ssuesofr
ecogni
ti
onofst
ateandgov
ernmenti
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.

I
nter
nat
ionall
awconcer
ningi
ssuesr
elat
edt
otheSt
ate,i
nter
nat
ionall
awadopt
s
t
heessent
ialchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatmake-
upaSt
ateaspr
ovi
dedi
nAr
ti
cle1oft
he
Mont
evi
deoConv
ent
ionof1933wher
etheSt
atei
sdescr
ibedt
hus:TheSt
ateasa
per
sonofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw shoul
d possesst
hef
oll
owi
ng qual
i
ficat
ions:(
a)a
per
manentpopul
ati
on;(
b)adef
inedt
err
it
ory
;(c)agov
ernment
;and(
d)acapaci
ty
t
oent
eri
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herst
ates.Thi
sdescr
ipt
ioni
sapti
nthati
tset
sthe
l
i
mit
sast
owhatpol
i
ticalent
it
yconst
it
utesaSt
ate.Speci
fi
cal
l
y,t
heabi
l
ityt
oent
er
i
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herSt
atesi
sconsi
der
edmostcr
it
icali
nthepr
ocessesof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Accor
ding t
o St
arke (
1977)
:A St
ate musthav
erecogni
zed
capaci
tyt
omai
ntai
next
ernalr
elat
ionswi
thot
herSt
ates.Thi
sdi
sti
ngui
shesSt
ates
pr
operf
rom l
esseruni
tssuchasMember
sofaFeder
ati
on,
orPr
otect
orat
es,
whi
ch
donotmanaget
hei
rownaf
fai
rs,andar
enotr
ecogni
zedbyot
herSt
atesasf
ull
-
f
ledgedmember
soft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

Thedy
nami
cnat
ureoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem of
tent
hrowsupi
ssuesandev
ent
s
t
hatwar
rantdi
si
ntegr
ati
onofSt
ates(
leadi
ngt
othebi
rt
hofnew St
ates)
,comi
ng
t
oget
herofnewSt
atesandespeci
all
ysomef
ourdecadesago,t
hei
ndependence
ofhi
ther
tocol
oni
zedSt
ates.Asi
def
rom t
his,t
her
ear
eal
soci
rcumst
ancest
hat
changet
hest
atusofgov
ernmenti
nSt
ates.Fori
nst
ance,t
her
evol
uti
onar
yAr
ab-
Spr
ingbr
oughtsweepi
ngchangest
othegov
ernmentofEgy
pt,Li
byaandTuni
sia.
Pr
esent
ly,t
heongoi
ngcr
isi
sinSy
riai
saf
fect
ingt
her
elat
ionshi
poft
hecount
ry
wi
tht
her
estoft
hewor
ld.

Whent
heabov
etwoscenar
iosoccur
,itr
aiseschal
l
engesf
ort
her
estoft
hewor
ld
ont
hedet
ermi
nat
ionofr
ecogni
ti
on,
ort
hewi
thhol
dingofr
ecogni
ti
on,
eit
hert
othe
newSt
ateort
henewgov
ernmenti
npower
.Fori
nst
ance,
Bri
tai
n,Fr
ance,
etc.
,now
r
ecogni
zest
heopposi
ti
ongov
ernmenti
nSy
riaast
het
ruer
epr
esent
ati
veoft
he
Sy
rian peopl
e.Thi
sis agai
nstRussi
a and Chi
na’
srecogni
ti
on as t
he t
rue

67|Page
2024
r
epr
esent
ati
veoft
heSy
rianpeopl
e.Thi
sSy
riandi
l
emmar
efl
ect
sthef
actt
hat
r
ecogni
ti
onhasnof
orm;
iti
sauni
l
ater
aldi
plomat
icactont
hepar
tofoneormor
e
St
atesf
ort
hepur
posesofdef
endi
ngi
nter
est
sasdef
inedbyt
hem.

Si
nceno cl
ear
-cutorest
abl
i
shed l
egalpr
inci
plesdef
iner
ecogni
ti
on(
whent
o
r
ecogni
ze a St
ate orGov
ernment
)St
ates f
ocus on t
he necessi
ty ofusi
ng
r
ecogni
ti
onasat
oolf
orpr
otect
ingt
hei
rowni
nter
est
,whi
chi
scl
osel
yal
i
gnedwi
th
mai
ntai
ningpr
operr
elat
ionswi
thanynewSt
ateornewGov
ernmentt
hati
sli
kel
yto
best
abl
eorper
manent
.Thedi
ff
icul
tyi
nremov
ingsel
fi
shnat
ionali
nter
esti
nthe
consi
der
ati
onofr
ecogni
ti
oni
smadeev
enmor
edi
ff
icul
twi
tht
hef
actt
hatAr
ti
cles
3-
4oft
heUNChar
teronl
ypr
esent
sthechar
act
eri
sti
csofSt
atesi
nit
sdef
ini
ti
onof
r
ecogni
ti
on.Accor
dingt
otheUNChar
ter
:

t
hef
reeactbywhi
choneormor
eSt
atesacknowl
edget
heexi
stenceofadef
ini
te
t
err
it
oryofahumansoci
etypol
i
tical
l
yor
gani
zed,
independentofanyot
herexi
sti
ng
St
ate,andcapabl
eofobser
vingt
heobl
i
gat
ionsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,andbywhi
ch
t
heymani
festt
her
efor
ethei
rint
ent
iont
oconsi
deri
tamemberoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

Bet
hatasi
tmay
,recogni
ti
onmayei
therbeexpr
essedori
mpl
i
ed.I
nthecaseof
expr
essr
ecogni
ti
on,t
her
eisaf
ormaldecl
arat
ionoft
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
ateofi
ts
i
ntent
ionst
orecogni
zet
heSt
ateorGov
ernmentwhosest
atusi
sdi
sput
ed.The
expr
essi
on coul
d becar
ri
ed outt
hrough adi
plomat
icnot
e(not
ever
bal
e),or
per
sonalmessagesf
rom t
hehi
ghestaut
hor
it
iesort
hei
rrepr
esent
ati
vesoft
he
r
ecogni
zi
ngSt
ate.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hei
mpl
i
edr
ecogni
ti
oni
sref
lect
edi
nthe
nat
ureofcor
dialr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
ateandt
heSt
ateor
Gov
ernmentt
o be r
ecogni
zed.To al
land sundr
y,and wi
thoutany f
ormal
expr
essi
on,
itmustbecl
eart
hatt
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
atehasr
ecogni
zedt
heSt
ateor
Gov
ernmentcar
ryi
ng t
hebur
den ofdi
sput
ed st
atus.Howev
er,St
atesar
enot
subj
ect
edt
ospeci
fi
clawsonhowt
orecogni
ze-St
ateschoosewhi
chev
ermet
hod
deemedappr
opr
iat
eforanysi
tuat
ion.

68|Page
2024
Theor
eti
cal
l
y,t
hef
unct
ion,nat
ureandef
fectofr
ecogni
ti
oncanbeanchor
edon
t
wot
hesi
s,v
iz;t
heConst
it
uti
veTheor
yandt
heDecl
arat
ory(
Evi
dent
iar
y)Theor
y.
St
arke(
1977)el
abor
atesont
het
heor
ies:

“
Accor
dingt
othe const
it
uti
ve t
heor
y,i
tist
heactofr
ecogni
ti
onal
onewhi
ch
cr
eat
esst
atehoodorwhi
chcl
othesanewGov
ernmentwi
thanyaut
hor
it
yorst
atus
i
nthei
nter
nat
ional
spher
e.

Accor
dingt
othedecl
arat
oryorevi
dent
iar
ytheor
yst
atehoodort
heaut
hor
it
yofa
new Gov
ernmentexi
stsassuchpr
iort
oandi
ndependent
lyofr
ecogni
ti
on.The
r
ecogni
ti
oni
smer
elyaf
ormalacknowl
edgementofanest
abl
i
shedsi
tuat
ionof
f
act
”.

Fur
ther
mor
e,t
hedecl
arat
oryt
heor
yissuppor
tedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngsal
i
entr
ules:

“
Ther
ulet
hati
faquest
ionar
isesi
ntheCour
tsofanew St
ateast
othedat
eat
whi
cht
heSt
atecamei
ntoexi
stence,
itwi
l
lbei
rr
elev
antt
oconsi
dert
hedat
ewhen
t
reat
ieswi
thot
herSt
atesr
ecogni
zi
ngi
tcamei
ntooper
ati
on.Thedat
ewhent
he
r
equi
rement
sofst
atehoodwer
einf
actf
ir
stf
ulf
il
ledi
stheonl
ymat
eri
aldat
e.

Ther
ulet
hatr
ecogni
ti
onofanew St
atehasr
etr
oact
iveef
fect
,dat
ingbackt
oit
s
act
ual
incept
ionasani
ndependentSt
ate”
.

Fr
om t
hef
oregoi
ng,i
tiscl
eart
hatt
hedecl
arat
ory
/ev
ident
iar
ytheor
yispr
emi
sed
ont
hef
actt
hatt
her
eshoul
dnotbeaper
iodwhennewl
yrecogni
zedSt
atesor
Gov
ernment
sar
edeemedt
ohav
ebeennon-
exi
stent
.Whi
l
etheconst
it
uti
vet
heor
y
hol
dst
hati
tisuponr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatt
henewl
yrecogni
zedSt
ateorGov
ernment
acqui
reanyst
atus,
int
henat
ional
Cour
tsoft
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
ate.

I
nthef
inal
anal
ysi
s,i
nter
nat
ional
lawi
soft
heopi
niont
hatr
ecogni
ti
onofaSt
ateor
Gov
ernmenti
ssy
nony
mouswi
tht
hepr
ivi
l
egesoft
hemember
shi
poft
hecomi
tyof
nat
ions.TheSt
ateorGov
ernmenthast
her
ightt
oent
erdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionshi
ps
andal
lot
herf
ormsofr
elat
ionshi
ps,andi
ndeed,beapar
tyt
otr
eat
y-maki
ng.
Li
kewi
se,t
heSt
ateorGov
ernmenti
ncur
sresponsi
bil
i
tiesandobl
i
gat
ionst
othe

69|Page
2024
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,t
hus,r
ecogni
ti
on comes wi
th bot
hthe “
bur
den and
bount
yofi
nter
nat
ional
law”
.

Recogni
ti
onofgov
ernment
s

Ther
ecogni
ti
onofanew gov
ernmenti
sdi
ff
erentf
rom t
her
ecogni
ti
onofanew
st
ate.Thest
atehood i
sconcer
ned wi
tht
hef
act
ualsi
tuat
ionoft
heaccept
ed
cr
it
eri
aoft
hegov
ernmentr
ecogni
ti
on.Di
ff
erentconsi
der
ati
onsar
eappl
i
edwhen
t
heexi
sti
nggov
ernmenti
schangedbyt
henewgov
ernment
.Recogni
ti
onwi
l
lonl
y
r
eal
l
yber
elev
antwher
ethechangei
ngov
ernmenti
sunconst
it
uti
onal
.Inaddi
ti
on,
r
ecogni
ti
onofgov
ernment
sasacat
egor
ytendst
omi
nimi
zet
hepr
eci
secapaci
ty
orst
atusoft
heent
it
y.so,r
ecogni
zedmaybechar
act
eri
zedi
ndi
ff
erentway
s.
Recogni
ton may be ofa de f
i act
o gover
nmentoradmi
nist
rat
ion orofa
gov
ernmentoradmi
nist
rat
ioni
nef
fect
ivecont
rolofonl
ypar
toft
het
err
it
oryoft
he
st
atei
nquest
ion.Recogni
ti
onconst
it
utesaccept
anceofapar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionby
t
her
ecogni
zi
ngst
atebot
hint
ermsoft
her
elev
antf
act
ualcr
it
eri
aandi
nter
msof
t
heconsequent
iall
egalr
eper
cussi
ons,sot
hatr
ecogni
ti
onofanent
it
yast
he
gov
ernmentofast
atei
mpl
i
esnotonl
ythatt
hisgov
ernmenti
sdeemedt
ohav
e
sat
isf
iedt
her
equi
redcondi
ti
ons,butal
sot
hatt
her
ecogni
zi
ngst
atewi
l
ldealwi
th
t
hegov
ernmentast
hegov
erni
ngaut
hor
it
yoft
hest
ateandacceptt
heusuall
egal
consequencesofsuchst
atusi
nter
msofpr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
eswi
thi
nthe
domest
icl
egal
order
.

Pol
i
ticalconsi
der
ati
onshav
eusual
l
ypl
ayedal
arger
olei
nthedeci
sionmaki
ng
whet
herornott
ogr
antr
ecogni
ti
on.Howev
er,cer
tai
ncr
it
eri
ahav
eemer
gedt
o
cov
err
ecogni
ti
onofi
l
legalchangesofgov
ernment
.Suchcr
it
eri
aamount
edt
oan
accept
anceoft
her
eal
i
tiesoft
het
ransf
erofpowerandsuggest
edt
hatonceanew
gov
ernmentef
fect
ivel
ycont
rol
l
ed t
he count
ryand t
hatt
his seemed l
i
kel
yto
cont
inue,
recogni
ti
onshoul
dnotbewi
thhel
d.TheUni
tedKi
ngdom onanumberof
occasi
onsadopt
edt
hisappr
oach.I
twasdecl
aredbyt
heUnder
-Secr
etar
yofSt
ate
f
orFor
eignAf
fai
rsi
n1970t
hatt
het
estempl
oyedwaswhet
herornott
henew
gov
ernmentenj
oyed,
‘wi
thar
easonabl
epr
ospectofper
manence,
theobedi
enceof

70|Page
2024
t
hemassoft
hepopul
ati
onef
fect
ivecont
rolofmuchoft
hegr
eat
erpar
toft
he
t
err
it
oryoft
hest
ateconcer
ned.

I
tist
his at
ti
tude whi
ch pr
ompt
ed such pol
i
cies as t
he r
ecogni
ti
on oft
he
communi
stgov
ernmentofChi
naandt
heRussi
an-
inst
all
edgov
ernmentofHungar
y
i
n1956af
tert
hef
ail
ureoft
heupr
isi
ng.Howev
er,
thi
sgener
alappr
oachcannotbe
r
egar
dedasanabsol
utepr
inci
plei
nvi
ewoft
heBr
it
ishr
efusalov
ermanyy
ear
sto
r
ecogni
zet
hest
atesNor
thVi
etnam,Nor
thKor
eaandt
heGer
manDemocr
ati
c
Republ
i
c.Theef
fect
ivecont
rolofanewgov
ernmentov
ert
het
err
it
oryoft
hest
ate
i
sthusani
mpor
tantgui
del
i
net
othepr
obl
em ofwhet
hert
oext
endr
ecogni
ti
onor
not
,pr
ovi
dingsuchcont
rolappear
swel
lest
abl
i
shedandl
i
kel
ytocont
inue.Buti
t
was no mor
ethan t
hatand,i
n many cases,appear
ed t
oyi
eldt
o pol
i
tical
consi
der
ati
ons.Thedoct
ri
neofef
fect
ivecont
roli
sani
ndi
cat
ionoft
hei
mpor
tance
oft
hef
act
ualnat
ureofanysi
tuat
ion.Buti
nthosecaseswher
erecogni
ti
oni
s
r
efusedupont
hebasi
soft
hei
mpr
operor
igi
nsoft
henewgov
ernment
,itwi
l
lhav
e
l
essofani
mpactt
hani
frecogni
ti
oni
sref
usedbecauseoft
heabsenceofef
fect
ive
cont
rol
ofst
ateadmi
nist
rat
ion.

Ther
ecogni
ti
onornon-
recogni
ti
onofanewadmi
nist
rat
ioni
sir
rel
evantt
othel
egal
char
act
eroft
hecount
ry.Accor
dingl
y,onecanseet
hatt
wosepar
ater
ecogni
ti
ons
ar
einv
olv
edandt
heymustnotbeconf
used.Recogni
ti
onofast
atewi
l
laf
fecti
ts
l
egalper
sonal
i
ty,whet
herbycr
eat
ingoracknowl
edgi
ngi
t,whi
l
erecogni
ti
onofa
gov
ernmentaf
fect
sthest
atusoft
headmi
nist
rat
iveaut
hor
it
y,nott
hest
ate.I
tis
possi
ble,howev
er,f
orr
ecogni
ti
onofst
ateandgov
ernmentt
ooccurt
oget
heri
n
cer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances.Thi
scant
akepl
aceupont
hecr
eat
ionofanewst
ate.

Forexampl
e,t
heI
sraelgov
ernmentwasr
ecogni
zedbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesandt
he
Uni
tedKi
ngdom byt
heexpedi
entofhav
ingi
tsgov
ernmentr zeddef
ecogni act
o.
Recogni
ti
onoft
hegov
ernmenti
mpl
i
esr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hest
ate,buti
tdoesnot
wor
ktheot
herway
.Itshoul
dbenot
edt
hatr
ecogni
ti
onofagov
ernmenthasno
r
elev
ancet
otheest
abl
i
shmentofnew per
sonsi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Wher
eiti
s
si
gni
fi
canti
sint
her
eal
m ofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.I
fagov
ernmenti
sunr
ecogni
zed,

71|Page
2024
t
her
eisnoexchangeofdi
plomat
icenv
oysandt
huspr
obl
emscanar
iseast
othe
enf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ional
right
sandobl
i
gat
ions.Ther
ecogni
ti
onofgov
ernment
hasbeencr
it
ici
zedbydi
ff
erentschol
arsasmi
nimi
zi
ngt
hedi
sti
nct
ionbet
ween
r
ecogni
ti
onofst
ateandmai
ntenanceofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.Ther
ear
evar
ious
t
ypesofgov
ernmentr
ecogni
ti
on.

DeJur
eandDeFact
oRecogni
ti
on

Dearl
ear
ner
s,cany
oui
l
lust
rat
ethedi
ff
er weenDeJur
encebet eanddeFact
o
r
ecogni
ti
on?

TheconductofSt
ates’i
nter
act
ions,gui
dedbyt
hepr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
f
all
swi
thi
ntheconcept
sofdej
ureanddef
act
orecogni
ti
on.Dej
urer
ecogni
ti
on
r
efer
stor
ecogni
ti
onconf
err
edbecauset
heSt
ateorGov
ernmentsor
ecogni
zed
f
ormal
l
yful
fi
ll
sther
equi
rement
saccept
abl
eunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,andwhi
ch
f
orgepar
ti
ci
pat
ionwi
thi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.Def
act
orecogni
ti
onont
he
ot
herhandr
efer
stopr
ovi
sional
,condi
ti
onalort
empor
arygr
antofr
ecogni
ti
ont
oa
St
ate orGov
ernmentsubj
ectt
o ei
therwi
thdr
awalof such r
ecogni
ti
on or
t
ransi
ti
oni
ngofsuchr
ecogni
ti
ont
oadej
urest
atusi
ftheSt
ateorGov
ernment
f
ulf
il
lst
her
equi
rement
slai
ddownbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
nfact
,inr
eal
i
tyt
hough,
de
f
act
orecogni
ti
oni
shar
dlyev
err
evoked.Mor
eof
tent
hannot
,iti
sapr
eludet
othe
mor
efor
mal
andmor
eper
manentf
orm ofr
ecogni
ti
on-dej
urer
ecogni
ti
on.St
arke’
s
(
1977)under
standi
ngofdef
act
orecogni
ti
oni
squi
teenl
i
ght
eni
ng.Accor
dingt
o
t
heaut
hor
:

Byr
ecogni
zi
ngaSt
ateorGov
ernmentdef
act
o,t
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
atei
senabl
edt
o
acknowl
edget
heext
ernalf
act
sofpol
i
ticalpower
,andpr
otecti
tsi
nter
est
s,i
ts
t
rade,and ci
ti
zens,wi
thout commi
tt
ing i
tsel
fto condoni
ng i
l
legal
i
ties or
i
rr
egul
ari
ti
esi
ntheemer
genceoft
hedef
act
oSt
ateorGov
ernment
.Tot
hisext
ent
,
r
ecogni
ti
ondef
act
oispr
obabl
yanecessar
ylegal
expedi
ent
.

Accor
dingt
oSt
arke(
Ibi
d.)
,themaj
ordi
ff
erencesbet
weendej
ureanddef
act
o
r
ecogni
ti
oncanbesummar
izedt
hus;

72|Page
2024
Onl
ythedej
urer
ecogni
zedSt
ateorGov
ernmentcancl
aimt
orecei
vepr
oper
ty
l
ocal
l
ysi
tuat
edi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
ate

Onl
ythedej
urer
ecogni
zedSt
atecanr
epr
esentt
heol
dSt
atef
orpur
posesofSt
ate
successi
on,
ori
nregar
dtoespousi
nganycl
aim ofanat
ional
oft
hatSt
atef
ori
njur
y
donebyt
her
ecogni
zi
ngSt
atei
nbr
eachofi
nter
nat
ional
law

Ther
epr
esent
ati
vesofent
it
iesr
ecogni
zedonl
ydef
act
oar
enotent
it
ledt
oful
l
di
plomat
ici
mmuni
ti
esandpr
ivi
l
eges

De f
act
orecogni
ti
on can,i
n pr
inci
ple,owi
ng t
oit
s pr
ovi
sionalchar
act
er,be
wi
thdr
awnonsev
eralgr
oundsot
hert
hant
hosenor
mal
l
yjust
if
yingawi
thdr
awalof
dej
urer
ecogni
ti
on.

I
tisunder
standabl
ethatev
erySt
ateandGov
ernmentwantt
ober
ecogni
zed.
Nonr
ecogni
ti
oncar
ri
esaheav
ybur
dent
hatnoSt
ateorGov
ernmentwant
sto
exper
ience.Accor
ding t
o St
arke (
1977)
,ther
e ar
elegaldi
sabi
l
iti
es f
oran
unr
ecogni
zedSt
ateorGov
ernment
.Thesei
ncl
ude;

I
tcannotsuei
ntheCour
tsofaSt
atewhi
chhasnotr
ecogni
zedi
t.

Byr
easonoft
hesamepr
inci
ple,
theact
sofanunr
ecogni
zedSt
ateorGov
ernment
wi
l
lnotgener
all
ybegi
veni
ntheCour
tsofanon-
recogni
zi
ngSt
atet
heef
fect
cust
omar
yaccor
dingt
other
ulesof“
comi
ty”
.

I
tsr
epr
esent
ati
vescannotcl
aimi
mmuni
tyf
rom l
egal
process.

Pr
oper
tyduet
o aSt
atewhoseGov
ernmenti
sunr
ecogni
zed mayact
ual
l
ybe
r
ecov
eredbyt
her
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
her
egi
mewhi
chhasbeenov
ert
hrown.

Under
standi
ngt
heBasi
cRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
ates

Dearst
udent
s,whatar
ether
ight
sanddut
iesof
st
ates?

73|Page
2024
Ri
ght
sanddut
iesofaSt
atehav
ebeent
hepr
imar
yconcer
nofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.
Thef
ormul
ati
onofal
i
stoft
heso-
cal
l
edf
undament
alorbasi
cri
ght
sanddut
iesof
aSt
atehasbeenaper
sist
entpr
eoccupat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionalconf
erencesand
bodi
es.TheMont
evi
deoConv
ent
ionof1933ont
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
ates
wast
hef
ir
stat
tempti
nthepr
ocessofsuch f
ormul
ati
on.Thi
sat
temptwas
f
oll
owedbyt
hepr
epar
ati
onoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Commi
ssi
onoft
heUni
ted
Nat
ion“
theDr
aftDecl
arat
ionont
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
atesof1949”
,andt
he
adopt
ionoft
heGener
alAssembl
yoft
heUni
tedNat
ionst
heResol
uti
on2625of
1970 ent
it
led t
he “
Decl
arat
ion on Pr
inci
ples ofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Concer
ning
Fr
iendl
yRel
ati
onsandCooper
ati
onAmongSt
atesi
nAccor
dancewi
tht
heChar
ter
oft
heUni
tedNat
ions.
”Theabov
einst
rument
s,t
oget
herwi
tht
heChar
teroft
he
Uni
tedNat
ions,
prov
ider
efer
encesf
orf
undament
alr
ight
sanddut
iesofSt
ates.

Ther
ehav
eal
way
sbeent
woposi
ti
onsont
hebasi
cri
ght
sanddut
iesofSt
ates.The
f
ir
stbei
ngt
hatofnat
ural
i
stschol
arswhocont
endt
hatSt
atesar
ecr
eat
uresof
nat
urall
aw,andbyt
hisar
egui
dedbyt
hepr
inci
plesandconduct
soft
hel
aw of
nat
ure.Ont
heot
herhand,moder
n-dayschol
arshav
eal
l
udedt
omor
epr
agmat
ic
basi
sforunder
standi
ngt
her
ight
sanddut
iesofSt
ates.Accor
dingt
othel
att
er
gr
oup,t
her
eisanest
abl
i
shmentofuni
ver
salst
andar
dsofl
aw andj
ust
icei
n
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions,whi
chai
dandset
sthel
i
mit
sfort
her
ight
sanddut
iesof
St
ates.

Themostbasi
cofr
ight
sofSt
atesi
sthei
ndependenceandequal
i
tyofSt
ates,of
t
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
on,andofsel
f-
def
enseorsel
f-
preser
vat
ion.Thedut
iesont
he
ot
herhandi
ncl
ude;
notr
esor
ti
ngt
owari
ncaseofdi
sput
es,
ofcar
ryi
ngouti
ngood
f
ait
htr
eat
yobl
i
gat
ions,andofnoti
nter
veni
ngi
ntheaf
fai
rsofot
herSt
ates.The
i
ndependenceofSt
ateswhi
chbest
owsequal
i
tyi
sder
ivedf
rom t
heconceptof
sov
erei
gnt
y.Eachi
ndependentSt
atei
spr
esumedt
opossesssov
erei
gnt
yov
eri
ts
subj
ect
sandi
tsaf
fai
rswi
thi
nit
ster
ri
tor
iall
i
mit
s.Thepowerofsov
erei
gnt
ycanbe
spel
toutt
hus:(
a)Thepowerexcl
usi
vel
ytocont
roli
tsowndomest
icaf
fai
rs;
(b)t
he
powert
oadmi
tandexpelal
i
ens;
(c)t
hepr
ivi
l
egesofi
tsdi
plomat
icenv
oysi
not
her
count
ri
es;
(d)t
hesol
ejur
isdi
cti
onov
ercr
imescommi
tt
edwi
thi
nit
ster
ri
tor
y.

74|Page
2024
On t
he quest
ion ofequal
i
ty ofSt
ates,t
he doct
ri
ne has a l
ong hi
stor
yin
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,dat
ingbackt
otheper
iodwhent
her
elat
ionshi
pwasest
abl
i
shed
bet
weent
heconcept
soft
hel
awofnat
ionsandt
hel
awofnat
ure.I
twasar
gued
t
hent
hat
:

Bynat
ure,al
lnat
ionsar
eequal
.Fornat
ionsar
econsi
der
edasi
ndi
vi
dualf
ree
per
sonsl
i
vingi
nast
ateofnat
ure.Ther
efor
e,si
ncebynat
ureal
lmenar
eequal
,al
l
nat
ionst
ooar
ebynat
ureequal
onet
otheot
her
.

I
nasi
mil
arv
ein,t
heDecl
arat
iononPr
inci
plesofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Concer
ning
Fr
iendl
yRel
ati
onsandCo-
oper
ati
onamongSt
atesi
nAccor
dancewi
tht
heUni
ted
Nat
ionsChar
ter
,adopt
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
ypr
ocl
aims:

Al
lSt
atesenj
oysov
erei
gnequal
i
ty.Theyhav
eequalr
ight
sandar
eequalmember
s
oft
he i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,not
wit
hst
andi
ng di
ff
erences ofan economi
c,
soci
al,
pol
i
tical
orot
hernat
ure.

Thecondi
ti
onofequal
i
tyofSt
ateshasgr
eatconsequencesf
ort
heconductof
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions.I
nrel
ati
ont
omul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ieswher
eunani
mit
yofSt
ates
pr
esenti
nconf
erencei
snecessar
yfort
headopt
ionofi
nst
rument
s,t
hecav
eatof
unani
mit
yisbel
i
evedi
nsomequar
ter
sto del
ayt
hepr
ogr
essofi
nter
nat
ional
l
egi
slat
ion.Thati
swhyt
headopt
ionoft
hev
oti
ngpr
ocedur
eov
ert
heunani
mit
y
pr
ocessi
sappl
auded.

Thepr
inci
pleofequal
i
tyofSt
atesal
sopr
ecl
udesot
herSt
atesf
rom cl
aimi
ng
j
uri
sdi
cti
onov
er,
ori
nrespectofanot
hersov
erei
gnSt
atei
ntheabsenceofat
reat
y.
Thi
sisr
egar
dedas“
amor
efar
-r
eachi
ngpr
oposi
ti
on”St
arke(
1977)
,wher
ein:

….
theCour
tsofoneSt
atecannotquest
iont
hev
ali
dit
yorl
egal
i
tyoft
heact
sof
St
ateofanot
hersov
erei
gncount
ryorofi
tsagent
s,andt
hatsuchquest
ioni
ng
mustbedone,i
fatal
l
,thr
ought
hedi
plomat
icchannel
;thi
sist
heso-
cal
l
ed‘
Actof
St
ate’
doct
ri
ne.
.

Tosummar
izest
atesar
eent
it
ledt
oenj
oycer
tai
nfundament
alr
ight
sandboundby

75|Page
2024
cer
tai
ndut
ies.Her
ebel
owsomeoft
her
ight
sanddut
iesofst
atesar
edi
scussed.

Ri
ght
sofSt
ates
TheRi
ghtofI
ndependence

Apar
tfr
om bei
ng a r
equi
rement of st
atehood as ment
ioned pr
evi
ousl
y,
i
ndependencei
sanout
standi
ngf
undament
alr
ightofaSt
ate.I
ndependenceas
def
inedbyt
heDr
aftDecl
arat
ionont
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
atesof1949i
sthe
capaci
tyofaSt
atet
opr
ovi
def
ori
tsownwel
l
-bei
nganddev
elopmentf
reef
rom
t
hedomi
nat
ionofot
herst
ates.Howev
er,anypol
i
ticaloreconomi
cdependence
t
hatmayi
nreal
i
tyexi
stdoesnotaf
fectt
hel
egali
ndependenceoft
heSt
ate,
unl
ess
t
hatSt
atei
sfor
mal
l
ycompel
l
edt
osubmi
ttot
hedemandsofasuper
iorSt
ate,i
n
such a case a dependentSt
atus i
sinv
olv
ed.The r
ightofi
ndependence i
n
I
nter
nat
ionalLaw i
ncl
udesanumberofr
ight
s,suchas,t
her
ightoft
err
it
ori
al
i
ntegr
it
y,andt
her
ightt
ohav
eanexcl
usi
vecont
rol
overowndomest
icaf
fai
rs

TheRi
ghtofSov
erei
gnt
y

Ther
ightofsov
erei
gnt
yisaf
undament
alr
ightofaSt
ate.Al
lSt
atesmustenj
oy
suchr
ight
.Sov
erei
gnt
yhast
wof
oldmeani
ng.Fi
rst
ly,sov
erei
gnt
ymeanst
hata
St
ate has t
he supr
eme undi
vi
ded aut
hor
it
yov
eri
tst
err
it
ory
--t
his conceptof
sov
erei
gnt
yisknownast
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
y.Secondl
y,sov
erei
gnt
ymeanst
he
capaci
tyofaSt
atet
oent
eri
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herSt
ates,suchassendi
ngand
r
ecei
vi
ngdi
plomat
sandengagi
ngi
ntr
eat
ymaki
ng,andt
heenj
oymentofcer
tai
n
i
mmuni
ti
esandpr
ivi
l
egesf
rom t
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onofot
herSt
ates-
-t
hisconcepti
s
connect
edwi
tht
heconceptofi
nter
nat
ional
per
sonal
i
ty.

Sov
erei
gnt
yhasamuchmor
erest
ri
cti
vemeani
ngt
odayt
hani
nthe18th and19th
Cent
uri
eswhen,wi
tht
heemer
genceofpower
fulnat
ionalSt
ates,f
ew l
i
mit
son
St
atesov
erei
gnt
ywer
eaccept
ed.Att
hepr
esentt
imet
her
eishar
dlyaSt
atet
hat
hasnotaccept
ed,i
nthei
nter
estoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,r
est
ri
cti
onsand
l
i
mit
ati
onsoni
tsf
reedom ofact
ion.Act
ual
l
y,t
heexer
ciseofsov
erei
gnt
ytodayi
s
notabsol
ute.ASt
atehassubj
ect
edi
tssov
erei
gnpower
stosev
erall
i
mit
ati
onsby

76|Page
2024
v
irt
ue oft
reat
iesordeci
sionsofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsofwhi
ch i
tisa
member
,orbyv
irt
ueofi
tsconsent
.

TheRi
ghtofTer
ri
tor
ial
Jur
isdi
cti
on

TheRi
ghtofTer
ri
tor
ialJur
isdi
cti
oni
sder
ivedf
rom t
her
ightofsov
erei
gnt
y.Thi
s
r
ightent
it
lesaSt
atet
ohav
etheabsol
uteandexcl
usi
veaut
hor
it
yov
eral
lper
sons,
pr
oper
tyandev
ent
swi
thi
nthel
i
mit
sofi
tsnat
ionalt
err
it
ory
.Thi
saut
hor
it
yimpl
i
es
j
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
heSt
atet
oenactt
he l
aw,t
oenf
orcet
hel
aw andt
oadj
udi
cat
e
per
sonsandev
ent
swi
thi
nit
ster
ri
tor
iall
and,i
tsi
nter
nalandt
err
it
ori
alwat
er,and
nat
ional
airspace.

TheRi
ghtofSov
erei
gnEqual
it
y

Sov
erei
gnequal
i
tymeanst
hatal
lst
ateshav
eequalr
ight
sanddut
ies,hav
ethe
same j
uri
dicalcapaci
ti
es and f
unct
ions,and ar
e equalmember
s of t
he
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,not
wit
hst
andi
ng di
ff
erences ofan economi
c,soci
al,
pol
i
ticalorot
hernat
ure.Sov
erei
gnequal
i
tyi
sment
ionedi
ntheChar
teroft
he
Uni
ted Nat
ions as t
he pr
inci
ple on whi
ch t
his Or
gani
zat
ion i
s based.

TheRi
ghtofSel
f-
Def
ense

Ther
ightofsel
f-
def
enset
owhi
chaSt
atei
sent
it
ledi
srecogni
zedbyCust
omar
y
I
nter
nat
ionalLaw aswel
lasAr
ti
cle51oft
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions.
Howev
er,t
hisr
ightcannotbeexer
cisedbyaSt
ateunl
essanar
medat
tackoccur
s
agai
nsti
tandunt
ilt
heSecur
it
yCounci
lhast
akent
hemeasur
esnecessar
yto
mai
ntai
nint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y.I
ninv
oki
ngt
hisr
ight
,theSt
atemust
compl
ywi
tht
her
equi
rement
sofCust
omar
yLaw,whi
char
etheuseofpeacef
ul
pr
ocedur
es—i
ftheyar
eav
ail
abl
e,necessi
tyandpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty.

DUTI
ESOFASTATE

I
ncor
rel
ati
ont
other
ight
soft
heSt
ates,t
her
ear
edut
iesbi
ndi
ngt
heSt
ates.Al
l
St
atesar
eboundt
oobser
vet
hei
rdut
iesunderI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.Non-
compl
i
ance
ofaSt
atewi
thi
tsdut
iesconst
it
utesav
iol
ati
onofI
nter
nat
ionalLawf
orwhi
chi
tis

77|Page
2024
r
esponsi
bleundert
hisLaw.Amongt
hedut
iesofaSt
atear
ethef
oll
owi
ng.

TheDut
ytoRef
rai
nfr
om t
heThr
eatorUseofFor
ce

ASt
atei
sunderadut
ytor
efr
aini
nit
sint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ionsf
rom t
het
hreatoruse
off
orceagai
nstt
het
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yorpol
i
ticali
ndependenceofanySt
ate.Thi
s
dut
yincl
udeswi
thi
nit
sscopecer
tai
nrecogni
zeddut
ies,
suchas,
thedut
ytor
efr
ain
f
rom pr
opagandaf
orwar
sandaggr
essi
on,t
hedut
ytor
efr
ainf
rom or
gani
zi
ngor
encour
agi
ngt
heor
gani
zat
ionofi
rr
egul
arf
orcesorar
medbandsf
ori
ncur
sioni
nto
t
het
err
it
oryofanot
herst
ate,t
hedut
ytor
efr
ainf
rom or
gani
zi
ng,assi
sti
ngor
par
ti
cipat
ingi
nact
sofci
vi
lst
ri
feort
err
ori
stacti
nanot
herSt
ateandt
hedut
yto
r
efr
ainf
rom f
orci
ble act
ion whi
ch der
ives peopl
es f
rom t
hei
rri
ght
sto sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion,f
reedom andi
ndependence.Howev
er,t
heuseoff
orcei
saccept
ed
andconsi
der
edl
awf
ulunderI
nter
nat
ionalLawonl
yifi
tisexer
cisedi
ncaseofsel
f-
def
enseandi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions.

TheDut
ytoSet
tl
eInt
ernat
ional
Disput
esbyPeacef
ulMeans

ASt
atei
sunderadut
ytoset
tl
eit
sint
ernat
ionaldi
sput
eswi
thot
herSt
atesby
peacef
ulmeansi
nsuchamannert
hati
nter
nat
ionalpeace,
secur
it
y,andj
ust
icear
e
notendanger
ed.TheChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions,i
nChapt
er6,pr
ovi
dedt
he
machi
ner
yfort
hef
ulf
il
lmentoft
hisdut
ybyt
heSt
ates.Accor
dingl
y,St
atesmust
seekaj
ustset
tl
ementofi
tsi
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
ebyanyoft
hepeacef
ulmeans
st
atedi
ntheChar
terorbyanypeacef
ulmeansagr
eeduponbyt
hem.I
ncaseof
t
hei
rfai
l
uret
oreachapeacef
ulset
tl
ementbyt
hemsel
ves,
theyar
eunderadut
yto
compl
ywi
tht
heact
ionst
akenbyt
heUni
tedNat
ions.

TheDut
ynott
oint
erv
enei
ntheAf
fai
rsofOt
herSt
ates

ASt
atei
sunderadut
ynott
oint
erv
ene,di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly,f
orwhat
everr
eason,
i
nthei
nter
nalorex
ter
nalaf
fai
rsofanyot
herSt
ate.I
tconst
it
utesav
iol
ati
onof
I
nter
nat
ionalLaw anyuse,encour
ages t
he use ort
hreatt
o use ofmi
l
itar
y,
economi
c,pol
i
ticaloranyot
herf
orm ofi
nter
vent
ionagai
nstaSt
ateoragai
nsti
ts
pol
i
tical
,economi
candcul
tur
alel
ement
s.

78|Page
2024
TheDut
ytoCo-
Oper
atewi
thOneAnot
her

A St
atei
s undera dut
yto cooper
ate wi
th ot
herSt
ates,i
rr
espect
ive oft
he
di
ff
erencesi
nthei
rpol
i
tical
,economi
candsoci
alsy
stems,i
nvar
iousspher
esof
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions,i
n accor
dancewi
tht
heChar
teroft
heUni
ted Nat
ions.
Accor
dingl
y,aSt
ateshoul
dcooper
atewi
thot
herSt
atesi
ntheeconomi
c,soci
al,
cul
tur
al,educat
ionalandsci
ent
if
icf
iel
ds,aswel
las,i
nthef
iel
dsofpeaceand
secur
it
y,andhumanr
ight
sandf
reedoms.

TheDut
yofaSt
atet
oFul
fi
llI
tsObl
igat
ionsi
nGoodFai
th

ASt
atei
sunderadut
ytof
ulf
il
lingoodf
ait
htheobl
i
gat
ionsassumedbyi
tunder
t
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ionsandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalLaw,
incl
udi
ngi
nter
nat
ional
t
reat
ies.The conceptofgood f
ait
himpl
i
es t
hata St
ate shoul
d per
for
m i
ts
assumedobl
i
gat
ionshonest
ly,wi
thoutmal
i
ceanddef
raud,andwi
thoutseeki
ng
unconsci
onabl
eadv
ant
age.

St
ateJur
isdi
cti
onandI
mmuni
ti
esofSt
ateJur
isdi
cti
on

Dearl
ear
ner
s,coul
dyoudef
inewhatst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
on
i
s?

Theconceptofst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
oni
nint
ernat
ionall
awr
efer
stot
hel
i
mit
soft
hel
egal
compet
enceofast
atet
omake,appl
yandenf
orcer
ulesofconductuponper
sons
andt
hings.I
tist
hecapaci
tyofaSt
ateunderI
nter
nat
ionalLaw t
opr
escr
ibeand
enf
orcet
her
ulesofl
aw.Ori
tist
heaut
hor
it
yofaSt
ateov
erper
sons,
proper
tyand
ev
ent
swhi
char
epr
imar
il
ywi
thi
nit
ster
ri
tor
ies(
it
sland,i
tsnat
ionalai
rspace,and
i
tsi
nter
nalandt
err
it
ori
alwat
er)
.Itconcer
nsessent
ial
l
ytheext
entofeachst
ate'
s
r
ightt
oregul
atet
he conduct
s ort
he consequences ofev
ent
s.Jur
isdi
cti
on
concer
nst
hepoweroft
hest
ateunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
oregul
ateorot
her
wise
i
mpactuponpeopl
e,pr
oper
tyandci
rcumst
ancesandr
efl
ect
sthebasi
cpr
inci
ples

79|Page
2024
ofst
atesov
erei
gnt
y,equal
i
tyofst
atesandnon-
int
erf
erencei
ndomest
icaf
fai
rs.
Jur
isdi
cti
oni
sav
italandi
ndeedcent
ralf
eat
ureofst
atesov
erei
gnt
y,f
ori
tisan
exer
ciseofaut
hor
it
ywhi
chmayal
terorcr
eat
eort
ermi
nat
elegalr
elat
ionshi
psand
obl
i
gat
ions.St
atesr
egul
ateconducti
nthi
ssensei
nvar
iousway
s,whi
chmay
i
nvol
veanyoft
hebr
anchesoft
hegov
ernment
.

St
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onusual
l
ycont
ainsj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
opr
escr
ibe,
i.
e.,
acount
ry’
sabi
l
ityt
o
makel
aw appl
i
cabl
etoper
sons,conduct
,rel
ati
ons,ori
nter s;j
est uri
sdi
cti
ont
o
enf
orce,i
.e.
,acount
ry’
sabi
l
ityt
oinduceorcompelcompl
i
anceort
o puni
sh
noncompl
i
ancewi
thi
tsl
awsorr
egul
ati
onsandj
uri
sdi
cti oadj
ont udi
cat
e,i
.e.
,a
count
ry’
sabi
l
ityt
o subj
ectper
sonsort
hingst
othepr
ocessofi
tscour
tsor
admi
nist
rat
ivet
ri
bunal
s.Hencet
hei
deaofst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onr
epr
esent
sbot
hthe
capaci
tyt
o make l
aw,whet
herby l
egi
slat
ive orexecut
ive orj
udi
cialact
ion
(
prescr
ipt
ivej
uri
sdi
cti
onort
hej
uri
sdi
cti
ont
opr
escr
ibe)andt
hecapaci
tyt
oensur
e
compl
i
ancewi
thsuchl
aw whet
herbyexecut
iveact
ionort
hrought
hecour
ts
(
enf
orcementj
uri
sdi
cti
onort
hej
uri
sdi
cti
ont
oenf
orce)
.

Theconceptofst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onandi
mmuni
tyi
sther
ecogni
ti
onofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awbasedont
heconceptofst
atesov
erei
gnt
y.Thest
atei
nit
stur
nli
esupont
he
f
oundat
ion ofsov
erei
gnt
y,whi
ch expr
esses i
nter
nal
l
ythe supr
emacy oft
he
gov
ernment
ali
nst
it
uti
onsandext
ernal
l
ythesupr
emacyoft
hest
ateasal
egal
per
son.Butsov
erei
gnt
yit
sel
f,wi
thi
tsr
eti
nueofl
egalr
ight
sanddut
ieswhi
chi
s
f
oundedupont
hef
actofst
atesj
uri
sdi
cti
on.Wi
thoutt
err
it
oryal
egal
per
soncannot
beast
ate.

I
tisundoubt
edl
ythebasi
cchar
act
eri
sti
cofast
ateandt
heonemostwi
del
y
accept
edandunder
stood.Cur
rent
ly,
ther
ear
eabov
e200di
sti
nctt
err
it
ori
aluni
tsi
n
ourwor
ldr
ecogni
zedast
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yandj
uri
sdi
cti
on.

Si
ncesuchf
undament
all
egalconcept
sassov
erei
gnt
yandj
uri
sdi
cti
oncanonl
ybe
compr
ehendedi
nrel
ati
ont
oter
ri
tor
y,i
tfol
l
owst
hatt
hel
egalnat
ureoft
err
it
ory
becomesav
ital
par
tinanyst
udyofi
nter
nat
ional
law.I
ndeed,
thepr
inci
plewher
eby
ast
atei
sdeemedt
oexer
ciseexcl
usi
vepowerov
eri
tsj
uri
sdi
cti
oncanber
egar
ded

80|Page
2024
as a f
undament
alaxi
om ofcl
assi
cali
nter
nat
ionall
aw.The dev
elopmentof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw upont
hebasi
soft
heexcl
usi
veaut
hor
it
yoft
hest
atewi
thi
nan
accept
ed t
err
it
ori
al f
ramewor
k meant t
hat t
err
it
ory became ‘
per
haps t
he
f
undament
alconceptofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw’
.Mostnat
ionsi
ndeeddev
elopedt
hrough
acl
oser
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hel
andt
heyi
nhabi
ted.Thecent
ralr
oleoft
err
it
oryi
nthe
schemeofi
nter
nat
ionall
awmaybeseenbynot
ingt
hedev
elopmentofl
egalr
ules
pr
otect
ingi
tsi
nvi
olabi
l
ity
.

Thepr
inci
pleofr
espectf
ort
hej
uri
sdi
cti
oni
ntegr
it
yofst
ateswhi
chi
sfoundedas
one oft
he l
i
nchpi
ns oft
he i
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem,as i
sthe nor
m pr
ohi
bit
ing
i
nter
fer
encei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofot
herst
ates.Anumberoff
act
ors,howev
er,
hav
etendedt
oreducet
het
err
it
ori
alexcl
usi
vi
tyoft
hest
atei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.
Technol
ogi
calandeconomi
cchangeshav
ehadani
mpactasi
nter
dependence
becomesmor
eev
identandt
her
iseofsucht
ransnat
ionalconcer
nsashuman
r
ight
sandsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionhav
etendedt
oimpi
ngeupont
hisexcl
usi
vi
ty.The
gr
owt
h ofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions i
s anot
herr
elev
antf
act
or,as i
sthe
dev
elopmentoft
he‘
commonher
it
age’
concepti
nthecont
extoft
hel
awoft
hesea
andai
rlaw.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
oneshoul
dnotexagger
atet
heef
fect
suponi
nter
nat
ional
l
awdoct
ri
net
odayofsucht
rends.Ter
ri
tor
ialsov
erei
gnt
yremai
nsasakeyconcept
i
nint
ernat
ional
law.

Si
ncet
hel
awr
efl
ect
spol
i
ticalcondi
ti
onsandev
olv
es,i
nmostcases,i
nhar
mony
wi
thr
eal
i
ty,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw hashadt
odev
elopaser
iesofr
ulesgov
erni
ngt
he
t
ransf
erandcont
roloft
err
it
ory
.Suchr
ules,byt
hev
erynat
ureofi
nter
nat
ional
soci
ety
,hav
eof
ten(
alt
houghnotal
way
s)hadt
heef
fectofl
egi
ti
mizi
ngt
her
esul
ts
oft
heexer
ciseofpower
.Thel
ackofast
rong,
cent
ralaut
hor
it
yini
nter
nat
ionall
aw
hasemphasi
zed,
evenmor
ethanmuni
cipall
egalst
ruct
ures,
thewayt
hatl
awmust
comet
oter
mswi
thpowerandf
orce.

I
nint
ernat
ional
lawachangei
nowner
shi
pofpar
ti
cul
arj
uri
sdi
cti
onsi
nvol
vesal
soa
changei
nsov
erei
gnt
y,i
nthel
egalaut
hor
it
ygov
erni
ngt
hear
ea.Thi
smeanst
hat
t
henat
ional
i
tyoft
hei
nhabi
tant
sisal
ter
ed,
asi
sthel
egalsy
stem underwhi
cht
hey

81|Page
2024
l
i
ve,wor
kandconductt
hei
rrel
ati
ons,wher
easi
nmuni
cipall
awnosuchchanges
ar
einv
olv
edi
nanal
ter
ati
onofl
egalowner
shi
p.Accor
dingl
y,i
nter
nat
ionall
awmust
dealal
sowi
thal
lthev
ari
ousef
fect
sofachangei
nter
ri
tor
ialsov
erei
gnt
yandnot
conf
inei
tsat
tent
iont
othemer
emechani
sm ofacqui
sit
ionorl
ossofj
uri
sdi
cti
on.

Ther
eisnowat
rendi
nvar
iousst
atest
owar
dssubst
ant
ial
except
ionst
other
uleof
st
atei
mmuni
ty;i
npar
ti
cul
ar,ast
atecanbesuedwhent
hedi
sput
ear
isesf
rom a
commer
cialt
ransact
ion ent
ered i
nto byast
ateorsomeot
hernon-
sov
erei
gn
act
ivi
tyofast
ate.TheUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
iononJur
isdi
ctonalI
i mmuni
ti
esof
St
atesandt rPr
hei oper
ty,whi
chi
snoty
eti
nfor
ce,f
ormul
atest
her
ulesandt
he
except
ionst
othem.

I
tdoesnotcov
ercr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngs,andi
tdoesnotal
l
ow ci
vi
lact
ionsf
or
human r
ight
sabusesagai
nstst
ateagent
swher
etheabusehasoccur
red i
n
anot
hercount
ry.I
ndeed,t
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
her
egi
meofj
uri
sdi
cti
onali
mmuni
ti
es
ofst
ateshasbeenoneoft
hemai
nav
enuest
hroughwhi
chdomest
iccour
tshav
e
st
art
eddeal
i
ngwi
thmat
ter
sgov
ernedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw andi
tspr
inci
ples.
I
nci
dent
all
y,t
her
oleofmuni
cipalcour
tsi
nadj
udi
cat
ingcasesont
heal
l
eged
v
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sbyf
orei
gnSt
ates,hasof
tenbeenhamper
ed,nott
osay
pr
event
ed,byt
her
uleofj
uri
sdi
cti
onali
mmuni
tyi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Thus,t
he
i
mpor
tantadj
udi
cat
oryf
unct
ionofmuni
cipalcour
ts,i
nani
nter
nat
ionall
egalor
der
whi
chl
acksacent
ral
i
zedenf
orcementmechani
sm,
woul
dbehar
dlyef
fect
ivei
fthe
r
uleofj
uri
sdi
cti
onali
mmuni
ti
esofst
ateswer
etobeappl
i
edi
nal
lci
rcumst
ances.
Thei
ssuesr
elat
edt
ohumanr
ightv
iol
ati
on,t
radev
iol
ati
onaswel
lasseat
err
it
ory
v
iol
ati
onscasesar
edeci
dedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
awcour
tofj
ust
ice.Thi
sint
erf
erence
ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw ondomest
icCour
tscanaf
fectt
hesov
erei
gnt
yofdomest
ic
di
scussi
on.Becausei
tvi
olat
est
hest
atei
mmuni
tyasamat
terofgov
ernance,
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw wi
thi
tspr
inci
plesal
sor
emai
nst
hemostcont
rov
ersi
ali
ssuei
n
r
ecentt
imes.

Fi
rst
ly,cont
rov
ersi
all
ywi
thr
egar
dtot
he i
nter
nat
ionall
egalchar
act
eroft
he
subj
ect
sisdeal
i
ng wi
th,up on t
radi
ti
onal
l
yaccept
ed r
egi
me orj
uri
sdi
cti
onal

82|Page
2024
i
mmuni
tywhi
chi
sgov
ernedbyt
hreepr
inci
ples:t
hepr
inci
pleoft
err
it
ori
ali
ty,t
he
pr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gnt
yandt
hepr
inci
pleofl
egal
it
y(r
uleofl
aw)
.

Secondl
y,when i
tcomes t
othe cont
radi
ctor
y char
act
erwhi
ch I
ndeed,t
hat
sov
erei
gnst
atescannotbesubj
ectt
othewi
l
lofot
herst
ates,i
nani
nter
nat
ional
or
derwhi
chi
str
adi
ti
onal
l
ypor
tray
edasahor
izont
alonei
sli
nkedt
othev
ery
conceptofst
atesov
erei
gnt
y.But
,int
ernat
ional l
aw cul
tur
eisdomi
nat
edbyt
he
dev
elopedwor
ldi
nsuchani
nter
nat
ionall
egalor
der
,what
everdi
sput
ewhi
chmay
ar
isebet
weeni
tsmember
sshal
lbeset
tl
edbymeansofconsentUSAandot
her
Eur
opean st
ates.Thi
sisso par
ti
cul
arl
ywhen i
tcomest
ojudi
cialmeansof
set
tl
ementofcont
rov
ersi
es undert
he i
nter
nat
ionall
aw and v
iol
ates st
ate
j
uri
sdi
cti
onSov
erei
gnt
y.Thi
rd,cont
rov
ersi
all
yissuesar
erel
atedwi
tht
hepr
inci
ple
of‘
’
sov
erei
gnst
atesequal
i
ty’
’thest
ates't
heor
eti
calf
oundat
ionuponwhi
cht
he
moder
ndoct
ri
neofj
uri
sdi
cti
onali
mmuni
tyofSt
atesi
sbasedont
heequal
i
ty
pr
inci
ple.

But
,int
ernat
ionall
aw i
smor
ebal
ancedt
othedev
elopedwor
ld,negl
ect
ingt
he
pr
inci
plesoft
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yandl
egal
i
ty(
rul
eofl
aw)
.Theseassumpt
ions
whi
chhav
etobekepti
nmi
ndwhi
l
econsi
der
ingt
heev
olut
ionoft
hedoct
ri
neof
j
uri
sdi
cti
onofst
ateandst
atei
mmuni
ty.

St
ateResponsi
bil
it
ies
Dearl
ear
ner
s,pl
easedef
inewhatst
ater
esponsi
bil
it
y
means.

St
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
saf
undament
alpr
inci
pleofi
nter
nat
ionall
awandi
tli
esont
he
under
standi
ngt
hatst
atesar
esov
erei
gnandequal
.Itpr
ovi
dest
hatwhenev
erone
st
atecommi
tsani
nter
nat
ional
l
yunl
awf
ulactagai
nstanot
herst
ate,i
nter
nat
ional
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
sest
abl
i
shed bet
ween t
het
wo.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ion gi
vesr
iset
oa
r
equi
rementf
orr
epar
ati
on.

Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,t
het
erm"
stat
eresponsi
bil
i
ty"r
efer
redonl
ytost
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
or

83|Page
2024
i
njur
iest
oal
i
ens.I
tincl
udednotonl
y"secondar
y"i
ssuessuchasat
tr
ibut
ionand
r
emedi
es,butal
so t
he pr
imar
yri
ght
s and dut
ies ofst
ates,f
orexampl
ethe
asser
tedi
nter
nat
ional
standar
doft
reat
mentandt
her
ightofdi
plomat
icpr
otect
ion.
Ear
lyef
for
tsbyt
heLeagueofNat
ionsandpr
ivat
ebodi
est
ocodi
fyt
her
ulesof
"
stat
eresponsi
bil
i
ty"r
efl
ect
edt
het
radi
ti
onalf
ocusonr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ori
njur
iest
o
al
i
ens.TheLeague'
s1930Codi
fi
cat
ionConf
erencei
nTheHaguewasabl
etor
each
anagr
eementonl
yon"
secondar
y"i
ssuessuchasi
mput
ati
on,notonsubst
ant
ive
r
ulesr
egar
dingt
het
reat
mentofal
i
ensandt
hei
rpr
oper
ty.

Accor
dingl
y,t
he f
ocus oft
his br
anch ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s on pr
inci
ples
concer
ned wi
th second-
orderi
ssues.I
n ot
herwor
ds,i
tisi
nter
est
ed i
nthe
pr
ocedur
alandot
herconsequencesf
lowi
ngf
rom abr
eachofasubst
ant
iver
uleof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
nfact
,thi
shasl
ed t
o anumberofi
ssuesconcer
ning t
he
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
her
ulesofst
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyandt
hoser
elat
ingt
oot
her
ar
easofi
nter
nat
ional
law.

Thenat
ureofSt
ateResponsi
bil
it
y

Amongt
heessent
ial
fact
orsf
orst
ater
esponsi
bil
i
ty:

Fi
rstt
heexi
stenceofani
nter
nat
ionall
egalobl
i
gat
ioni
nfor
ceasbet
weent
wo
par
ti
cul
arst
ates;

secondl
y,t
hatt
her
ehasoccur
redanactoromi
ssi
onwhi
chv
iol
atest
hatobl
i
gat
ion
andwhi
chi
simput
abl
etot
hest
ater
esponsi
ble;
and

Fi
nal
l
y,t
hatl
ossordamagehasr
esul
tedf
rom t
heunl
awf
uloromi
ssi
on.

Ar
ti
cle1oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Commi
ssi
on’
sAr
ti
clesonst
ater
esponsi
bil
i
ty
r
eit
erat
est
hegener
alr
ule,wi
del
ysuppor
tedbypr
act
ice,t
hatev
eryi
nter
nat
ional
l
y
wr
ongf
ulactofast
ateent
ail
sresponsi
bil
i
ty.

Ar
ti
clel

Responsi
bil
i
tyofaSt
atef
ori
tsi
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
s

84|Page
2024
Ev
eryi
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulactofaSt
ateent
ail
sthei
nter
nat
ionalr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
oft
hatSt
ate.Si
mil
arl
yAr
ti
cle2pr
ovi
dest
hatt
her
eisani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ul
actofast
atewhenconductconsi
sti
ngofanact
ionoromi
ssi
oni
sat
tr
ibut
abl
eto
t
hest
ateunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw andconst
it
utesabr
eachofani
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
ate.

Ar
ti
cl
e2

El
ement
sofani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulactofaSt
ate

Ther
eisani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulactofaSt
atewhenconductconsi
sti
ngofan
act
ionoromi
ssi
on:

a)I
( sat
tri
but
abl
etot
heSt
ateunderi
nter
nat
ional
law;
and

b)Const
( it
utesabr
eachofani
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionoft
heSt
ate.

Thi
spr
inci
ple hasbeen af
fi
rmed i
nthe case-
law.I
tisi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
hat
det
ermi
neswhatconst
it
utesani
nter
nat
ional
l
yunl
awf
ulact
,ir
respect
iveofany
pr
ovi
sionsofmuni
cipall
aw.Ar
ti
cle12st
ipul
atest
hatt
her
eisabr
eachofan
i
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionwhenanactoft
hatst
atei
snoti
nconf
ormi
tywi
thwhati
s
r
equi
redofi
tbyt
hatobl
i
gat
ion,
regar
dlessofi
tsor
igi
norchar
act
er.

Ar
ti
cle12

Exi
stenceofabr
eachofani
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ion

Ther
eisabr
eachofani
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionbyaSt
atewhenanactoft
hatSt
ate
i
snoti
nconf
ormi
tywi
thwhati
srequi
redofi
tbyt
hatobl
i
gat
ion,r
egar
dlessofi
ts
or
igi
norchar
act
er.

Abr
eacht
hati
sofacont
inui
ngnat
ureext
endsov
ert
heent
ir
eper
ioddur
ingwhi
ch
t
heactcont
inuesandr
emai
nsnoti
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hei
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ioni
n
quest
ion,
whi
l
eabr
eacht
hatconsi
stsofacomposi
teactwi
l
lal
soext
endov
ert
he
ent
ir
eper
ioddur
ingwhi
cht
heactoromi
ssi
oncont
inuesandr
emai
nsnoti
n
conf
ormi
tywi
tht
hei
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ion.A st
ateassi
sti
nganot
herst
atet
o

85|Page
2024
commi
tani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulactwi
l
lal
sober
esponsi
blei
fitsoact
edwi
th
knowl
edgeoft
heci
rcumst
ancesandwher
eitwoul
dbewr
ongf
uli
fcommi
tt
edby
t
hatst
ate.

Di
plomat
icLaw/Di
plomat
icI
mmuni
ty

Di
plomat
icr
elat
ionsar
eest
abl
i
shedbymut
ualconsentbet
weent
het
wost
ates
concer
ned.Howev
er,t
heymaybebr
okenof
funi
l
ater
all
y(of
tenasamar
kof
di
sappr
ovalofani
l
legalorunf
ri
endl
yactbyt
heot
herst
ate)
;whenst
ateAbr
eaks
of
fdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionswi
thst
ateB,i
tnotonl
ywi
thdr
awsi
tsowndi
plomat
ic
mi
ssi
onf
rom st
ateB,
butal
sor
equi
resst
ate Bt
owi
thdr
aw i
tsmi
ssi
onf
rom st
ate
A.Ther
ecei
vi
ngst
ate’
sconsenti
snecessar
yfort
hesel
ect
ionoft
heheadof
mi
ssi
on(
whonowaday
susual
l
yhast
het
it
leofambassador
)butnotf
ort
he
sel
ect
ionofhi
ssubor
dinat
es(
alt
hought
her
ear
eexcept
ions)
.

Ther
ulesofdi
plomat
ici
mmuni
tyar
e‘essent
ialf
ort
hemai
ntenanceofr
elat
ions
bet
weenst
atesandar
eaccept
edt
hroughoutt
hewor
ldbynat
ionsofal
lcr
eeds,
cul
tur
es and pol
i
ticalcompl
exi
ons.Mostoft
he moder
nlaw on di
plomat
ic
i
mmuni
tyi
scont
ainedi
nthe1961Vi
ennaConv
ent
iononDi
plomat
icRel
ati
ons.
Accessi
ont
otheConv
ent
ionbyst
atesi
sal
mostuni
ver
sal
,whi
chshowst
he
i
mpor
tanceat
tachedt
oit
ssubj
ectmat
ter
.

Mostoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heConv
ent
ionseekt
ocodi
fycust
omar
ylaw,andcan
t
her
efor
ebeusedasev
idenceofcust
omar
ylawev
enagai
nstst
ateswhi
char
enot
par
ti
est
otheConv
ent
ion.Accor
dingt
oAr
ti
cle3(
1)oft
heVennaConv
ent
iont
he
f
unct
ionsofadi
plomat
icmi
ssi
onconsi
st:

Repr
esent
ingt
hesendi
ngSt
atei
nther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate;

Pr
otect
ingi
nther
ecei
vi
ngSt
atet
hei
nter
est
soft
hesendi
ngSt
ateandofi
ts
nat
ional
s,wi
thi
nthel
i
mit
sper
mit
tedbyi
nter
nat
ional
law;

Negot
iat
ingwi
tht
heGov
ernmentoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate;

86|Page
2024
Ascer
tai
ningbyal
llawf
ulmeanscondi
ti
onsanddev
elopment
sint
her
ecei
vi
ng
St
ate,
andr
epor
ti
ngt
her
eont
otheGov
ernmentoft
hesendi
ngSt
ate;

Pr
omot
ingf
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsbet
weent
hesendi
ngSt
ateandt
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,
anddev
elopi
ngt
hei
reconomi
c,cul
tur
alandsci
ent
if
icr
elat
ions.

Thr
oughouthi
stor
y di
plomat
s and ot
herenv
oys hav
e needed pr
ivi
l
eges and
i
mmuni
ti
esf
ort
heef
fect
iveper
for
manceoft
hei
rfunct
ionsi
nther
ecei
vi
ngst
ate.
Thepr
eambl
etot
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionr
eci
test
hat‘
thepur
poseofsuchpr
ivi
l
eges
andi
mmuni
ti
esi
snott
obenef
iti
ndi
vi
dual
sbutt
oensur
etheef
fi
cientper
for
mance
oft
hef
unct
ionsofdi
plomat
icmi
ssi
onsasr
epr
esent
ingst
ates’
.Ther
eist
husa
doubl
e basi
sfordi
plomat
ici
mmuni
ti
es;t
hey ar
e needed f
ort
he ef
fi
cient
per
for
manceofdi
plomat
icf
unct
ions,andt
heyar
eal
sogi
venbecausedi
plomat
s
ar
erepr
esent
ati
vesofst
ates.Themoder
nvi
ewi
stot
reati
mmuni
ti
esashav
inga
‘
funct
ionalbasi
s—t
hati
s,asbei
ngnecessar
y‘t
oensur
etheef
fi
cientper
for
mance
oft
hef
unct
ionsofdi
plomat
icmi
ssi
ons’
.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eimmuni
ti
esenj
oyedby
di
plomat
icagent
s.

TheConv
ent
iongr
ant
stheheadoft
hedi
plomat
icmi
ssi
onandmember
soft
he
di
plomat
icst
affoft
hemi
ssi
onaswel
lasmember
soft
hei
rfami
l
iescer
tai
n
pr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
esf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate.I
thasbeent
he
pr
act
icet
hatanambassadort
oacer
tai
nSt
atesubmi
tst
otheMi
nist
ryf
orFor
eign
Af
fai
rsoft
hatSt
ateal
i
stcont
aini
ngt
henamesofmember
soft
hedi
plomat
ic
mi
ssi
onwi
tht
hei
rposi
ti
ons,r
anksandf
unct
ions,andt
henamesofper
sonswho
shoul
dbegr
ant
edf
ull
orl
i
mit
edi
mmuni
ty.

Themosti
mpor
tantpr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
esgr
ant
edt
oadi
plomat
icagent(
the
headoft
hemi
ssi
onandmember
sofdi
plomat
icst
aff
)ar
e:

I
nvi
olabi
li
tyofper
sonsofenv
oys:

Di
plomat
icagent
scannotbear
rest
edf
ordebt
sandat
tackandi
nsul
tofdi
plomat
ic
agent
sconsi
der
edasAt
tackandi
nsul
toft
hesendi
ngst
ate.Ar
t.9ofVCpr
ovi
des:
‘
theper
sonofadi
plomat
icagentshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
e.Heshal
lnotbel
i
abl
etoany

87|Page
2024
f
orm ofar
restordet
ent
ion.Ther
ecei
vi
ngst
ateshal
ltr
eathi
m wi
thduer
espect
andshal
ltakeappr
opr
iat
est
epst
opr
eventanyat
tackonhi
sper
son,f
reedom or
di
gni
ty’
.Howev
er,t
heyhav
eadut
ytor
espectt
hel
awsandr
egul
ati
onsoft
he
r
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate.Theyal
sohav
eadut
ynott
oint
erf
erei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsoft
hat
St
ate(
Art
.41(
1))
.Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onmustnotbeusedi
nanymanner
i
ncompat
ibl
e wi
tht
he f
unct
ions oft
he mi
ssi
on as l
aid down i
nthe pr
esent
Conv
ent
ion orbyot
herr
ules ofgener
ali
nter
nat
ionall
aw orbyanyspeci
al
agr
eement
sinf
orcebet
weent
hesendi
ngandt
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate(
Art
.41(
3))
.

I
mmuni
tyf
rom cr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hecour
ts:

Ar
t.31(
1)oft
heVCpr
ovi
dest
hat‘
adi
plomat
icagentshal
lenj
oyi
mmuni
tyf
rom
t
he cr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
on oft
he r
ecei
vi
ng St
ate’
.Di
plomat
icagent
sal
so enj
oy
i
mmuni
ti
esf
rom cr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
onofcour
ts.I
fthecasei
sfi
l
edi
nacour
t
agai
nstadi
plomat
icagent
,theni
tisnotnecessar
yforhi
mtopr
esenthi
msel
f
per
sonal
l
yint
hecour
t.I
tissuf
fi
cientf
orhi
mtosendt
hemessaget
hathei
sa
r
epr
esent
ati
veofasov
erei
gnst
ateandi
sout
sidet
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hecour
t.But
i
fhedoesnott
aket
hisgr
oundandpr
esenthi
msel
fper
sonal
l
yanduncondi
ti
onal
l
y
i
nthecour
ttheni
twi
l
lbedeemedt
hathehaswai
vedhi
simmuni
tyandhewi
l
lthen
bedeemedt
obewi
thi
nthej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hecour
t.I
ftheyv
iol
atet
hel
awoft
he
r
ecei
vi
ngst
ate,t
heonl
yrecour
sei
stor
egi
steradi
plomat
iccompl
aintt
ohi
s
gov
ernmentori
nanext
remecaset
odemandhi
swi
thdr
awal
asper
sonanongr
ata.

I
mmuni
tyf
rom ci
vi
ljur
isdi
cti
on:

Sui
tsf
orr
ecov
eryofdebtorbr
eachofcont
ractcannotbef
il
edagai
nstdi
plomat
ic
agent
s.Ar
t.31ofVC pr
ovi
dest
hatheshal
lenj
oyi
mmuni
tyf
rom i
tsci
vi
land
admi
nist
rat
ivej
uri
sdi
cti
on,
excepti
nthecaseof(
a)ar
ealact
ionr
elat
ingt
opr
ivat
e
i
mmov
abl
epr
oper
tysi
tuat
edi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,
unl
esshehol
ds
i
tonbehal
foft
hesendi
ngSt
atef
ort
hepur
posesoft
hemi
ssi
on;(
b)anact
ion
r
elat
ingt
o successi
oni
nwhi
cht
hedi
plomat
icagenti
sinv
olv
edasexecut
or,
admi
nist
rat
or,
hei
rorl
egat
eeasapr
ivat
eper
sonandnotonbehal
foft
hesendi
ng
St
ate

88|Page
2024
anact
ionr
elat
ingt
oanypr
ofessi
onalorcommer
cialact
ivi
tyexer
cisedbyt
he
di
plomat
icagenti
nther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateout
sidehi
sof
fi
cialf
unct
ions.Ar
t.34(
b)
di
plomat
ic agent
s ar
e noti
mmune i
nrespectofdues and t
axes on pr
ivat
e
i
mmov
abl
epr
oper
tysi
tuat
edi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,
unl
esshehol
ds
i
tonbehal
foft
hesendi
ngSt
atef
ort
hepur
posesoft
hemi
ssi
on.

NB:
Thei
mmuni
tyofadi
plomat
icagentf
rom t
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate
doesnotexempthi
mfr
om t
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hesendi
ngSt
ate.Theexi
stenceof
i
mmuni
tydoesnotmeant
hatpeopl
einj
uredbydi
plomat
sar
ewhol
l
ywi
thout
r
emedy
.Adi
plomatwi
l
lpr
obabl
ybewi
l
li
ngt
oset
tl
epr
ivat
ecl
aimsagai
nsthi
m
bef
oret
heycomet
otheat
tent
ionofhi
ssuper
ior
s.

I
mmuni
tyr
egar
dingr
esi
dence:

Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
e.Theagent
soft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate
maynotent
ert
hem,exceptwi
tht
heconsentoft
heheadoft
hemi
ssi
on(
Art
.22
(
1))
.Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
on,
thei
rfur
nishi
ngsandot
herpr
oper
tyt
her
eonand
t
hemeansoft
ranspor
toft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
mmunef
rom sear
ch,r
equi
sit
ion,
at
tachmentorexecut
ion(
Art
.22(
3))
.Ifaper
soni
swant
edbypol
i
ceandhei
snot
enj
oyi
nganyi
mmuni
tyf
rom ar
restt
hepr
opercour
sei
sthatt
hedi
plomat
icagent
s
shoul
dhandov
ersuchper
sont
othepol
i
ce.Thesendi
ngst
atei
snotal
l
owedt
o
i
mpr
isonpeopl
eondi
plomat
icpr
emi
ses.Ther
ecei
vi
ngSt
atei
sunderaspeci
al
dut
ytot
akeal
lappr
opr
iat
est
epst
opr
otectt
hepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onagai
nst
anyi
ntr
usi
onordamageandt
opr
eventanydi
stur
banceoft
hepeaceoft
he
mi
ssi
onori
mpai
rmentofi
tsdi
gni
ty(
Art
.22(
2))
.

I
mmuni
tyf
rom bei
ngpr
esent
edaswi
tness:

Accor
dingt
oAr
t.31(
2),adi
plomat
icagenti
snotobl
i
gedt
ogi
veev
idenceasa
wi
tness.Buti
fany di
plomat
ic agentper
sonal
l
y pr
esent
s hi
msel
fand gi
ves
ev
idencehewi
l
lbedeemedt
obewi
thi
nthej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hecour
tfori
twi
l
lbe
consi
der
edt
hathehadwai
vedhi
simmuni
ty.

89|Page
2024
I
mmuni
tyf
rom t
axesdues,
etc:

Ar
t.34adi
plomat
icagentshal
lbeexemptf
rom al
lduesandt
axes,
per
sonal
orr
eal
,
nat
ional
,regi
onalormuni
cipal
,except
:Indi
rectt
axesofaki
ndwhi
char
enor
mal
l
y
i
ncor
por
ated i
nthe pr
ice ofgoods orser
vices;Dues and t
axes on pr
ivat
e
i
mmov
abl
epr
oper
tysi
tuat
edi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,
unl
esshehol
ds
i
ton behal
foft
he sendi
ng St
atef
ort
he pur
poses oft
he mi
ssi
on;Est
ate,
successi
onori
nher
it
ancedut
iesl
evi
ed byt
her
ecei
vi
ng St
ate,subj
ectt
othe
pr
ovi
sionsofpar
agr
aph4ofar
ti
cle39;
Taxesoni
nvest
ment
smadei
ncommer
cial
under
taki
ngsi
nther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate;Char
gesl
evi
edf
orspeci
fi
cser
vicesr
ender
ed;
Regi
str
ati
on,cour
tofr
ecor
dfees,mor
tgageduesandst
ampdut
y,wi
thr
espectt
o
i
mmov
abl
epr
oper
ty,
subj
ectt
othepr
ovi
sionsofar
ti
cle23.

Ar
t.36(
1)t
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateshal
l
,inaccor
dancewi
thsuchl
awsandr
egul
ati
ons
asi
tmayadopt
,per
mitent
ryofandgr
antexempt
ionf
rom al
lcust
omsdut
ies,
t
axes,andr
elat
edchar
gesot
hert
hanchar
gesf
orst
orage,car
tageandsi
mil
ar
ser
vices,
onar
ti
clesf
ort
heof
fi
cial
useoft
hemi
ssi
on;

Ar
ti
clesf
ort
heper
sonaluseofadi
plomat
icagentormember
sofhi
sfami
l
y
f
ormi
ngpar
tofhi
shousehol
d,i
ncl
udi
ngar
ti
clesi
ntendedf
orhi
sest
abl
i
shment
.
Ther
ecei
vi
ngst
atemustal
l
owt
hei
mpor
tat
ion,f
reeofcust
omsdut
ies,ofar
ti
cles
f
ort
heof
fi
ci
aluseoft
hemi
ssi
onandofar
ti
clesf
ort
heper
sonaluseofadi
plomat
orhi
sfami
l
y

Ri
ghtt
owor
shi
p:

Theyar
efr
eet
ofol
l
owanyr
eli
gionorper
for
mther
eli
giousr
it
ual
s,cer
emoni
es,
etc
i
nthei
rownway
.Noi
nter
fer
encecanbemadei
nthi
srespect
.

Ri
ghtt
otr
avel
int
err
it
oryoft
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate:

Ar
t.
26pr
ovi
dest
hatsubj
ectt
oit
slawsandr
egul
ati
onsconcer
ningzonesent
ryi
nto
whi
chi
spr
ohi
bit
edorr
egul
atedf
orr
easonsofnat
ional
secur
it
y,t
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate
shal
lensur
etoal
lmember
soft
hemi
ssi
onf
reedom ofmov
ementandt
rav
eli
nit
s

90|Page
2024
t
err
it
ory
.

Fr
eedom ofcommuni
cat
ionf
orof
fi
cialpur
pose:

Ar
t.27pr
ovi
det
hatt
heyhav
efr
eedom t
ocommuni
cat
ewi
tht
hei
rhome-
stat
ein
connect
ionwi
tht
hei
rfunct
ionsanddut
ies.Ther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateshal
lper
mitand
pr
otectf
reecommuni
cat
ionont
hepar
toft
hemi
ssi
onf
oral
lof
fi
cial
pur
poses

I
mmuni
tyf
rom l
ocal
andmi
li
tar
yobl
igat
ions:

Di
plomat
icagent
sar
eal
soexempt
edf
rom al
lper
sonalser
vices,f
rom al
lpubl
i
c
ser
viceofanyki
ndwhat
soev
er,
andf
rom mi
l
itar
yobl
i
gat
ions(
Art
.35)

I
mmuni
tyf
rom per
sonalbaggage:

Ar
t36(
2)t
heper
sonalbaggageofadi
plomat
icagentshal
lbeexemptf
rom
i
nspect
ion,
unl
esst
her
ear
eser
iousgr
oundsf
orpr
esumi
ngt
hati
tcont
ainsar
ti
cles
notcov
eredbyt
heexempt
ionsment
ionedi
npar
agr
aph1oft
hisAr
ti
cle(
Art
icl
es
f
ort
heof
fi
ci
aluseoft
hemi
ssi
on;Ar
ti
clesf
ort
heper
sonaluseofadi
plomat
ic
agentormember
sofhi
sfami
l
yfor
mingpar
tofhi
shousehol
d,i
ncl
udi
ngar
ti
cles
i
ntended f
orhi
sest
abl
i
shment
),orar
ti
clest
he i
mpor
torexpor
tofwhi
ch i
s
pr
ohi
bit
edbyt
hel
aw orcont
rol
l
edbyt
hequar
ant
iner
egul
ati
onsoft
her
ecei
vi
ng
St
ate.Suchi
nspect
ionshal
lbeconduct
edonl
yint
hepr
esenceoft
hedi
plomat
ic
agentorofhi
saut
hor
izedr
epr
esent
ati
ve.Thedi
plomat
icbagoughtt
ocont
ainonl
y
di
plomat
icdocument
sorar
ti
clesi
ntendedf
orof
fi
cialuse;t
hepr
obl
em i
swhatt
o
doi
fsuchpr
ivi
l
egesar
eabusedf
orsmuggl
i
ngweapons,
drugsorev
enl
i
vebodi
es.
I
nvoki
nganexcept
ionalr
ightt
oinspect(
apar
tper
hapsf
rom i
nfr
aredscr
uti
ny)and
t
oopensuspi
ci
ousdi
plomat
icbagsi
sli
kel
ytopr
ovokecor
respondi
ngr
epr
isal
s.

Consul
arI
mmuni
ty

Aconsul
arof
fi
cer
,li
keadi
plomat
icagent
,repr
esent
shi
sSt
atei
nther
ecei
vi
ng
St
ate.Howev
er,unl
i
keadi
plomat
icagent
,hei
snotconcer
ned wi
th pol
i
tical
r
elat
ionsbet
weent
het
woSt
ates,butwi
thav
ari
etyofadmi
nist
rat
ivef
unct
ions,
suchasi
ssui
ngv
isasandpasspor
ts,l
ooki
ngaf
tert
hecommer
ciali
nter
est
sofhi
s

91|Page
2024
St
ate,andassi
sti
ngt
henat
ional
sofhi
sSt
atei
ndi
str
ess.Thus,hei
snotgr
ant
ed
t
hesamedegr
eeofi
mmuni
tyf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
onasadi
plomat
icagent
.Not
abl
y
nowaday
s,manySt
atescombi
nei
tsdi
plomat
icandconsul
arser
vices.Thus,a
per
sonwho act
ssi
mul
taneousl
yasadi
plomatand consulenj
oysdi
plomat
ic
i
mmuni
ty.

Undert
he1963Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heConsul
arRel
ati
ons,aconsul
arof
fi
cer
(
theheadoft
heconsul
arpostandanyper
sonent
rust
edt
oexer
ciseconsul
ar
f
unct
ions)i
simmunef
rom anar
restordet
ent
ionpendi
ngt
ri
al,excepti
nthecase
ofagr
avecr
imeandpur
suantt
oadeci
sionbyt
hecompet
entj
udi
cialaut
hor
it
y.He
i
simmunef
rom i
mpr
isonmentoranyot
herr
est
ri
cti
onsonhi
sper
sonalf
reedom
sav
einexecut
ionofaf
inalj
udi
cialdeci
sion.I
fcr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngsar
einst
it
uted
agai
nsthi
m,he mustappearbef
oret
hecompet
entaut
hor
it
ies.Thepr
oceedi
ngs
mustbeconduct
edi
namannert
hatr
espect
shi
sof
fi
cialposi
ti
onanddoesnot
hampert
heexer
ciseofconsul
arf
unct
ions,
andwi
tht
hemi
nimum del
ay.

Aconsul
arof
fi
ceri
simmunef
rom t
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hej
udi
cialoradmi
nist
rat
ive
aut
hor
it
iesoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateonl
yinr
espectofact
sper
for
medi
ntheexer
cise
ofconsul
arf
unct
ions.Hei
sexemptf
rom al
lduesandt
axes,excepti
ncer
tai
n
cases.I
naddi
ti
on,
theconsul
arpr
emi
ses,
archi
vesanddocument
sar
einv
iol
abl
e.

Aconsul
arof
fi
cerenj
oyst
hei
mmuni
ti
esf
rom t
hemomentheent
erst
het
err
it
ory
oft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateonpr
oceedi
ngt
otakeuphi
spostor
,ifal
readyi
nit
ster
ri
tor
y,
f
rom t
hemomentwhenheent
ersonhi
sdut
ies.Thesamei
mmuni
ti
esar
eenj
oyed
bymember
soft
hef
ami
l
yoft
heconsul
arof
fi
cerf
rom t
hedat
ewhi
chheenj
oyshi
s
i
mmuni
ti
es.

Thei
mmuni
ti
esofaconsul
arof
fi
cermaybewai
vedbyt
hesendi
ngSt
ate.The
wai
vermustbeexpr
essed.Howev
er,t
hewai
verofi
mmuni
tyf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
onf
or
t
hepur
posesofci
vi
loradmi
nist
rat
ivepr
oceedi
ngsdoesnoti
mpl
ywai
verof
i
mmuni
tyf
rom t
heexecut
ionofaj
udi
cialdeci
sion;i
nsuchcases,asepar
ate
wai
veri
srequi
red.I
mmuni
tymayal
sobewai
vedbyt
heconsul
arof
fi
cerhi
msel
f,
bysubmi
tt
ingv
olunt
ari
l
ytot
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hecour
toft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate.

92|Page
2024
Di
plomat
icRecogni
ti
on

Dear St
udent
s,what i
sthe essence of di
plomat
ic
r
ecogni
ti
on?

Di
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
on i
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
s a uni
l
ater
alpol
i
ticalactwi
th
domest
icandi
nter
nat
ionall
egalconsequences,
wher
ebyast
ateacknowl
edgesan
actorst
atusofanot
herst
ateorgov
ernmenti
ncont
rolofast
ate(
maybeal
soa
r
ecogni
zedst
ate)
.

Recogni
ti
oncanbeaccor
dedei
therdef
act
oordej
ure.Recogni
ti
oncanbea
decl
arat
iont
othatef
fectbyt
her
ecogni
zi
nggov
ernment
,oranactofr
ecogni
ti
on
suchasent
eri
ngi
ntoat
reat
ywi
tht
heot
herst
ate.Av
otebyacount
ryi
ntheUni
ted
Nat
ionsi
nfav
oroft
hemember
shi
pofanot
hercount
ryi
sani
mpl
i
citr
ecogni
ti
onof
t
hatcount
rybyt
hecount
rysov
oti
ng,
asonl
yst
atesmaybemember
soft
heUN.

Thenon-
recogni
ti
onofpar
ti
cul
aract
sofast
atedoesnotnor
mal
l
yaf
fectt
he
r
ecogni
ti
on oft
hest
atei
tsel
f.Forexampl
e,t
hei
nter
nat
ionalr
eject
ion oft
he
occupat
ion ofpar
ti
cul
art
err
it
orybya r
ecogni
zed st
ate does noti
mpl
ynon-
r
ecogni
ti
onoft
hest
atei
tsel
forar
eject
ionofachangeofgov
ernmentbyi
l
legal
means.

Veenaconv
ent
ionAr
ti
cle17,
thepr
ecedi
ngmember
soft
hedi
plomat
icst
affoft
he
mi
ssi
onshal
lbenot
if
iedbyt
heheadoft
hemi
ssi
ont
otheMi
nist
ryf
orFor
eign
Af
fai
rsorsuchot
hermi
nist
ryasmaybeagr
eed.I
ncaseswher
enomemberoft
he
di
plomat
icst
affoft
hemi
ssi
oni
spr
esenti
nther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,amemberoft
he
admi
nist
rat
iveandt
echni
calst
affmay
,wi
tht
heconsentoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,be
desi
gnat
edbyt
hesendi
ngSt
atet
obei
nchar
geoft
hecur
rentadmi
nist
rat
ive
af
fai
rsoft
hemi
ssi
on.Ther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateshal
lei
therf
aci
l
itat
etheacqui
sit
ionon
i
tst
err
it
oryi
naccor
dancewi
thi
tsl
awsbyt
hesendi
ngSt
ateofpr
emi
sesnecessar
y
f
ori
tsmi
ssi
onorassi
stt
hel
att
eri
nobt
aini
ngaccommodat
ioni
nsomeot
herway
.
Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
e.

93|Page
2024
Theagent
soft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
atemaynotent
ert
hem,exceptwi
tht
heconsentof
t
heheadoft
hemi
ssi
on.Ther
ecei
vi
ngSt
atei
sunderaspeci
aldut
ytot
akeal
l
appr
opr
iat
est
epst
opr
otectt
hepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onagai
nstanyi
ntr
usi
onor
damageandt
opr
eventanydi
stur
banceoft
hepeaceoft
hemi
ssi
onori
mpai
rment
ofi
tsdi
gni
ty.Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
on,t
hei
rfur
nishi
ngsandot
herpr
oper
ty
t
her
eonandt
hemeansoft
ranspor
toft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
mmunef
rom sear
ch,
r
equi
sit
ion,
att
achmentorexecut
ion.

Ther
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateshal
lper
mitandpr
otectf
reecommuni
cat
ionont
hepar
toft
he
mi
ssi
onf
oral
lof
fi
cialpur
poses.I
ncommuni
cat
ingwi
tht
heGov
ernmentandt
he
ot
hermi
ssi
ons and consul
ates oft
he sendi
ng St
ate,wher
eversi
tuat
ed,t
he
mi
ssi
onmayempl
oyal
lappr
opr
iat
emeans,i
ncl
udi
ngdi
plomat
iccour
ier
sand
messagesi
ncodeorci
pher
.Howev
er,t
hemi
ssi
onmayi
nst
allanduseawi
rel
ess
t
ransmi
tt
er onl
y wi
th t
he consent of t
he r
ecei
vi
ng St
ate. The of
fi
cial
cor
respondenceoft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
e.Of
fi
cialcor
respondencemeans
al
lcor
respondencer
elat
ingt
othemi
ssi
onandi
tsf
unct
ions.

Thedi
plomat
icbagshal
lnotbeopenedordet
ained.Thepackagesconst
it
uti
ng
t
hedi
plomat
icbagmustbearv
isi
bleext
ernalmar
ksoft
hei
rchar
act
erandmay
cont
ain onl
ydi
plomat
ic document
s orar
ti
cles i
ntended f
orof
fi
cialuse.The
di
plomat
iccour
ier
,whoshal
lbepr
ovi
dedwi
thanof
fi
cialdocumenti
ndi
cat
inghi
s
st
atusandt
henumberofpackagesconst
it
uti
ngt
hedi
plomat
icbag,shal
lbe
pr
otect
edbyt
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
atei
ntheper
for
manceofhi
sfunct
ions.Heshal
lenj
oy
per
sonal
inv
iol
abi
l
ityandshal
lnotbel
i
abl
etoanyf
orm ofar
restordet
ent
ion.

A di
plomat
ic bag maybe ent
rust
ed t
othe capt
ain ofa commer
cialai
rcr
aft
schedul
edt
oandatanaut
hor
izedpor
tofent
ry.Heshal
lbepr
ovi
dedwi
than
of
fi
cialdocumenti
ndi
cat
ingt
henumberofpackagesconst
it
uti
ngt
hebagbuthe
shal
lnotbeconsi
der
edt
obeadi
plomat
iccour
ier
.Themi
ssi
onmaysendoneof
i
tsmember
stot
akepossessi
onoft
hedi
plomat
icbagdi
rect
lyandf
reel
yfr
om t
he
capt
ainoft
heai
rcr
aft
.

94|Page
2024
Theper
sonofadi
plomat
icagentshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
e.Heshal
lnotbel
i
abl
etoany
f
orm ofar
restordet
ent
ion.Ther
esponsi
bil
i
tiesoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ateshal
ltr
eat
hi
m wi
thduer
espectandshal
ltakeal
lappr
opr
iat
est
epst
opr
eventanyat
tackon
hi
sper
son,
freedom ordi
gni
ty.

Wi
thdr
awal
ofr
ecogni
ti
on

Ast
atemaywi
thdr
awdi
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
onofanot
herst
ate,orsi
mpl
yref
uset
o
dealwi
tht
hatot
hercount
ry,af
terwi
thdr
awi
ngf
rom al
ldi
plomat
icr
elat
ionswi
th
t
hatcount
ry,
suchasembassi
esandconsul
ates,
andr
equi
ri
ngt
heot
hercount
ryt
o
dot
hesame.Thest
atewi
l
lappoi
ntapr
otect
ingpowert
orepr
esenti
tsi
nter
est
sin
t
heot
herst
ate.Thedoct
ri
neofnon-
recogni
ti
onofi
l
legal
ori
mmor
alsi
tuat
ions,
li
ke
t
err
it
ori
algai
nsachi
evedbyf
orce,
iscal
l
edt
heSt
imsonDoct
ri
ne.

I
thasbecomemor
eimpor
tantsi
ncet
heSecondWor
ldWar
,especi
all
yint
he
Uni
tedNat
ionswher
eiti
samet
hodofensur
ingcompl
i
ancewi
thi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
–f
ori
nst
ance,i
nthecaseofRhodesi
ain1965.Wi
thdr
awalofr
ecogni
ti
onofa
gov
ernmenti
samor
esev
ereactofdi
sappr
ovalt
hant
hebr
eaki
ngofdi
plomat
ic
r
elat
ions.

Ot
herel
ement
sthatmayber
ecogni
zed i
ncl
udeoccupat
ion orannexat
ion of
t
err
it
ory
,orbel
l
iger
entr
ight
sofapar
tyi
naconf
li
ct.Recogni
ti
onoft
hel
att
erdoes
noti
mpl
yrecogni
ti
onofast
ate.For
malr
ecogni
ti
onofbel
l
iger
encyorst
atewar
,
whi
chi
srar
etoday
,si
gni
fi
est
hatt
hepar
ti
est
otheci
vi
lwarorot
heri
nter
nal
conf
li
ct"
areent
it
ledt
oexer
cisebel
l
iger
entr
ight
s,t
husaccept
ingt
hatt
her
ebel
gr
ouppossessessuf
fi
cienti
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tyt
osuppor
ttheposi
ti
onof
suchr
ight
sanddut
ies.Ext
ensi
onoft
her
ight
sofbel
l
iger
encyi
susual
l
ydoneby
ot
herst
ates,
rat
hert
hanbyt
hegov
ernmentf
ight
ingt
her
ebelgr
oup.
(A1907r
epor
t
byWi
l
li
am E.Ful
l
erf
ort
heSpani
shTr
eat
yCl
aimsCommi
ssi
onnot
edt
hat"
Apar
ent
st
atenev
erf
ormal
l
yrecogni
zest
hei
nsur
gent
sasbel
l
iger
ent
s,al
thoughi
tmayi
n
f
actt
reatt
hem assuchbycar
ryi
ngonwaragai
nstt
hem i
naccor
dancewi
tht
he
r
ulesandusagesofi
nter
nat
ional
war
far
e.

95|Page
2024
ThePr
emi
sesoft
heEmbassyandt
heHost
ingSt
ate

TheVi
ennaConv
ent
iononDi
plomat
icRel
ati
onsr
egul
atest
her
elat
ionshi
psof
embassi
esanddi
plomat
sint
her
ecei
vi
ngorhostcount
ry.Theessenceoft
he
r
elat
ionshi
pisdi
plomat
ici
mmuni
tybyt
hehost
-st
ate.Howev
er,
Art
icl
e41makesi
t
cl
eart
hatt
hedi
plomat
smustr
espectl
ocall
awsoft
hehostst
ate.Ar
ti
cle41(
1)
wi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
othei
rpr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
es,i
tist
hedut
yofal
lper
sons
enj
oyi
ngsuchpr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
est
orespectt
hel
awsandr
egul
ati
onsoft
he
r
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate.Theyal
sohav
eadut
ynott
oint
erf
erei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsoft
hat
St
ate.

Hav
ingt
hei
rimmuni
ti
esmakeenf
orci
ngl
ocall
awsi
nthecaseofdi
plomat
sal
lbut
i
mpossi
ble.Thepr
emi
sesoft
hemi
ssi
onshal
lbei
nvi
olabl
eandt
heagent
soft
he
r
ecei
vi
ng St
ate maynotent
ert
hei
rhome count
ryembassy
,exceptwi
tht
he
consentoft
heheadoft
hemi
ssi
on.Adi
plomat
icagentshal
lenj
oyi
mmuni
tyf
rom
t
hecr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate.Heshal
lal
soenj
oyi
mmuni
tyf
rom
i
tsci
vi
landadmi
nist
rat
ivej
uri
sdi
cti
on,excepti
nthecaseofar
ealact
ionr
elat
ing
t
opr
ivat
eimmov
abl
epr
oper
tysi
tuat
edi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,
unl
ess
hehol
dsi
tonbehal
foft
hesendi
ngSt
atef
ort
hepur
posesoft
hemi
ssi
on.Thi
s
essent
ial
l
ymeanst
hatdi
plomat
sar
eunderamor
alobl
i
gat
iont
oobser
vet
hel
aws
oft
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate.Shoul
dtheynotdoso;t
her
ecei
vi
ngst
atecanexpelt
he
di
plomatconcer
ned.

I
npr
act
ice,t
opr
eser
vef
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsamongst
ates,di
plomat
sandembassi
es
t
endt
oadher
etol
ocall
aws(
ofcour
se,t
her
ear
eexcept
ions)
.Ift
heEmbassy
si
gnsal
easeagr
eement(
whi
chcanbeconsi
der
edacommer
cialt
ransact
ionand
henceexemptf
rom i
mmuni
tyont
hei
rpr
emi
ses,
itwi
l
lbet
hel
awsoft
her
ecei
vi
ng
st
atet
hatappl
y,notoft
hesendi
ngst
ate.Manycount
ri
es(
li
keSout
hAf
ri
ca)al
so
excl
udeempl
oymentcont
ract
sfr
om di
plomat
ici
mmuni
ty. Thoseempl
oyment
agr
eement
sar
ethenr
egul
atedbyt
hel
awsoft
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate,andsubj
ectt
o
adj
udi
cat
ionbyt
hecour
tsoft
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate.Theembassycanbeconsi
der
ed
assov
erei
gnl
andbel
ongi
ngt
othesamecount
ryf
lyi
ngt
hef
lagatt
heembassy
.

96|Page
2024
Gener
all
y,t
heembassygr
oundsar
econsi
der
edsov
erei
gnt
err
it
oryoft
hecount
ry
t
hatownst
hef
aci
l
ity
.(I
.e.Jul
i
anAssi
gner
)isst
ayi
ngatanembassywhi
chdoes
nothav
eext
radi
ti
ont
reat
ieswi
thcount
ri
est
hatwantt
obr
inghi
mtocour
t.

I
n1815,t
hef
ir
stsetofmoder
ndi
plomat
icr
ankswer
eest
abl
i
shed,andt
hen
Eur
opeansf
oughtov
erwhatt
hosemeantunt
ilt
heywer
efor
mal
i
zedbyTheVi
enna
Conv
ent
iononDi
plomat
icRel
ati
onsi
n1961.So,di
plomat
spr
emi
sesembassi
es
wi
thdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionst
radi
ti
onal
l
ybei
ngopenedbyt
hev
isi
tsoff
orei
gnenv
oys
–usual
l
yatt
heendofawart
osur
renderordecl
arepeace.Env
oyswer
egi
ven
pr
otect
ion f
rom bei
ng shotand st
abbed (
so t
heywoul
d act
ual
l
ydel
i
vert
hei
r
messages)andt
husdi
plomat
ici
mmuni
tyoft
hehostcount
rycont
inuesont
oday
.

TheVi
ennaConv
ent
iononDi
plomat
icRel
ati
onsext
endedi
mmuni
tyt
odi
plomat
s’
f
ami
l
ies(
Art
icl
e37)andf
orbi
dsahostcount
ryf
rom ent
eri
nganot
hercount
ry’
s
embassyunl
essi
nvi
ted i
nbyt
hehead oft
hebui
l
ding (
Art
icl
e22)
.Gener
all
y
speaki
ng,embassi
esi
nbusi
erpar
tsofagi
venci
tyt
endt
obl
endi
nbet
tert
han
wi
thdr
awncompoundsandpl
acementi
sn’
twi
thoutot
hersecur
it
yconsi
der
ati
ons
aswel
l
.It
’seasi
erf
orot
her
stomoni
torwho'
sent
eri
ngandl
eav
inganembassy
wheni
t’
smor
eremot
e;aser
iousconsi
der
ati
onwhenscopi
ngapl
acef
oran
embassy
.Embassypr
emi
sesal
sot
endt
oshowof
facount
ry’
sher
it
age,pr
est
ige,
andcul
tur
eforv
isi
tor
sofal
lsor
ts,i
ncl
udi
ngt
rav
eler
sobt
aini
ngv
isasandf
orei
gn
di
gni
tar
iesat
tendi
ngf
ormal
event
s.

Manycapi
talci
ti
esar
oundt
hewor
ldhav
ean“
EmbassyRow “
,wher
ethehost
nat
ionpl
acesmanyf
orei
gndi
plomat
icmi
ssi
ons.Pl
acemental
ongt
hesest
ri
psi
s
usual
l
ydonemuchl
i
kemanyst
andar
drealest
atet
ransact
ions,wi
tht
hef
orei
gn
nat
ionpur
chasi
ngpr
ivat
elandandpr
oper
ty.

Ri
chcount
ri
esal
sohav
etoi
nvestmor
einbui
l
dingsecur
it
ysi
ncet
heycanbe
t
arget
edf
orv
iol
ence(
thehostcount
ryi
sonl
yresponsi
blef
orsecur
it
yout
sideof
t
heembassygr
ounds)pl
ussetasi
der
oom f
orst
affofv
ary
ingsi
zes.Fi
nal
l
y,
count
ri
eswi
thcl
oset
iest
ooneanot
herorl
ooki
ngt
ocozy
-upar
elat
ionshi
pwi
l
l
wor
konmaki
ngt
hosepol
i
ticalal
l
iancesv
isi
blewi
thl
argerembassi
esi
nimpor
tant

97|Page
2024
par
tsofpr
est
igef
ort
hehomecount
ryi
nhostst
ateci
ti
es.Gener
all
y,Embassy
pr
emi
sessuchasl
andandbui
ldi
ngst
oget
herar
econsi
der
edasapr
oper
tyor
pr
emi
sesoft
hehomest
ateandpr
otect
edbyt
heHostSt
ate.

Enf
orcementMechani
smsofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw

Enf
orcement Mechani
sms of I
nter
nat
ional Law of
ten r
equi
res f
ormal
commi
tment
saswel
lasmechani
smsf
orenf
orci
ngr
elat
edl
egalsanct
ion.For
exampl
eCur
rentef
for
tsongl
obalwar
minghav
efocusedoncommi
tment
sand
gi
venscantat
tent
iont
oenf
orcement
.St
ateshav
efol
l
owedt
he“
standar
dmodel
”
whencr
eat
ingi
nter
nat
ionalenv
ironment
alt
reat
ies:setcommi
tment
sfi
rst
,def
er
pr
ocedur
es f
orenf
orcementunt
ill
ater
,and r
ely on “
sof
t”(
ornonexi
stent
)
measur
esf
orenf
orci
ngdi
ff
erentcompl
i
ance.I
nmosti
nter
nat
ionalenv
ironment
al
agr
eement
s,i
thasbeen possi
blet
o def
erori
gnor
eenf
orcementpr
ocedur
es
becausenear
lyal
lcommi
tment
shav
ebeenmodestandenf
orcementhasbeen
necessar
y.Whatl
i
ttl
ewi
sdom exi
stsont
hedesi
gnofenf
orcementpr
ocedur
esi
s
basedheav
il
yont
heexper
iencei
ntheMont
realPr
otocolonSubst
ancest
hat
Depl
etet
heOzoneLay
eri
nenv
ironment
alcases.

Buta cl
ose l
ook att
hatexper
ience shows t
hatdef
err
ing t
he cr
eat
ion of
enf
orcementpr
ocedur
esi
npar
ti
cul
ar,t
hePr
otocol
’
s“Non-
Compl
i
ancePr
ocedur
e”
unt
ilaf
termostcommi
tment
swer
einpl
acesev
erel
yweakenedt
hepr
ocedur
es,
becausecount
ri
est
hatf
ear
edst
rongenf
orcementwoul
dconsentonl
ytoasof
t
mechani
sm.I
nthet
ermsofgamet
heor
y,cooper
ati
on hasbeen f
ocused on
pr
obl
emst
hatar
eeasyt
osol
vei
ngamesofhar
monyorsi
mpl
ecoor
dinat
ion
bet
weennat
ionsofst
ates.

I
naddi
ti
on,
theenf
orcementmechani
sm mosti
nthenewsi
ssuesi
nrecenty
ear
sis
t
heUni
tedNat
ionsSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Itmaydet
ermi
net
heexi
stenceofanyt
hreat
t
othepeace,
breachoft
hepeaceoractofaggr
essi
on,
andmayi
mposemandat
ory
sanct
ionst
otr
ytor
ect
if
ythesi
tuat
ion.Thesanct
ionsmaybeeconomi
c(suchasa
t
radeembar
go agai
nstacount
ryt
hreat
eni
ngt
hepeace)
,di
plomat
ic(
suchas
sev
eranceofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions)ormi
l
itar
yuseofar
medf
orcet
omai
ntai
nor

98|Page
2024
r
est
orei
nter
nat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y.At
radeembar
gomaybecompr
ehensi
ve
(
desi
gnedt
ohal
tal
linwar
dandout
war
d-boundt
radeexceptf
orhumani
tar
ian
i
tems)orsel
ect
ive(
forexampl
e,anembar
goonl
yont
radei
ngoodshav
ingmi
l
itar
y
uses)
.

I
nrecenty
ear
s,t
heSecur
it
yCounci
lhasi
mposedsomef
orm oft
radesanct
ionson
Angol
a,Hai
ti
,Ir
aq,
Liber
ia,
Liby
a,Rwanda,
Somal
i
aandt
hecount
ri
esoft
hef
ormer
Yugosl
avi
atoenf
orcei
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Tr
adeanddi
plomat
icsanct
ionsar
esl
ow
t
owor
k.Mor
eov
er,t
hei
rbur
denof
tenf
all
smostheav
il
yont
hesegmentoft
he
sanct
ioned popul
ati
on-
ordi
nar
y ci
vi
li
ans-
that i
sleast abl
etoi
nfl
uence t
he
gov
ernment
'sbehav
ior
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,ast
heeconomi
csanct
ionsagai
nstSer
bia
hav
e r
ecent
ly demonst
rat
ed, t
hey can i
nfl
uence pol
i
tical l
eader
s t
owar
d
moder
ati
oni
fthesanct
ionsar
egi
vent
imet
ohav
esomebi
te.Ofcour
se,
themor
e
suchl
eader
sar
esubj
ecti
nthei
rdomest
icpol
i
ticst
othewi
shesofabr
oad-
based
el
ect
orat
e,t
hemor
eli
kel
ytheyar
etor
espondt
othesesanct
ions.

Secur
it
yCounci
lsanct
ionsi
nvol
vi
ngar
medf
orceshav
enev
erbeenusedi
nqui
te
t
hef
orm cont
empl
atedbyt
heUNChar
ter
.Asdr
aft
edi
n1945,i
tsetoutasy
stem
bywhi
chmemberst
ateswoul
dagr
eet
ohol
dar
medf
orcesandf
aci
l
iti
esr
eadyt
o
r
espondt
othecal
loft
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.

I
ftheCounci
ldeci
dedt
o usear
medf
orces,i
twoul
dcal
lont
hosef
orcesi
n
accor
dancewi
tht
heagr
eement
s.Nosuchagr
eement
shav
eev
erbeenent
ered
i
nto.Thus,whent
heSecur
it
yCounci
lhasaut
hor
izedt
heuseofar
medf
orcet
o
count
eran actofaggr
essi
on-
asi
n Kor
eaand t
hePer
sian Gul
f-
ithassi
mpl
y
aut
hor
izedmemberst
atest
o"useal
lnecessar
ymeanst
orest
orei
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y."I
nthecaseofI
raq'
sinv
asi
onofKuwai
t,t
heaut
hor
izeduseof
f
orcebyt
heUni
tedSt
atesandot
her
swasqui
teef
fect
ive.

TheSecur
it
yCounci
l
'senf
orcementpower
sar
etr
oubl
esomet
omanyUNmember
st
atesbecauset
heCounci
lisnotr
egar
dedasanadequat
elyr
epr
esent
ati
vebody
.
I
tsf
iveper
manent
,unel
ect
edmember
s-Chi
na,Fr
ance,Russi
a,t
heUni
tedKi
ngdom
andt
heUni
tedSt
ates-
canv
etoanysubst
ant
ivemeasur
e.Oneoft
hem-
theUni
ted

99|Page
2024
St
ates-
hasdomi
nat
edt
heCounci
li
nrecenty
ear
s.

Thought
hiswoul
dappeart
obeacl
earv
ict
oryf
ori
nter
nat
ionall
awenf
orcement
,
t
he st
orybehi
nd t
he scenes shows t
hati
twas pr
edomi
nant
lya f
ace-
sav
ing
exer
cisef
ordi
ff
erentcount
ri
es.Thesecount
ri
eshadal
readycomet
oasecr
et
agr
eementbef
oret
heSecr
etar
y-Gener
al’
srul
i
ngs,buti
nanef
for
ttopol
i
tical
l
y
pr
otectt
hemsel
vesdomest
ical
l
ybot
hcount
ri
esagr
eedt
osubmi
tthemat
tert
othe
U.
N.,t
husr
eli
evi
ngt
hem ofanypol
i
ticall
i
abi
l
ityf
oranyoft
heconcessi
onst
hat
wer
emade.Whenanar
bit
ral
tri
bunal
final
l
yor
der
stheSecr
etar
y-Gener
al’
sor
der
s.
I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
sther
ear
ethr
eecommonpr
edomi
nantmet
hodsofef
fect
stohel
p
enf
orcei
nint
ernat
ional
law.

TheFi
rstmet
hodi
simposi
ngsanct
ionsoncer
tai
nmat
ter
soft
hest
ate.The
i
mpl
ement
ati
onpoweroft
heseor
gani
zat
ionst
oimposesanct
ionscanv
arywi
del
y.
Thesanct
ionsmaybeeconomi
c,di
plomat
ic,ormi
l
itar
y.I
naddi
ti
on,t
het
ri
bunal
s
t
hatl
evyt
hese sanct
ionsar
e successf
uli
n asf
arasdi
ff
erentnat
ionshav
e
consent
edt
otr
eat
ies,orhav
ejoi
nedr
egi
onalori
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions.Thi
s
t
ypeofenf
orcementef
for
tisbestat
tai
nedwhent
her
ear
eexi
sti
ngmember
shi
ps
i
nar
egi
onalori
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion,
treat
iesbet
weennat
ions,
oraccept
ance
ofconv
ent
ions.Economi
canddi
plomat
icsanct
ionscanbev
erysl
owt
owor
k.The
maj
ori
tyoft
heef
fect
sfr
om t
heset
ypesofsanct
ionsar
eof
tenf
eltt
hemostbyt
he
or
dinar
yci
ti
zensofanon-
compl
i
antcount
ryandnott
hev
iol
ati
nggov
ernment
.In
somecases,t
hiscoul
dleadt
oincr
easeddomest
icpr
essur
eoft
hegov
ernmentt
o
cor
recti
tsv
iol
ati
ons.

Asecondf
orm ofenf
orcementt
hathasbeeni
ncr
easi
ngi
nappl
i
cat
ion,
accept
ance
andef
fect
ivenessi
nrecenty
ear
sisr
epor
ti
ngandmoni
tor
ingmechani
sms.These
mechani
smswor
kpr
inci
pal
l
ybymoni
tor
inganyabusesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw such
asenv
ironment
alv
iol
ati
ons,genoci
de,t
ort
ure,sl
aver
yandot
herhumanr
ight
s
v
iol
ati
onsandr
epor
ti
ngt
hem.St
il
l,
repor
ti
ngmechani
smsar
egener
all
ynotv
est
ed
wi
th anyaut
hor
it
yto br
ing non-
compl
i
antst
atesi
nto compl
i
anceordemand
compensat
ionf
ordamages.

100|Page
2024
Thi
rd,al
lcount
ri
esdohav
erecour
set
omi
l
itar
yact
ionasameanst
oenf
orce
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
smet
hodi
shi
ghl
ydi
sfav
ored,
asdemonst
rat
edbyt
heUni
ted
Nat
ions’Char
ter
.Thechar
terest
abl
i
shest
hatmemberst
atesar
etoav
oidt
heuse
off
orcei
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ions.Thechar
tercl
ear
lyst
atest
heU.
N.’
spur
posei
s
t
o“mai
ntai
nint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y”.Appr
ovaloft
heuseoff
orcewoul
d
becont
rar
ytot
hatgoal
.Assuch,
mil
i
tar
yfor
cei
sanopt
ion,
butonet
hatwi
l
lli
kel
y
br
ingunwant
edconsequencesagai
nstt
heaggr
essor
.

Most
lyUsedMet
hodsi
nEnf
orcementofI
nter
nat
ional
Law
I
.Enf
orcementt
hroughi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions(
UNsy
stem)

I
nthepr
eambl
etot
heUNChar
ter
,thei
ntentwasexpr
essed“
tosav
esucceedi
ng
gener
ati
onsf
rom t
hescour
geofwar
”.Tot heusef
hatendt orcewaspr
ohi
bit
edby
Ar
ti
cle2andhenceal
lmemberSt
atesar
erequi
redt
oref
rai
nfr
om t
het
hreatoruse
off
orceagai
nstt
het
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yorpol
i
ticali
ndependenceofanySt
ate,
ori
n
anymanneri
nconsi
stentwi
tht
he pur
poses oft
he UN:Ther
e ar
etwo basi
c
except
ionst
othi
sgener
alpr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orce:sel
f-
def
ensei
nresponse
t
oanar
medat
tack(
art
icl
e51)andcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
ymeasur
esaut
hor
izedbyt
he
UNSecur
it
yCounci
l(Chapt
erVI
Ioft
heChar
ter
).At
hir
dpossi
bleexcept
ioni
snot
est
abl
i
shed:humani
tar
ian i
nter
vent
ion t
o pr
otecthuman r
ight
s(asi
n NATO’
s
at
tackonKosov
oinYugosl
avi
ain1999)
,inci
rcumst
anceswher
ethei
nter
veni
ng
St
atei
snotexer
cisi
ngsel
f-def
enseandt
her
eisnoSecur
it
yCounci
laut
hor
izat
ion
t
ousef
orce.

Uni
lat
eraluseoff
orce

Ar
ti
cle 51 oft
he UN Char
terr
ecogni
zes t
he r
ight
s ofSt
ates t
o use f
orce,
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
yorcol
l
ect
ivel
y,‘
i
fanar
medat
tackoccur
s’,meani
ngwher
emi
l
itar
y
f
orcei
susedbyoneSt
ateagai
nstanot
her
,orbynon-
Stat
emi
l
itantgr
oupswhi
ch
ar
econt
rol
l
edbyoneSt
ateandsentt
oat
tackanot
her
.ASt
atewhi
chi
ssubj
ect
ed
t
oanar
medat
tackcanr
equestassi
stancef
rom ot
herSt
ates(
‘col
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
ense’
).

101|Page
2024
Ther
eisdi
sagr
eementast
owhet
hert
hisr
ighti
sli
mit
edt
osi
tuat
ionswher
ean
ar
medat
tackhasact
ual
l
yoccur
red,ori
ncl
udesact
ioni
nant
ici
pat
ionofat
tack.
TheUN Secr
etar
yGener
alaccept
sthatSt
ateshav
ear
ightt
ousef
orcei
nsel
f-
def
ensei
fanar
medat
tacki
simmi
nent(
forexampl
e,t
her
eisgoodi
ntel
l
igence
t
hatanat
tacki
saboutt
ohappenandt
her
ear
enoot
hermeansav
ail
abl
eto
pr
eventi
t-
lastr
esor
t,pr
eempt
iondoct
rne3)
i .Incont
rast
,theout
erl
i
mit
sofsel
f-
def
ensehav
ebeenpushedbyt
heor
iesof‘
prev
ent
ivesel
f-
def
ence4bywhi
ch
St
atesseekt
oar
guet
hatt
heyar
ejust
if
iedt
ousef
orceuni
l
ater
all
ytopr
eventmor
e
r
emot
eordi
stantt
hreat
s,i
nci
rcumst
anceswher
ethet
imeorpl
aceoft
heat
tacki
s
f
armor
euncer
tai
n.Thi
stheor
ywasmostr
ecent
lyusedbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesi
nit
s
i
nvasi
onofI
raqi
nMar
ch2003t
otheext
entt
hati
trel
i
edont
heexi
stenceof
weaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion,i
nci
rcumst
anceswher
ether
ewasnoev
idenceof
ani
ntent
ionbyI
raqt
ouset
hoseweaponsagai
nstt
heUS,andwher
eev
idenceof
t
heexi
stenceofanysuchweaponswasi
ndoubt
.

Col
lect
iveuseoff
orce

TheSecur
it
yCounci
lisr
equi
redt
oencour
ageSt
atest
oresol
vet
hei
rdi
sput
esby
peacef
ulmeans.Ar
ti
cle39oft
hechar
teral
l
owedt
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltodet
ermi
ne
t
heexi
stenceofanyt
hreatt
othepeace(
danger
sthatmi
ghtr
iset
oopenf
ight
ing)
,
br
eachesoft
hepeace(
openf
ight
ingbet
weent
woormor
eopponent
s),oract
sof
aggr
essi
on (
one si
de at
tacki
ng f
ir
stwi
thoutpr
ovocat
ion)
.Hav
ing made t
his
det
ermi
nat
ion,t
hechar
teral
l
owedt
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltor
espondei
thert
hrough
i
mposi
ng non-
for
cef
ul sanct
ions (
li
ke economi
c and di
plomat
ic r
elat
ions,
communi
cat
ions,and t
rav
el)
,ort
akef
orcef
ulmeasur
esbyaut
hor
izi
ng wi
l
li
ng
St
atest
ousedel
egat
edf
orceoni
tsbehal
f.Thesanct
ionsmi
ghtbeeconomi
c,as
wi
tht
rader
est
ri
cti
onandembar
gos,
forexampl
ethosepr
ocl
aimedi
n1966agai
nst
Rhodesi
a,agai
nstsout
hAf
ri
ca(
1977,t
oendt
hepr
act
iceofr
aci
alsegr
egat
ion
knownasapar
thei
d),Ser
bia/
Mont
enegr
oin1992,Andai
rli
nksev
eranceagai
nst
Li
bya(
1992and1993asr
esul
toft
heLocker
biei
nci
dent
).Unl
i
ket
heLeague’
s
r
equest
sforv
olunt
arymi
l
itar
yact
ion,t
heUNcanor
dersuchenf
orcementact
ion
ont
hepar
tofi
tsmember
s.

102|Page
2024
Al
thought
heCounci
ldoesnotcont
roli
tsownmi
l
itar
yfor
ces,t
hechar
teral
l
owed
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltot
akeenf
orcementmeasur
esbasedonai
r,sea,andl
and
mi
l
itar
yfor
ces.Coer
civ
eact
ionwi
thi
nthef
ramewor
koft
heUNi
srar
ebecausei
t
r
equi
res coor
dinat
ion amongstt
he f
ive per
manentmember
s oft
he Secur
it
y
Counci
l(UK,
US,
Chi
na,
Russi
anandFr
ench)andt
hisobv
iousl
yneedsani
ssuenot
r
egar
dedbyanyoft
hegr
eatpower
sasat
hreatt
othei
rvi
tali
nter
est
s.Theyar
e
expect
edt
oconcuronal
lvot
esoft
heSecur
it
yCounci
lexceptpur
elypr
ocedur
al
mat
ter
s.Kor
eawasanexcept
ion.WhenNor
thKor
eai
nvadedSout
hKor
eai
n1950,
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
laut
hor
izedt
heUni
tedSt
atest
oputt
oget
heracoal
i
tionof16
v
olunt
eerst
atest
opusht
heNor
thKor
eanar
mybackacr
osst
he38t
hpar
all
el.
Thesef
orceswer
epl
acedunderUS“
commandandcont
rol
”butwer
eal
l
owedt
ofl
y
t
heUN f
lag ov
ert
hei
rposi
ti
ons.Such j
ointact
ion coul
d onl
ybeunder
taken
becauseoft
hef
ort
uit
ousabsenceoft
heUSSRf
rom t
heCounci
lasapr
otestatt
he
seat
ingoft
heNat
ional
i
stChi
neser
epr
esent
ati
ves.

I
n1990,att
heendoft
heCol
dWar
,Chi
naandRussi
awi
thhel
dthei
rvet
oes
al
l
owi
ng t
he Secur
it
yCounci
lto aut
hor
ize,once agai
n,t
he Uni
ted St
ates t
o
or
gani
zeav
olunt
eercoal
i
tionofst
atest
orespondt
oIr
aq’
sinv
asi
onofKuwai
t.
Thi
sti
met
hecoal
i
tion,or
gani
zedbyt
headmi
nist
rat
ionofPr
esi
dentGeor
geH.
W.
Bushdi
dachi
eveapr
eponder
anceoff
orceov
ert
hei
nvaderi
n1991,butUN
aut
hor
izat
ion di
d not per
mitt
hese f
orces t
ofl
ythe UN f
lag ov
er t
hei
r
headquar
ter
s.

Enf
orcementofI
nter
nat
ional
LawbyDi
ff
erentTr
ibunal
s

I
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
s of
ten i
mpl
ement
ed and enf
orced t
hrough nat
ionall
egal
sy
stemsaswel
last
hroughav
ari
etyofspeci
ali
zedi
nter
nat
ionalcour
ts,t
ri
bunal
s
andt
reat
ybodi
es.TheWor
ldCour
t,t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icecandeci
de
di
sput
es bet
ween St
ates.I
ts deci
sions ar
e bi
ndi
ng onl
yon t
he par
ti
es t
oa
par
ti
cul
ardi
sput
e.St
atesmustagr
eet
otheI
CJhav
ingj
uri
sdi
cti
onbef
orei
tcan
hearacase:t
heSt
atesi
ndi
sput
ecanagr
eet
obr
ingapar
ti
cul
ardi
sput
etot
he
Cour
t.Ther
eisnomechani
sm f
orenf
orcementofor
der
soft
heI
CJot
hert
hant
he

103|Page
2024
possi
bil
i
tyofr
efer
ralt
otheSecur
it
yCounci
l
.St
ateshav
eusual
l
ybeenwi
l
li
ngt
o
obeyt
heor
der
soft
heI
CJ.TheI
CJcangi
veanon-
bindi
ngAdv
isor
yOpi
nionon
i
ssueswhenr
equest
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
y,Secur
it
yCounci
lorot
herUN
agenci
esaswel
l
.

Ther
ear
ear
angeofspeci
ali
zedi
nter
nat
ionalormi
xedcr
imi
nalt
ri
bunal
swhi
ch
hav
eenf
orcedi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imi
nall
aw.Oneexampl
eist
heI
nter
nat
ionalTr
ibunal
f
ort
heLawoft
heSeai
nHambur
g,Ger
many
,whi
chhear
sdi
sput
esbet
weenSt
ates
undert
he1982Conv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
heSea.Anot
herexampl
eist
hedi
sput
e
set
tl
ementpanel
soft
heWor
ldTr
adeOr
gani
zat
ion(
WTO)
,whi
chdet
ermi
nest
rade
di
sput
esbet
weenmemberSt
atesoft
heWTO.Af
urt
herexampl
eist
heEur
opean
Cour
tofHumanRi
ght
s,whi
chi
ssuesbi
ndi
ngdeci
sionsconcer
ninghumanr
ight
s
v
iol
ati
onsi
nvol
vi
ngmemberSt
atesoft
heEur
opeanConv
ent
iononHumanRi
ght
s.

Reci
proci
ty

Reci
proci
tyr
efer
stot
he r
elat
ion ofpol
i
cy i
n commer
cialdeal
i
ngs bet
ween
count
ri
esbywhi
chcor
respondi
ngadv
ant
agesorpr
ivi
l
egesar
egr
ant
edbyeach
count
ryt
otheci
ti
zensoft
heot
her
.Iti
sasi
tuat
ionorr
elat
ionshi
pinwhi
cht
wo
peopl
eorgr
oupsagr
eet
odosomet
hingsi
mil
arf
oreachot
hert
oal
l
oweachot
her
t
ohav
ethesamer
ight
s,et
c.:soar
eci
procalar
rangementorr
elat
ionshi
p.Reall
i
fe
si
tuat
ionsr
epr
esent
ingcommoni
nter
estgamesar
ecommon.Reci
proci
tyhas
power
ful
Impl
i
cat
ionsf
ormanyi
mpor
tantdomai
nsi
nint
ernat
ional
law.

Ti
t-
for
-t
atst
rat
egy
,thei
deat
hatst
atesshoul
drespondt
ooneanot
heri
nki
nd.To
r
eci
procat
emeanst
ogi
veandt
akeonamut
ualbasi
s.Reci
proci
tyi
sther
efor
ethe
qual
i
tyofar
elat
ionshi
pinwhi
cht
hepar
ti
esengagei
nthemut
ualexchangeof
goods,ser
vices,orot
heraspect
soft
her
elat
ionshi
p.I
nthest
udyofi
nter
nat
ional
r
elat
ions,r
eci
proci
tyi
susual
l
ydi
scussedi
nthecont
extofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw and
t
rader
elat
ionsbet
weenst
ates.St
atesar
eassur
edt
hati
ftheyof
fendanot
herst
ate,
t
heot
herst
atewi
l
lrespondbyr
etur
ningt
hesamebehav
ior
.Iti
sanext
ra-
legal
pr
inci
plet
hatgener
all
yinv
olv
esr
etur
ningl
i
kebehav
iorwi
thl
i
ke.I
ndi
scussi
onsof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,r
eci
proci
tyi
sof
tenpr
esent
edast
her
easonwhyst
atesabi
deby

104|Page
2024
r
uleswi
thoutt
heneedf
orsomesetofi
nst
it
uti
onst
oenf
orcet
her
ulest
hrought
he
t
hreatoruseofcoer
cion.St
atesenf
orcei
nter
nat
ionall
aw ont
hebasi
soft
hei
r
shor
t- and l
ong-
ter
m i
nter
est
s. The l
ong-
ter
m adv
ant
ages of obser
ving
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw maybegr
eat
ert
hant
heshor
t-
ter
m adv
ant
agesofv
iol
ati
ngi
t.
Hencest
atesqui
teof
tendonotpur
sueonepar
ti
cul
arcour
seofact
ionwhi
ch
mi
ghtbr
ingt
hem shor
t-
ter
m gai
ns,
becausei
tcoul
ddi
sruptt
hemeshofr
eci
procal
t
oler
ancewhi
chcoul
dver
ywel
lbr
ingl
ong-
ter
m di
sadv
ant
ages.Thev
iol
ati
onofl
aw
r
esul
tsi
nthe l
oss oft
he cor
respondi
ng l
egalr
ight
s and pr
ivi
l
eges l
i
ke t
he
t
ermi
nat
ionofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions,r
est
ri
cti
onofeconomi
cai
dorcancel
l
ati
onof
suppl
yagr
eement
s.Forexampl
e,st
ates ev
ery
wher
e pr
otectt
he i
mmuni
tyof
f
orei
gndi
plomat
sfornott
odosowoul
dpl
acet
hei
rownof
fi
cial
sabr
oadatr
isk.
Thi
s const
it
utes an i
nducementt
o st
ates t
o actr
easonabl
y and moder
ate
demandsi
ntheexpect
ati
ont
hatt
hiswi
l
lsi
mil
arl
yencour
ageot
herst
atest
oact
r
easonabl
yandsoav
oidconf
ront
ati
ons.Reci
proci
tycant
henpr
omot
east
abl
e
i
nter
nat
ional
env
ironmenti
nwhi
cht
hosest
atest
hatchooset
ovi
olat
eint
ernat
ional
l
awmaybeexcl
udedf
rom t
hesoci
etyofst
ates.

Col
lect
iveEnf
orcement

TheCol
l
ect
iveEnf
orcementmet
hodexami
nest
heext
entt
owhi
cht
hecol
l
ect
ive
secur
it
y sy
stem cont
ri
but
es t
othe enf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.These
col
l
ect
ivegr
oupsar
eInt
ernat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice(
ICJ)
,Int
ernat
ionalCr
imi
nal
Cour
t(I
CC)
,Eur
opeanCour
tofJust
ice(
ECJ)
,UN.

Char
ter
,Wor
ld Tr
ade Or
gani
zat
ion (
WTO)Di
sput
e Set
tl
ementBodyCol
l
ect
ive
secur
it
yandI
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
yet
c……i
naddi
ti
ont
heseor
gani
zat
ions
al
soanal
ysest
hev
ary
ingenf
orcementf
unct
ionst
hathav
ebeenconf
err
edby
i
nter
nat
ionall
awy
ersont
heenf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,Uni
tedNat
ionsl
aw
andpeace,
ort
heenf
orcementoft
hev
agueconceptofj
ust
iceconv
eyedbyt
heUN
Char
ter
.Ast
heev
idenceI
NtheCol
l
ect
iveEnf
orcementagl
obalnet
wor
khasmor
e
t
han182count
ri
est
oenf
orcei
nter
nat
ional
law.

Anot
hersenseofCol
l
ect
iveEnf
orcementr
efer
stot
heAssoci
ati
onsofSt
ates

105|Page
2024
t
her
ear
eanumberofway
sinwhi
chst
ateshav
ebecomef
ormal
l
yassoci
atedwi
th
one anot
her
.Such associ
ati
ons hav
e a cer
tai
n ef
fectupon enf
orcementof
i
nter
nat
ional
law.Conf
eder
ati
ons,
forexampl
e,ar
epr
obabl
ythecl
osestf
orm ofco-
oper
ati
onandt
heygener
all
yinv
olv
esev
eralcount
ri
esact
ingt
oget
herbyv
irt
ueof
ani
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
,wi
thsomeki
ndofcent
rali
nst
it
uti
onswi
thl
i
mit
ed
f
unct
ions.Thi
sist
obecont
rast
edwi
thf
eder
ati
ons.Af
eder
aluni
tisast
atewi
th
st
rong cent
ral
i
zed or
gans and usual
l
ya f
air
ly wi
despr
ead bur
eaucr
acy wi
th
ext
ensi
vepower
sov
ert
heci
ti
zensoft
hest
ate,ev
ent
hought
hepower
soft
he
st
atear
edi
vi
dedbet
weent
hedi
ff
erentuni
ts.Howev
er,ast
atemaycompr
ise
componentuni
tswi
thext
ensi
vepower
sandef
for
tst
oenf
orcei
nter
nat
ional
laws.

Ther
ear
einaddi
ti
oncer
tai
n‘associ
atedst
ates’whi
chbyv
irt
ueoft
hei
rsmal
l
ness
andl
ackofdev
elopmenthav
eacl
oser
elat
ionshi
pwi
thanot
herst
ate.Onei
nst
ance
i
stheconnect
ionbet
weent
heCookI
slandsandNewZeal
and,
wher
eint
ernalsel
f-
gov
ernmenti
sal
l
iedt
oext
ernaldependence.Anot
herexampl
ewast
hegr
oupof
i
sl
andswhi
chconst
it
utedt
heAssoci
atedSt
atesoft
heWestI
ndi
es.Thesewer
e
t
iedt
otheUni
tedKi
ngdom byt
het
ermsoft
heWestI
ndi
esAct1967,whi
ch
pr
ovi
dedf
ort
hel
att
ert
oexer
cisecont
rol
wit
hregar
dtof
orei
gnanddef
ensei
ssues.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,
suchst
ateswer
eabl
etoanddi
dat
tai
nthei
rindependence.

Thest
atusofsuchent
it
iesi
nanassoci
ati
onr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thast
atewi
l
ldepend
upon t
he const
it
uti
onal nat
ure of t
he ar
rangement and may i
n cer
tai
n
ci
rcumst
ances i
nvol
vei
nter
nat
ionalper
sonal
i
tydi
sti
nctf
rom t
he met
ropol
i
tan
st
atedependi
ngal
souponi
nter
nat
ionalaccept
ance.I
tmust
,howev
er,benot
ed
t
hatsuchst
atusi
soneoft
hemet
hodsaccept
edbyt
heUNofexer
cisi
ngt
her
ight
t
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hatanaccept
abl
elev
elofpower
s,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hosedeal
i
ngwi
thdomest
ic
af
fai
rs,r
emai
nwi
tht
heassoci
atedst
ates,andt
hatt
hel
att
ermaywi
thoutundue
di
ff
icul
tyr
evoke t
he ar
rangement
,some degr
ee ofper
sonal
i
tywoul
d appear
desi
rabl
e and accept
abl
e.The Commonweal
th ofNat
ions(
the f
ormerBr
it
ish
Commonweal
th)i
sper
hapst
hemostwel
l
-knownoft
hel
ooseassoci
ati
onswhi
ch

106|Page
2024
gr
oupt
oget
hersov
erei
gnst
atesont
hebasi
susual
l
yofcommoni
nter
est
sand
hi
stor
icalt
ies.I
tsmember
sar
eal
lful
l
yindependentst
ateswhocooper
atet
hrough
t
heassi
stanceoft
heCommonweal
thSecr
etar
iatandper
iodi
cconf
erencesof
HeadsofGov
ernment
.Regul
armeet
ingsofpar
ti
cul
armi
nist
ersal
sot
akepl
ace.
TheCommonweal
thdoesnotconst
it
uteal
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngr
elat
ionshi
p,butoper
ates
asausef
ulf
orum f
ordi
scussi
onssuchst
ateagentdi
scussi
onhadgoodef
for
tto
enf
orcei
nter
nat
ionall
aws.Thesov
erei
gnSt
atesAssoci
ati
onshasneededt
obe
f
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ple:
-

TheSt
atesr
ecogni
ti
onpr
inci
ple:t
oincr
easet
her
angeofact
orsandpar
ti
cipant
s
t
oenf
orcecol
l
ect
ivel
ythei
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem,st
atesr
ecogni
ti
onpr
inci
ple
r
emai
nsbyf
art
hemosti
mpor
tantf
orl
egalper
sons.Anddespi
tet
her
iseof
gl
obal
i
zat
ionwi
thal
lit
ssubsequentef
fect
s,st
atesr
etai
nthei
rat
tr
act
ionast
he
pr
imar
yfocusf
ort
hesoci
alact
ivi
tyofhumanki
ndandt
husf
ort
heaf
fai
rsof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
s expl
i
cit
ly af
fi
rms t
hat onl
y st
ates ar
e subj
ect
s of
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
adoct
ri
nemai
ntai
nedbyt
heor
thodoxposi
ti
vi
stsofi
nter
nat
ional
l
aw.Howev
er,di
ff
erentpr
act
iceshav
ebeenabl
etodi
spr
ovet
he“
onl
yst
ates
t
hesi
s”asv
ari
ousi
nsur
gent
sand bel
l
iger
ent
s,i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsand
char
ter
edcompani
eswer
eal
latonet
imeoranot
hert
reat
edaspossessi
ngt
he
capaci
tyt
obecomei
nter
nat
ionalper
sons.Not
wit
hst
andi
ngt
hisempi
ri
calev
idence
andpr
act
ices,st
atespossessi
ngi
nter
nat
ionall
egalper
sonal
i
tyi
mpl
i
est
heyhav
e
cer
tai
nri
ght
stoenj
oyandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiest
odi
schar
ge,f
ort
hef
ail
ureofwhi
ch
l
egal
measur
eswi
l
lbet
akenunderi
nter
nat
ional
law.

The1933Mont
evi
deoConv
ent
iononRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
atesi
nit
sAr
ti
cle1
hasl
aiddownt
hebasi
ccr
it
eri
aforanent
it
ytobeconsi
der
edasst
atehoodi
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Accor
dingl
y,ast
ateasani
nter
nat
ionalper
sonshoul
dpossessa
per
manentpopul
ati
on;adef
inedt
err
it
ory
;agov
ernment
;andt
hecapaci
tyt
oent
er
i
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herst
ates.Hence,
ful
fi
ll
i
ngt
hesecr
it
eri
awi
l
lconf
erast
atet
o
hav
ecer
tai
nfundament
alr
ight
sbyt
hev
irt
ueoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
legal
syst
em.

Thepr
inci
plest
ateI
ndependence:per
hapst
heout
standi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cofa

107|Page
2024
st
atei
sit
sindependence,
orsov
erei
gnt
y.Thi
swasdef
inedi
ntheDr
aftDecl
arat
ion
ont
heRi
ght
sandDut
iesofSt
atespr
epar
edi
n1949byt
heI
nter
nat
ionalLaw
Commi
ssi
onast
hecapaci
tyofast
atet
opr
ovi
def
ori
tsownwel
l
-bei
ngand
dev
elopmentbei
ngf
reef
rom t
hedomi
nat
ionofot
herst
ates,pr
ovi
dingi
tdoesnot
i
mpai
rorv
iol
atet
hei
rlegi
ti
mat
eri
ght
s.Byi
ndependence,
onei
sref
err
ingt
oal
egal
conceptandi
tisnodev
iat
ionf
rom i
ndependencet
obesubj
ectt
other
ulesof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Anypol
i
ticaloreconomi
cdependencet
hatmayi
nreal
i
tyexi
st
doesnotaf
fectt
hel
egali
ndependenceoft
hest
ate,unl
esst
hatst
atei
sfor
mal
l
y
compel
l
edt
osubmi
ttot
hedemandsofasuper
iorst
ate,
inwhi
chcasedependent
st
atusi
sconcer
ned.

Thest
art
ingpoi
ntf
ort
heconsi
der
ati
onoft
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsofst
ates
wi
thi
nthe i
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem r
emai
ns t
hati
nter
nat
ionall
aw per
mit
s
f
reedom ofact
ionf
orst
ates,unl
esst
her
eisar
uleconst
rai
ningt
his.Howev
er,
suchf
reedom exi
stswi
thi
nandnotout
sidet
hei
nter
nat
ionall
egalsy
stem andi
tis
t
her
efor
eint
ernat
ionall
aw whi
ch di
ctat
es t
he scope and cont
ent of t
he
i
ndependenceofst
atesandnott
hest
atest
hemsel
vesi
ndi
vi
dual
l
yanduni
l
ater
all
y.
Thenot
ionofi
ndependencei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
mpl
i
esanumberofr
ight
sand
dut
ies:f
orexampl
e,t
her
ightofast
atet
oex
erci
sej
uri
sdi
cti
onov
eri
tst
err
it
oryand
popul
ati
on,
ort
her
ightt
oengageuponanactofsel
f-
def
ensei
ncer
tai
nsi
tuat
ions.
I
timpl
i
est
hedut
ynott
oint
erv
enei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofot
hersov
erei
gnst
ates
t
oo.

Thepr
inci
pleofst
ateEqual
it
y:oneot
hercr
uci
alpr
inci
plei
sthel
egalequal
i
tyof
st
ates,
whi
chi
sequal
i
tyofl
egalr
ight
sanddut
ies.St
ates,
irr
espect
iveoft
hei
rsi
ze
orpower
,hav
ethesamej
uri
dicalcapaci
ti
esand f
unct
ions,and ar
eli
kewi
se
ent
it
ledt
oonev
otei
ntheUni
tedNat
ionsGener
alAssembl
y.Thedoct
ri
neoft
he
l
egalequal
i
tyofst
atesi
sanumbr
ell
acat
egor
yfori
tincl
udeswi
thi
nit
sscopet
he
r
ecogni
zedr
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionswhi
chf
all
uponal
lst
ates.Thi
swasr
ecogni
zedi
n
t
he1970Decl
arat
iononPr
inci
plesofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.Thi
spr
ovi
dest
hatal
l
st
atesenj
oysov
erei
gnequal
i
ty.Theyhav
eequalr
ight
sanddut
iesandar
eequal
member
s oft
he i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty,not
wit
hst
andi
ng di
ff
erences ofan

108|Page
2024
economi
c,soci
al,
pol
i
ticalorot
hernat
ure.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
sov
erei
gnequal
i
tyi
ncl
udes
t
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
s:

St
atesar
ejur
idi
cal
equal
;andenj
oyst
her
ight
sinher
enti
nful
lsov
erei
gnt
y;

Eachst
atehast
hedut
ytor
espectt
heper
sonal
i
tyofot
herst
ates;

Thet
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandpol
i
tical
independenceoft
hest
atear
einv
iol
abl
e;

Eachst
atehast
her
ightf
reel
ytochooseanddev
elopi
tspol
i
ticalsoci
al,
economi
c
andcul
tur
alsy
stems;

Eachst
atehast
hedut
ytocompl
yful
l
yandi
ngoodf
ait
hwi
thi
tsi
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionsandt
oli
vei
npeacewi
thot
herst
atesandenf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awcol
l
ect
ivel
y.

Thenot
ionofequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awi
saccept
edbyst
atesi
nthesenseofequal
i
ty
ofl
egalper
sonal
i
tyandcapaci
ty.Howev
er,
itwoul
dnotbest
ri
ctl
yaccur
atet
otal
k
i
nter
msoft
heequal
i
tyofst
atesi
ncr
eat
ingl
aw.Themaj
orst
ateswi
l
lal
way
shav
e
ani
nfl
uencecommensur
atewi
tht
hei
rst
atus,i
fonl
ybecauset
hei
rconcer
nsar
e
muchwi
der
,thei
rint
erest
smuchdeeperandt
hei
rpowermor
eef
fect
ive.Wi
thi
nthe
Gener
alAssembl
yoft
heUni
tedNat
ions,t
hedoct
ri
neofequal
i
tyi
smai
ntai
nedby
t
her
uleofonest
ate,onev
ote.Howev
er,oneshoul
dnotov
erl
ookt
heexi
stenceof
t
hev
etopossessedbyt
heUSA,Russi
a,Chi
na,Fr
anceandt
heUni
tedKi
ngdom i
n
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltoenf
orcei
nter
nat
ional
law.

Thepr
inci
pleofPeacef
ulco-
exi
stence:t
hisconcepthasbeen f
ormul
ated i
n
di
ff
erentway
sandwi
thdi
ff
erentv
iewsast
oit
slegalnat
urebyt
heUSSR,Chi
na
andt
heThi
rdWor
ld.I
twasel
abor
atedi
n1954ast
heFi
vePr
inci
plesofPeacef
ul
Co-
exi
stencebyI
ndi
aandChi
na,
whi
chconcer
nedmut
ualr
espectf
oreachot
her
’s
t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandsov
erei
gnt
y,mut
ual
nonaggr
essi
on,
non-
int
erf
erencei
neach
ot
her
’saf
fai
rsandt
hepr
inci
pleofequal
i
ty.

Thei
deawasexpandedi
nanumberofi
nter
nat
ionaldocument
ssuchast
hef
inal
communi
quéoft
heBandungConf
erencei
n1955andi
nvar
iousr
esol
uti
onsoft
he

109|Page
2024
Uni
tedNat
ions.I
tsr
ecogni
zedconst
it
uent
sal
soappeari
nthel
i
stofPr
inci
plesof
t
heChar
teroft
heOr
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty.Amongt
hepoi
ntsenumer
atedar
e
t
heconcept
sofsov
erei
gnequal
i
ty,
noni
nter
fer
encei
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofst
ates,
r
espectf
ort
he sov
erei
gnt
y and t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y ofst
ates,as wel
las a
condemnat
ion ofsubv
ersi
ve act
ivi
ti
escar
ri
ed outf
rom one st
ate and ai
med
agai
nstanot
her
.Ot
herconcept
sthathav
ebeeni
ncl
udedi
nthi
scat
egor
ycompr
ise
suchpr
inci
plesasnon-
aggr
essi
onandt
heexecut
ionofi
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionsi
n
goodf
ait
h.

I
nter
nat
ionalNor
ms

Theexi
stenceofwor
ldor
gani
zat
ions,t
hel
egalpr
ohi
bit
ionoft
heuseoff
orce,t
he
est
abl
i
shmentofasy
stem ofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
yandt
hepr
otect
ionofhuman
r
ight
s hav
e caused f
undament
alchanges i
nthe i
nter
nat
ionall
egalor
deras
i
nter
nat
ionalnor
ms.I
nter
nat
ionall
awy
ersandpol
i
tici
ansspeakf
requent
lyoft
he'
‘
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyi
sthesour
cei
nter
nat
ionalnor
m’’t
hatco-
oper
atest
o
pur
suecommuni
tyi
nter
est
swhi
chcannotbeachi
evedbysi
ngl
est
atesal
one.
Thesecommuni
tyi
nter
est
sornor
msmayr
angef
rom env
ironment
alchal
l
enges
andcul
tur
alher
it
aget
oissuesofhumansecur
it
ybutenf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awdependsont
henor
msoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.Howmucht
hemeani
ng
ofsov
erei
gnt
yst
atesNor
mshaschanged,onecan see,f
orexampl
e,i
nthe
pr
inci
pl ed‘
eofashar responsi
bil
it
ytopr
otecti
nter
nat
ionalnor
m pr
inci
ple’
’
.

Accor
dingt
othi
spr
inci
ple,
stat
es'
communi
tynor
mshav
eanobl
i
gat
iont
opr
event
gr
osshumanr
ight
svi
olat
ionsnotonl
yathomebutal
soabr
oad,i
fnecessar
y
t
hroughf
orcef
ulUni
tedNat
ionsmeasur
es.Thepr
otect
ionoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualf
rom
sev
ereat
roci
ti
eshast
husbecomeamat
terofnat
ional
,regi
onalandi
nter
nat
ional
concer
n.Thi
smeanst
hatst
atescannol
ongercl
aimt
hatgr
osshumanr
ight
s
v
iol
ati
onsar
eint
ernalmat
ter
sandt
hatt
heyar
epr
otect
edbyt
hei
rsov
erei
gnt
y.
Todayt
her
ear
ecount
lessact
orst
hatengagei
nthemaki
ng,
int
erpr
etat
ion,
useand
enf
orcementofi
nter
nat
ionalnor
ms.St
atesst
il
lar
ethemaj
ori
nter
nat
ionalact
ors
andt
hepr
inci
pal
maker
sandaddr
esseesofi
nter
nat
ional
nor
ms.

110|Page
2024
Yett
he bur
eaucr
aci
es ofi
nter
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ions and t
hei
ror
gans,
numer
ous i
nter
nat
ional
,regi
onaland domest
ic cour
ts and t
ri
bunal
s,non-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ionsandev
engr
oupsorsi
ngl
eper
sons(
so-
cal
l
ed‘
nor
m
ent
repr
eneur
s’)engagei
nthepr
onunci
ati
on,i
nter
pret
ati
onanddi
ssemi
nat
ionof
i
nter
nat
ionall
egalnor
ms,st
andar
dsandot
hert
ypesof‘
sof
tlaw’
.Inaddi
ti
ont
hey
of
tendot
hiswi
thout
,orev
enagai
nst
,thewi
l
lofst
ates.Forexampl
e,aNATO-
led
i
nter
vent
ioni
nKosov
oin1999wasexecut
edwi
thoutt
heaut
hor
izat
ionoft
heUN
Secur
it
yCounci
l
.NATO (
theNor
thAt
lant
icTr
eat
yOr
gani
zat
ion)i
sacol
l
ect
ive
secur
it
yor
gani
zat
ion,
eff
ect
ivel
yami
l
itar
yal
l
ianceofWest
ernst
atesnor
m based.
I
twasor
igi
nal
l
ycr
eat
edt
ohel
pcont
aint
hespr
eadofcommuni
sm i
nEur
ope
dur
ingt
heCol
dWarbuthasendur
edi
nthey
ear
ssi
nce.

I
ts act
ions i
n Kosov
o cont
ri
but
ed t
othe est
abl
i
shmentoft
he I
nter
nat
ional
Commi
ssi
ononI
nter
vent
ionandSt
ateSov
erei
gnt
ywhi
chwasapr
ivat
eexper
t
gr
oupundert
heauspi
cesoft
heCanadi
anGov
ernmentt
orespondt
oUNSecr
etar
y-
Gener
alKof
iAnnan’
schal
l
engeonhow t
orespondt
olar
ge-
scal
evi
olat
ionsof
humanr
ight
sandhumani
tar
ianl
aw.Thecommi
ssi
onpr
oducedar
epor
ton'‘
The
Responsi
bil
i
tyt
o Pr
otecti
nter
nat
ionalnor
m pr
inci
ple’
’
’to whi
ch bot
hthe UN
Secur
it
yCounci
landt
heGener
alAssembl
yhav
erepeat
edl
yref
err
edt
oandwhi
ch
i
susedasanar
gument
ati
vet
oolbyci
vi
lsoci
etyact
ors,i
ncl
udi
ngmanynon-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ions.You can t
hus see how a pr
ivat
eini
ti
ati
ve has
t
ransf
ormed i
nto publ
i
c nor
mat
ive aut
hor
it
y.Thi
s mul
ti
tude ofnor
ms,l
egal
r
egi
mes,act
orsandnor
mat
ivepr
ocessesi
sref
lect
edi
nmor
erecentappr
oaches
t
oenf
orcei
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
hatf
ocusmor
eonpl
ural
i
sti
cgov
ernancepr
ocesses
t
hanonauni
fi
edl
egalsy
stem andmor
eoni
nfor
mall
aw-
maki
ngt
hanonf
ormal
sour
ces.

I
nter
nat
ionalCasesundert
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
t(I
CJ)

Thei
nter
nat
ionalcour
tofj
ust
iceest
abl
i
shedbyt
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions
ast
hepr
inci
palj
udi
cialor
ganoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsshal
lbeconst
it
utedandshal
l
f
unct
ioni
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
hepr
esentSt
atut
e.Theor
gani
zat
ion

111|Page
2024
oft
he cour
tshal
lbe composed ofa body ofi
ndependentj
udges,el
ect
ed
r
egar
dlessoft
hei
rnat
ional
i
tyf
rom amongper
sonsofhi
ghmor
alchar
act
er,who
possesst
hequal
i
ficat
ionsr
equi
redi
nthei
rrespect
ivecount
ri
esf
orappoi
ntmentt
o
t
hehi
ghestj
udi
ci
alof
fi
cesorar
ejur
isconsul
tsofr
ecogni
zedcompet
encei
n
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

TheCour
tshal
lconsi
stoff
if
teenmember
snot
woofwhom maybenat
ional
sof
t
hesamest
ate.Aper
sonwhof
ort
hepur
posesofmember
shi
pint
heCour
tcoul
d
ber
egar
dedasanat
ionalofmor
ethanonest
ateshal
lbedeemedt
obeanat
ional
oft
heonei
nwhi
chheor
dinar
il
yexer
cisesci
vi
landpol
it
icalr
ight
s.Themember
s
oft
heCour
tshal
lbeel
ect
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yandbyt
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
f
rom al
i
stofper
sonsnomi
nat
edbyt
henat
ionalgr
oupsi
nthePer
manentCour
tof
Ar
bit
rat
ion,
inaccor
dancewi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ovi
sions.I
nthecaseofMember
sof
t
he Uni
ted Nat
ions notr
epr
esent
ed i
nthe Per
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ion,
candi
dat
esshal
lbenomi
nat
edbynat
ionalgr
oupsappoi
ntedf
ort
hispur
poseby
t
hei
rgov
ernment
sundert
hesamecondi
ti
onsast
hosepr
escr
ibedf
ormember
sof
t
hePer
manent
.

Cour
tofAr
bit
rat
ionbyAr
ti
cle44oft
heConv
ent
ionofTheHagueof1907f
ort
he
paci
fi
cset
tl
ementofi
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
es.Thecondi
ti
ons,underwhi
chast
ate
whi
chi
sapar
tyt
othepr
esentSt
atut
ebuti
snotaMemberoft
heUni
tedNat
ions
maypar
ti
ci
pat
einel
ect
ingt
hemember
soft
heCour
tshal
lint
heabsenceofa
speci
alagr
eement
,bel
aiddownbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yuponr
ecommendat
ion
oft
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Themember
soft
heCour
tshal
lbeel
ect
edf
orni
ney
ear
s
andmayber
e-el
ect
ed;pr
ovi
ded,howev
er,t
hatoft
hej
udgesel
ect
edatt
hef
ir
st
el
ect
ion,t
het
ermsoff
ivej
udgesshal
lexpi
reatt
heendoft
hreey
ear
sandt
he
t
ermsoff
ivemor
ejudgesshal
lexpi
reatt
heendofsi
xyear
s.Thej
udgeswhose
t
ermsar
etoexpi
reatt
heendoft
heabov
e-ment
ionedi
nit
ialper
iodsoft
hreeand
si
xyear
sshal
lbechosenbyl
ott
obedr
awnbyt
heSecr
etar
y-Gener
ali
mmedi
atel
y
af
tert
hef
ir
stel
ect
ionhasbeencompl
eted.Themember
soft
heCour
tshal
l
cont
inuet
o di
schar
get
hei
rdut
iesunt
ilt
hei
rpl
aceshav
ebeenf
il
led.Though
r
epl
aced,
theyshal
lfi
nishanycaseswhi
cht
heymayhav
ebegun.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw

112|Page
2024
undert
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
t(I
CJ)t
hememberoft
hecour
tengaged i
nthe
busi
nessoft
heCour
tshal
lenj
oydi
plomat
icpr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
es.Ev
ery
memberoft
heCour
tshal
l
,bef
oret
aki
nguphi
sdut
ies,
makeasol
emndecl
arat
ion
i
nopencour
tthathewi
l
lexer
cisehi
spower
simpar
ti
all
yandconsci
ent
iousl
y.No
memberoft
heCour
tmayexer
ciseanypol
i
ticaloradmi
nist
rat
ivef
unct
ion,or
engagei
nanyot
heroccupat
ionofapr
ofessi
onalnat
ure.Anydoubtont
hispoi
nt
shal
lbeset
tl
edbyt
hedeci
sionoft
heCour
t.

TheCour
tmayf
rom t
imet
oti
mef
orm oneormor
echamber
s,composedoft
hree
ormor
ejudgesast
heCour
tmaydet
ermi
ne,f
ormor
echamber
s,composedof
t
hreeormor
ejudgesast
heCour
tmaydet
ermi
ne,f
ordeal
i
ngwi
thpar
ti
cul
ar
cat
egor
iesofcases;f
orexampl
e,l
aborcasesandcasesr
elat
ingt
otr
ansi
tand
communi
cat
ions.Al
lquest
ionsshal
lbe deci
ded bya maj
ori
tyoft
he j
udges
pr
esent
.Int
heev
entofanequal
i
tyofv
otes,
thePr
esi
dentort
hej
udgewhoact
sin
hi
spl
aceshal
lhav
eacast
ingv
ote.St
atesandor
gani
zat
ionshav
ingpr
esent
ed
wr
it
ten oror
alst
atement
s orbot
h shal
lbe per
mit
ted t
o commenton t
he
st
atement
smadebybr
otherst
atesoror
gani
zat
ionsi
nthef
orm,
tot
heext
ent
,and
wi
thi
nthet
imel
i
mit
swhi
cht
heCour
t,or
,shoul
ditnotbesi
tt
ing,t
hePr
esi
dent
,
shal
ldeci
dei
neachpar
ti
cul
arcase.Accor
dingl
y,t
heRegi
str
arshal
linduet
ime
communi
cat
eanysuchwr
it
tenst
atement
stost
atesandor
gani
zat
ionshav
ing
submi
tt
edsi
mil
arst
atement
s.

Amendment
stot
hepr
esentSt
atut
eshal
lbeef
fect
edbyt
hesamepr
ocedur
easi
s
pr
ovi
dedbyt
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ionsf
oramendment
stot
hatChar
ter
,
subj
ect howev
er t
o any pr
ovi
sions whi
ch t
he Gener
al Assembl
y upon
r
ecommendat
ionoft
heSecur
it
yCounci
lmayadoptconcer
ningt
hepar
ti
cipat
ionof
st
ateswhi
char
epar
ti
est
othepr
esentSt
atut
ebutar
enotMember
soft
heUni
ted
Nat
ions.TheCour
tshal
lhav
epowert
opr
oposesuchamendment
stot
hepr
esent
St
atut
e as i
tmay deem necessar
y,t
hrough wr
it
ten communi
cat
ions t
othe
Secr
etar
yGener
al,
forconsi
der
ati
oni
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hepr
ovi
sions.

113|Page
2024
I
nter
nat
ionalCasesunderDomest
icCour
tsofSt
ates

I
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
sdi
ff
ermar
kedl
yint
hemanneri
nwhi
cht
hei
rdeci
sionsar
e
embedded”i
“ nthenat
ionalsy
stemsoft
hest
atest
hatar
esubj
ectt
othet
ri
bunal
’
s
j
uri
sdi
cti
on.Agr
eement
s cr
eat
ing i
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
s can make deci
sions
di
rect
lyenf
orceabl
einanat
ionall
egalsy
stem,wi
thoutanyneedf
orgov
ernment
s
t
otakepost
-hoci
mpl
ement
ingact
ion(
e.g.
,thr
oughst
atut
esorexecut
iveor
der
s).
Thi
s,t
oo,i
sat
echni
quef
ormedi
ati
ngbet
weenconf
li
cti
ngv
isi
onsofwhatt
he
t
ri
bunalshoul
dbe.I
nthespi
ri
tofi
nst
it
uti
onal
i
sm,I
CJj
udgment
sincont
ent
ious
casesar
ebi
ndi
ngont
hepar
ti
es,
final
,andwi
thoutappeal
.

Fur
ther
,byt
heUN Char
ter
,eachU.
N.member“
under
takest
ocompl
ywi
tht
he
deci
sionoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icei
nanycaset
owhi
chi
tisapar
t.
”Yet
,
whendr
aft
ingt
heU.
N.Char
terandt
heI
CJSt
atut
e,st
atesel
ect
ednott
oincl
ude
anypr
ovi
si
onsaddr
essi
ngt
hel
egalef
fectofI
CJj
udgment
swi
thi
nnat
ionall
egal
sy
stems,suchaswhet
hert
heypr
ovi
deabasi
sforpr
ivat
eri
ght
sofact
ioni
n
nat
ionalcour
ts.Seen f
rom t
he U.
S.poi
ntofv
iew,t
hisi
s consi
stentwi
th
aut
onomousdemocr
ati
candconst
it
uti
onal
tradi
ti
ons.

Mor
eov
er,asaconcessi
ont
oexcept
ional
i
sm,t
heU.
N.Char
terpr
ovi
dest
hata
par
tyt
hatpr
evai
l
edbef
oret
heCour
tmayt
osubmi
tnon-
compl
i
ancewi
tht
her
uli
ng
t
othescr
uti
nyoft
heU.
N.Secur
it
yCounci
l
,“whi
chmay
,ifi
tdeemsnecessar
y,
maker
ecommendat
ionsordeci
deuponmeasur
est
obet
akent
ogi
veef
fectt
othe
j
udgment
.”Ofal
lthecasesdeci
dedont
hemer
it
sint
heCour
t’
shi
stor
y,i
nonl
yone
di
danappl
i
cantNi
car
aguar
equestt
hatt
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltakeact
iont
oenf
orce
t
hej
udgment
.Needl
esst
osay
,theUni
tedSt
atesv
etoedar
esol
uti
ont
othat
ef
fect
.

Anef
for
tbypr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
stosuet
heU.
S.gov
ernmenti
nU.
S.cour
tsbased,
amongot
hert
hings,ont
hegr
oundt
hatU.
S.act
ionsv
iol
atedt
heCour
t’
sdeci
sion,
was di
smi
ssed because t
her
eis no pr
ivat
eri
ghtofact
ion t
o enf
orce an
I
nter
nat
ionalCour
tdeci
sioni
nU.
S.cour
ts.“
Thebet
terr
easonedposi
ti
oni
sthat
suchanor
deri
snotbi
ndi
ng.Ar
ti
cle41(
1)oft
heI
CJst
atut
epr
ovi
dest
hatt
heI
CJ

114|Page
2024
shal
lhav
e“t
hepowert
oindi
cat
eanypr
ovi
sionalmeasur
eswhi
choughtt
obe
t
akent
opr
eser
vet
her
espect
iver
ight
sofei
therpower
.”

Ar
ti
cle41(
2)f
urt
herst
atest
hat
,endi
ngt
hef
inaldeci
sionoft
heI
CJnot
iceoft
he
measur
essuggest
ed shal
lfor
thwi
th begi
ven t
othepar
ti
esand t
heSecur
it
y
Counci
l
.”

The use ofpr


ecat
oryl
anguage (
“i
ndi
cat
e,”“
oughtt
o be t
aken,
”“suggest
ed”
)
i
nst
eadofst
rongerl
anguage(
e.g.
:theI
CJmay“
order
”pr
ovi
sionalmeasur
est
hat
“
shal
l
”bet
aken)st
rongl
ysuppor
tsaconcl
usi
ont
hatI
CJpr
ovi
sionalmeasur
esar
e
notbi
ndi
ngont
hepar
ti
es.Thedi
sti
nct
ioni
nAr
ti
cle41(
2)bet
weent
he“
fi
nal
deci
sion”ul
ti
mat
elyf
oreseenandt
he“
measur
essuggest
ed”i
nthei
nter
im al
so
suggest
sthatt
he“
measur
essuggest
ed”ar
enotbi
ndi
ng.

ThePr
inci
pleofJur
isdi
cti
on(
Ext
radi
ti
on)
Ex
tradi
ti
oni
stheactbyonej
uri
sdi
cti
onofdel
i
ver
ingaper
sonwhohasbeen
accusedofcommi
tt
ingacr
imei
nanot
herj
uri
sdi
cti
onorhasbeenconv
ict
edofa
cr
imei
nthatot
herj
uri
sdi
cti
oni
ntot
hecust
odyofal
aw enf
orcementagencyof
t
hatot
herj
uri
sdi
cti
on.I
tisacooper
ati
vel
aw enf
orcementpr
ocessbet
weent
he
t
woj
uri
sdi
cti
onsanddependsont
hear
rangement
smadebet
weent
hem.Besi
des
t
hel
egalaspect
soft
hepr
ocess,ext
radi
ti
onal
soi
nvol
vest
hephy
sicalt
ransf
erof
cust
odyoft
heper
sonbei
ngext
radi
tedt
othel
egalaut
hor
it
yoft
her
equest
ing
j
uri
sdi
cti
on.Thr
ought
heext
radi
ti
onpr
ocess,onesov
erei
gnj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
ypi
cal
l
y
makesaf
ormalr
equestt
oanot
hersov
erei
gnj
uri
sdi
cti
on(
"t
her
equest
edst
ate"
).I
f
t
hef
ugi
ti
vei
sfoundwi
thi
nthet
err
it
oryoft
her
equest
edst
ate,t
hent
her
equest
ed
st
atemayar
restt
hef
ugi
ti
veandsubj
ecthi
m orhert
oit
sext
radi
ti
onpr
ocess.The
ext
radi
ti
onpr
ocedur
est
owhi
cht
hef
ugi
ti
vewi
l
lbesubj
ect
edar
edependentont
he
l
awandpr
act
iceoft
her
equest
edst
ate.Bet
weencount
ri
es,
ext
radi
ti
oni
snor
mal
l
y
r
egul
atedbyt
reat
ies.Wher
eext
radi
ti
oni
scompel
l
edbyl
aws,
suchasamongsub-
nat
ional
jur
isdi
cti
ons,
theconceptmaybeknownmor
egener
all
yasr
endi
ti
on.

115|Page
2024
Theconsensusi
nint
ernat
ionall
awi
sthatast
atedoesnothav
eanyobl
i
gat
iont
o
sur
renderan al
l
eged cr
imi
nalt
oaf
orei
gn st
ate,because one pr
inci
ple of
sov
erei
gnt
yist
hatev
eryst
atehasl
egal
aut
hor
it
yov
ert
hepeopl
ewi
thi
nit
sbor
der
s.
Suchabsenceofi
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionandt
hedesi
ref
ort
her
ightt
odemand
suchcr
imi
nal
sfr
om ot
hercount
ri
eshav
ecausedawebofext
radi
ti
ont
reat
iesor
agr
eement
stoev
olv
e.Whennoappl
i
cabl
eext
radi
ti
onagr
eementi
sinpl
ace,a
sov
erei
gnmayst
il
lrequestt
heexpul
sionorl
awf
ulr
etur
nofani
ndi
vi
dualpur
suant
t
other
equest
edst
ate’
sdomest
icl
aw.Thi
scanbeaccompl
i
shedt
hrought
he
i
mmi
grat
ionl
awsoft
her
equest
edst
ateorot
herf
acet
soft
her
equest
edst
ate’
s
domest
icl
aw.

Si
mil
arl
y,t
hecodesofpenalpr
ocedur
ein manycount
ri
escont
ain pr
ovi
sions
al
l
owi
ngf
orext
radi
ti
ont
otakepl
acei
ntheabsenceofanext
radi
ti
onagr
eement
.
Sov
erei
gnsmay
,ther
efor
e,st
il
lrequestt
heexpul
sionorl
awf
ulr
etur
nofaf
ugi
ti
ve
f
rom t
het
err
it
oryofar
equest
edst
atei
ntheabsenceofanext
radi
ti
ont
reat
y.No
count
ryi
nthewor
ldhasanex
tradi
ti
ont
reat
ywi
thal
lot
hercount
ri
es;f
orexampl
e,
t
heUni
tedSt
atesl
acksext
radi
ti
ont
reat
ieswi
thRussi
a,t
hePeopl
e'
sRepubl
i
cof
Chi
na,Nami
bia,t
heUni
tedAr
abEmi
rat
es,Nor
thKor
ea,Bahr
ain,andmanyot
her
count
ri
es.

ThePr
inci
pleofTer
ri
tor
ial
it
y(I
mmi
grat
ionLaws)

Today
,immi
grat
ioncont
roli
sfr
equent
lyv
iewedasf
all
i
ngwi
thi
nthedomest
ic
j
uri
sdi
cti
onofeachst
ate.Amongt
hedomest
iccour
tsofcommonl
aw count
ri
es,
t
hisasser
ti
onhasev
enbecomeamaxi
m wi
thoutanyf
urt
heri
nqui
ryi
ntoi
ts
r
ati
onal
eandj
ust
if
icat
ion.Thenot
ionofdomest
icj
uri
sdi
cti
oni
spr
obabl
ythe
st
art
ingpoi
ntbutcannotbet
hel
astwor
d,si
ncei
t’
sver
ycont
entdependsupont
he
dev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Theear
lydoct
ri
neoft
hel
awofnat
ionsr
emi
nds
ust
hati
mmi
grat
ion and i
nter
nat
ionall
aw ar
enotmut
ual
l
yexcl
usi
ve.On t
he
cont
rar
y,t
hemov
ementofper
sonsacr
ossbor
der
swasatt
hehear
toft
hef
ir
st
r
efl
ect
ionsaboutt
hel
aw ofnat
ions.Thef
oundi
ngofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw f
urt
her
under
li
nedt
hatt
hev
erynot
ionofst
atesov
erei
gnt
ywasnotconcomi
tantwi
tht
he

116|Page
2024
oneofi
mmi
grat
ioncont
rol
.

Asexempl
i
fied byt
hisl
astquot
ati
on,t
her
ightofcommuni
cat
ion r
efl
ect
sa
br
oaderTer
ri
tor
ial
i
ty(
Immi
grat
ionLawsconcept
ionofi
nter
nat
ionall
awgr
ounded
on r
eci
proci
ty and equal
i
ty bet
ween f
orei
gn nat
ions.Thi
stwof
old not
ion of
r
eci
proci
tyandequal
i
tyr
epr
esent
sthekeycont
ri
but
ionofVi
tor
iat
hatpr
efi
gur
ed
cl
assi
cali
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
nter
est
ingl
y,t
hisi
uscommuni
cat
ionwasnotl
i
mit
edt
o
t
her
ightt
otr
avelandt
hedut
yofhospi
tal
i
ty.I
twasamuchbr
oaderpr
inci
plet
hat
al
soi
ncl
udedf
reet
rade,
freedom ofnav
igat
ion,
immi
grat
ionandi .Ther
ussol
i ight
t
o communi
cat
ion bet
ween peopl
esi
saccor
dingl
yatt
he hear
tofhi
swhol
e
concept
ion aboutt
he l
aw ofnat
ions.Such a r
ighti
s notonl
ygr
ounded on
i
nter
nat
ional
law,
buti
tisal
sot
heessenceofi
t.

Fol
l
owi
ngt
hisst
ance,
ther
ightofi
stheTer
ri
tor
ial
i
ty(
Immi
grat
ionLawsnecessar
y)
pr
econdi
ti
onf
orest
abl
i
shi
ngi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsbet
weenequalnat
ions,andi
t
const
it
utesbyt
hesamet her
okent aisond’
êtr
eofi
nter
nat
ional
lawasawhol
e.

Summar
y
St
atei
srecogni
zedunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw wi
thcer
tai
nessent
ialchar
act
eri
sti
cs
ment
ionedunderAr
ti
cle1oft
heMont
evi
deoConv
ent
ionof1933.Accor
dingl
y,The
St
ateasaper
sonofi
nter
nat
ionall
awshoul
dpossesst
hef
oll
owi
ngqual
i
ficat
ions:
(
a)aper
manentpopul
ati
on;(
b)adef
inedt
err
it
ory
;(c)agov
ernment
;and(
d)a
capaci
tyt
oent
eri
ntor
elat
ionswi
thot
herst
ates.Thei
ssueoft
her
ecogni
ti
onof
gov
ernmenti
sal
soani
mpor
tantconcepti
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Ther
ecogni
ti
onofa
newgov
ernmenti
sdi
ff
erentf
rom t
her
ecogni
ti
onofanewst
ate.Thest
atehoodi
s
concer
nedwi
tht
hef
act
ualsi
tuat
ionoft
heaccept
edcr
it
eri
aoft
hegov
ernment
r
ecogni
ti
on.Di
ff
erentconsi
der
ati
onsar
eappl
i
edwhent
heexi
sti
nggov
ernmenti
s
changedbyt
henewgov
ernment
.Recogni
ti
onwi
l
lonl
yreal
l
yber
elev
antwher
ethe
changei
ngov
ernmenti
sunconst
it
uti
onal
.

St
atehasbot
hlegalr
ight
sanddut
ies,andsomeofi
tsr
ight
sar
e;t
her
ightof
i
ndependence,t
her
ightofsov
erei
gnt
y,t
her
ightoft
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
on,t
her
ight

117|Page
2024
ofsov
erei
gnequal
i
tyandt
her
ightofsel
f-
def
ense.St
ateshav
enotonl
yri
ght
s
ent
it
ledi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Butt
heyal
sohav
edut
iest
hatt
heyar
eexpect
edt
o
per
for
m.Thedut
ytor
efr
ainf
rom t
het
hreatoruseoff
orce,t
hedut
ytoset
tl
e
i
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
ebypeacef
ulmeans,t
hedut
ynott
oint
erv
enei
ntheaf
fai
rsof
ot
herst
ates,
thedut
ytocooper
atewi
thoneanot
hert
hedut
yofast
atet
oful
fi
lli
ts
obl
i
gat
ioni
ngoodf
ait
hcanbement
ionedassomeoft
hedut
iesofst
ates.

St
ater
esponsi
bil
i
ty was anot
heri
ssue di
scussed undert
his chapt
er.St
ate
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
saf
undament
alpr
inci
pleofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw andi
tli
esont
he
under
standi
ngt
hatst
atesar
esov
erei
gnandequal
.Itpr
ovi
dest
hatwhenev
erone
st
atecommi
tsani
nter
nat
ional
l
yunl
awf
ulactagai
nstanot
herst
ate,i
nter
nat
ional
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
sest
abl
i
shed bet
ween t
het
wo.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ion gi
vesr
iset
oa
r
equi
rementf
orr
epar
ati
on.

Di
plomat
icl
aw and di
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
onhav
ebeendi
scussed asapar
tof
chapt
ert
wo.Di
plomat
icl
aw and di
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
on ar
ethe t
wo most
i
mpor
tant t
ool
s enabl
i
ng di
plomat
sto per
for
m t
hei
r di
plomat
icf
unct
ions
ef
fect
ivel
y.Di
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
oni
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
sauni
l
ater
alpol
i
ticalact
wi
th domest
ic and i
nter
nat
ional l
egal consequences, wher
eby a st
ate
acknowl
edgesanactorst
atusofanot
herst
ateorgov
ernmenti
ncont
rolofast
ate
(
maybeal
soar
ecogni
zedst
ate)
.

Recogni
ti
oncanbeaccor
dedei
therdef
act
o ordej
ure.Theest
abl
i
shmentof
di
plomat
icr
elat
ionsi
slef
tfort
hemut
ualconsentofst
ates,andt
her
eisno
i
nter
nat
ional
lawt
hatf
orcesst
atesi
ntodi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.

Sel
f-cheekQuest
ions
1.Di
scusst
hei
ssueofst
ateandgov
ernmentr
ecogni
ti
oni
nint
ernat
ional
law

2.Ment
ionsomeoft
her
ight
sanddut
iesofst
ates

3.El
abor
atet
hei
ssueofdi
plomat
icl
awanddi
plomat
icr
ecogni
ti
on

118|Page
2024
4.Expl
aint
heessenceofdi
plomat
ici
mmuni
ty,
andment
ionsomeoft
heel
ement
s
ofdi
plomat
icpr
ivi
l
egest
hatdi
plomat
sar
eent
it
ledbyi
nter
nat
ional
laws.

5.Di
scusst
hemechani
smsandst
rat
egi
esofi
nter
nat
ional
lawenf
orcement
.

CHAPTERTHREE:I
NTERNATI
ONALLAW ONTREATI
ES
Lear
ningoutcomes

Att
heendoft
hechapt
erst
udent
sbeabl
eto:

Def
ine and anal
yzes t
reat
ies,t
reat
yfor
mat
ion,i
nter
pret
ati
on,i
nval
i
dat
ion and
r
eser
vat
ionoft
reat
ies

Ex
plai
ntheLawoft
heSeaandLandl
ockedSt
ates

Anal
yzet
heI
nter
nat
ional
LawandEt
hiopi
a’
sRi
ghtAccesst
otheSea

Under
standi
ngTr
eat
ies

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whatdo wemean by
t
reat
ies?

Thet
erm“
treat
y”i
susedasagener
ict
erm embr
aci
ngal
lki
ndsofi
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
swhi
char
eknownbyav
ari
etyofdi
ff
erentnamessuchas,
conv
ent
ions,
pact
s,gener
alact
s,char
ter
s,st
atut
es,
decl
arat
ions,
cov
enant
s,pr
otocol
,aswel
las,
t
henameagr
eement
sit
sel
f.At
reat
ymaybedef
inedasani
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
concl
udedbet
weenSt
atesi
nwr
it
tenf
orm andgov
ernedbyI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.
Tr
eat
iesar
eoneoft
hemaj
orsour
cesofI
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Mor
ethananyot
her
sour
ce,t
reat
iesar
ethemostf
ormaland bi
ndi
ng sour
ce.I
nthesamet
oken,
t
reat
iesori
nter
nat
ionalconv
ent
ionsar
eamor
emoder
nand mor
edel
i
ber
ate
met
hod ofest
abl
i
shi
ng l
aws t
hatgov
ernt
rans-
boundar
yissues.Tr
eat
ies ar
e
knownbyav
ari
etyofdi
ff
eri
ngnames,r
angi
ngf
rom Conv
ent
ions,I
nter
nat
ional

119|Page
2024
Agr
eement
s,Pact
s,Gener
alAct
s,Char
ter
s,t
hrought
oSt
atut
es,Decl
arat
ionsand
Cov
enant
s.Al
ltheset
ermsr
efert
oasi
mil
art
ransact
ion,t
hecr
eat
ionofwr
it
ten
agr
eement
swher
ebyt
hest
atespar
ti
cipat
ingbi
ndt
hemsel
vesl
egal
l
ytoacti
na
par
ti
cul
arwayort
osetuppar
ti
cul
arr
elat
ionsbet
weent
hemsel
ves.

BasedonAr
ti
cl
e2(
1)(
a)oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLaw t
reat
y(VCLT)
,a
"
tr
eat
y"i
sdef
inedasani
nter
nat
ionalagr
eementconcl
udedbet
weenSt
atesi
n
wr
it
tenf
orm andgov
ernedby

i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,whet
herembodi
edi
nasi
ngl
einst
rumentori
ntwoormor
e
r
elat
edi
nst
rument
sandwhat
everi
tspar
ti
cul
ardesi
gnat
ion;

Basedont
hisdef
ini
ti
on,t
obeat
reat
y,t
heagr
eementmusthav
ethef
oll
owi
ng
char
act
er.

Tr
eat
iesar
ewr
it
tenagr
eement
s-TheVCLTappl
i
est
owr
it
tent
reat
iesent
eredi
nto
bet
weenSt
ates.Thi
sdef
ini
ti
onexcl
udesor
alagr
eement
sbet
weenst
ates.

Concl
udedbyst
ates-Anagr
eementbet
weenast
ateandamul
ti
nat
ionalcompany
,
suchasanoi
lconcessi
on,
isnotat
reat
y,ev
eni
fitsay
sthati
tshal
lbei
nter
pret
ed
byr
efer
encet
orul
esofi
nter
nat
ional
law.

Gov
ernedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw-Thi
smeanst
hatt
her
emustbeani
ntent
iont
o
cr
eat
eobl
i
gat
ionsunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thei
ntent
ionmustbegat
her
edf
rom
t
het
ermsoft
hei
nst
rumenti
tsel
fandf
rom t
heci
rcumst
ancesofi
tsconcl
usi
on,
notf
rom whatt
hepar
ti
essayaf
ter
war
dswast
hei
rint
ent
ion.Thi
sdef
ini
ti
oni
s
meantt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
reat
iesont
heonehandandcont
ract
sent
eredi
nto
bySt
atesont
heot
her
.St
atesmayent
eri
ntocont
ract
s,commer
cialorot
her
wise,
t
hatar
egov
ernedbyt
henat
ional
lawsofoneoft
heSt
atesi
nvol
ved.

Thus,an agr
eementbet
ween t
heU.
S.and Et
hiopi
ato pur
chasel
and f
ort
he
Et
hiopi
an Embassyi
n Washi
ngt
on D.
C.i
s a cont
ractgov
erned byl
ocalU.
S.
pr
oper
tyl
aw,
noti
nter
nat
ional
law.

120|Page
2024
Tr
eat
iesar
egov
ernedbyt
wocer
tai
npr
inci
ples.Thef
undament
alpr
inci
plesof
t
reat
ylaw ar
eundoubt
edl
ythepr
oposi
ti
ont
hatt
reat
iesar
ebi
ndi
ngupont
he
par
ti
es t
othem and mustbe per
for
med i
n good f
ait
h.The l
att
eri
s cal
l
ed
‘
pact
asunt
ser
vanda’
andi
sar
guabl
ytheol
destpr
inci
pleofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Ther
e
ar
etwot
ypesoft
reat
iesnamel
ylaw-
maki
ngt
reat
iesandt
reat
ycont
ract
s.Law-
maki
ngt
reat
iesar
ethosewr
it
tenagr
eementsi
gnedwi
tht
hei
ntent
ionofcr
eat
ing
l
awswhi
chcoul
dbeappl
i
cabl
euni
ver
sal
l
y.Ont
heot
herhand,wehav
etr
eat
ies
whi
chhav
enoconnect
ionwi
thl
awmaki
ngbutonl
yser
vet
oest
abl
i
shacont
ract
bet
weent
hesi
gni
ngpar
ti
es.Unl
i
ket
hel
aw-
maki
ngt
reat
ies,t
reat
ycont
ract
sar
e
bi
ndi
ng on t
he cont
ract
ing par
ti
es.I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
he scope ofl
aw-
maki
ng
t
reat
iesi
swi
dert
hant
reat
ycont
ract
s.

PURPOSESOFTREATI
ES

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whydo weneedt
o hav
e
t
reat
ies?

Ar
guabl
y,t
heneedf
ort
reat
ieshasi
ncr
easedast
hewor
ld'
sint
erdependencehas
i
ntensi
fi
ed.Cont
inui
ngt
echnol
ogi
cali
nnov
ati
on,economi
cgl
obal
i
zat
ionandt
he
gr
owt
hoft
ransnat
ional
i
sm hasr
esul
tedi
nanenor
mousi
ncr
easei
nthef
requency
and r
api
dit
yofgl
obali
nter
act
ion.Such chal
l
enges r
equi
re bot
h nat
ionaland
i
nter
nat
ionalr
esponses.Wher
eapr
obl
em cannotbeadequat
elyaddr
essedbya
count
ryact
ingal
one(
forexampl
e,i
nrel
ati
ont
oozonedepl
eti
onort
hedepl
eti
onof
mi
grat
oryf
ishst
ocks)
,act
ingcooper
ati
vel
yatt
hei
nter
nat
ionall
evelbecomes
essent
ial
foracount
ryt
opr
otecti
tsowni
nter
est
s.

Tobemor
especi
fi
c,her
ear
esomeexampl
esofwhatt
reat
iescando

Ser
veasconst
it
uti
onsf
ori
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions(
e.g.t
heUNChar
ter
)

Tr
ansf
ert
err
it
ory(
Forexampl
e,U.
S.andRussi
aent
eredat
reat
yin1867bywhi
ch

121|Page
2024
t
he

U.
S.acqui
redAl
askaf
oracer
tai
namountofmoney
)

Regul
atecommer
cialr
elat
ionsandguar
ant
eei
nvest
ment
s(t
heset
reat
iesar
ethe
meansbywhi
cht
woormor
eSt
atest
ransactbusi
ness)
.

Set
tl
edi
sput
es

Est
abl
i
shj
uri
sdi
cti
onf
orani
nter
nat
ionalcour
tli
ket
heI
CJ,andpr
otecthuman
r
ight
s

Ther
efor
e,t
reat
ies ar
ethe maj
ori
nst
rumentofcooper
ati
on i
nint
ernat
ional
r
elat
ions,andcooper
ati
onof
teni
nvol
vesachangei
nther
elat
iveposi
ti
onsoft
he
st
atesi
nvol
ved(
forexampl
e,r
ichcount
ri
esgi
vemoneyt
opoorcount
ri
es)
.Tr
eat
ies,
t
her
efor
e,ar
eof
tenani
nst
rumentofchange—apoi
ntwhi
chi
sfor
got
tenbyt
hose
whor
egar
dint
ernat
ional
lawasanessent
ial
l
yconser
vat
ivef
orce.

THE1969VI
ENNACONVENTI
ONONTHELAW OFTREATI
ES

Si
mil
art
oot
hert
opi
csi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw,t
reat
iesar
eal
sogov
ernedbycer
tai
n
r
uleswhi
chwecal
lthel
aw oft
reat
ies.The1969I
nter
nat
ionalConv
ent
ionont
he
Law ofTr
eat
ies and t
he 1986 Conv
ent
ion on Tr
eat
ies bet
ween St
ates and
I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionsar
ethet
womaj
orsour
cesofl
aw oft
reat
ies.Fort
he
pur
poseoft
hischapt
er’
sdi
scussi
ont
he1969I
nter
nat
ionalConv
ent
ionont
heLaw
Tr
eat
iesi
sgi
venpr
ior
it
y.

The1969Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
reat
iescodi
fi
edt
hel
awoft
reat
ies,
i.
e.
t
her
ulesandpr
ocedur
eformaki
ngandappl
yi
ngt
reat
ies.Fur
ther
mor
e,VCLT
cont
ainst
hebasi
cpr
inci
plesoft
reat
ylaw,
thepr
ocedur
esf
orhowt
reat
iesbecome
bi
ndi
ngandent
eri
ntof
orce,
theconsequencesofabr
eachoft
reat
y,andpr
inci
ples
f
ori
nter
pret
ingt
reat
ies.TheVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLaw ofTr
eat
iespar
tl
y
r
efl
ect
scust
omar
ylawandconst
it
utest
hebasi
cfr
amewor
kforanydi
scussi
onof
t
henat
ureandchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
reat
ies.Al
thoughnotal
lSt
atesi
nthewor
ldhav
e
j
oinedt
hist
reat
y,i
thasbecomecust
omar
ylawandt
husi
sbi
ndi
ngev
enonnon-

122|Page
2024
si
gnat
ori
es.Andt
he1969Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLaw ofTr
eat
iescamei
nto
f
orceon27Januar
y1980.

Tr
eat
yFor
mat
ion

Dear st
udent
s, how ar
e t
reat
ies
f
ormul
ated?

Thebasi
cpr
ocessf
orent
eri
ngi
ntoat
reat
yof
teni
slai
douti
napar
ti
cul
arSt
ate‘
s
Const
it
uti
on.I
nEt
hiopi
atr
eat
iesar
enegot
iat
edbyt
heExecut
iveandt
henr
ati
fi
ed
by t
he House ofPeopl
es ‘
Repr
esent
ati
ves (
See Ar
ti
cle 55(
12)oft
he FDRE
Const
it
uti
on.
).Forapoi
ntofcont
rast
,int
he

U.
S.t
hePr
esi
dentnegot
iat
est
het
reat
yandt
henmustgett
headv
iceandconsent
oft
wo-
thi
rdsoft
hesenat
etor
ati
fyt
het
reat
y.OnceEt
hiopi
arat
if
iesat
reat
y(and
t
het
reat
yent
ersi
ntof
orce)
,Et
hiopi
aisboundbyt
hatt
reat
y.I
ntheUni
tedKi
ngdom
andi
ntheUni
tedSt
atest
hepoweroft
reat
yfor
mat
ionr
esi
deswi
tht
hePr
esi
dent
wi
tht
headv
iceandconsentoft
heSenat
eandt
heconcur
renceoft
wo-
thi
rdsoft
he
Senat
ors.Ther
efor
e,t
hei
nter
nat
ionall
aw r
eser
vedt
hisi
ssuet
ober
esol
vedby
domest
icl
aws.

Thef
ormat
ionofat
reat
yisnotanov
erni
ghtpr
ocess.I
trequi
resacompr
omi
seof
nat
ionali
nter
est
,ti
meandot
herr
esour
ces.Tr
eat
iesar
emadev
iasev
eralst
eps,
whi
chusual
l
ytakesev
eraly
ear
stocompl
ete.Thei
nter
nat
ionall
aw hasnost
ri
ct
pr
ovi
sionont
hef
ormat
ionoft
reat
ies.Ther
eisnopr
escr
ibedf
orm orpr
ocedur
e,
andhowat
reat
yisf
ormul
atedandbywhom i
tisact
ual
l
ysi
gnedwi
l
ldependupon
t
he i
ntent
ion and agr
eementoft
he st
ates concer
ned.Howev
er,t
he 1969
Conv
ent
ion on t
he Law ofTr
eat
ies pr
ovi
des gener
alr
ules appl
i
cabl
etot
he
concl
usi
onoft
reat
ies,r
ulesr
egar
dingt
hecapaci
tyandt
hecompet
entper
sonst
o
concl
udet
reat
ies,t
headopt
ionandaut
hent
icat
ionoft
het
extoft
reat
ies,andt
he
adopt
ionoft
reat
ies.

Negot
iat
ionsov
erapot
ent
ialt
reat
ybegi
nwhent
her
epr
esent
ati
vef
rom t
hest
ate

123|Page
2024
par
ti
esmeet
.Theser
epr
esent
ati
vesmustbeaut
hor
izedt
ospeakonbehal
foft
he
St
ateoror
gani
zat
ion,
ori
not
herwor
dst
heymusthav
e“f
ullpower
s.”“
Ful
lpower
s”
r
efer
stot
hedocumenti
ssuedbyt
hecompet
entaut
hor
it
yoft
heconcer
nedSt
ate
cer
ti
fyi
ngt
hatt
heper
sonsr
epr
esenti
t.Howev
er,t
her
ear
ecer
tai
nper
sonswho
neednott
opr
oducet
he“
ful
lpower
s”.HeadsofSt
ate,headsofgov
ernment
,and
For
eignMi
nist
ersar
eassumedt
ohav
eaut
hor
it
ytospeakonbehal
foft
heSt
ate
and wi
l
lnotbe r
equi
red t
o show f
ullpower
sincl
udi
ng Heads ofdi
plomat
ic
mi
ssi
onsandr
epr
esent
ati
vesaccr
edi
tedbySt
atest
oani
nter
nat
ionalconf
erence
ort
oint
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion.Atsuchst
ages,at
tempt
sar
emadet
oreach
agr
eementt
hroughdi
scussi
onandcompr
omi
seov
ert
hedr
aft
sorpr
epar
ator
y
mat
eri
als.

Onceadr
aftofat
reat
yhasbeenagr
eeduponbyt
hecompet
entper
sons,sev
eral
st
agesneedt
obef
oll
owedbef
orei
tbecomesl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ng.Fi
rst
,thet
extoft
he
t
reat
yhast
obeadopt
ed.Theadopt
ionoft
het
extofat
reat
yimpl
i
est
hatt
hef
orm
andcont
entoft
het
extoft
hepr
oposedt
reat
yar
eset
tl
ed.Whent
henegot
iat
orsof
t
het
reat
yfi
nal
i
zet
het
ext
,thet
exti
sadopt
ed.Textmustbeadopt
edatt
heendof
t
henegot
iat
ionphasei
nor
dert
o“open”t
het
reat
yforsi
gnat
ureand r
ati
fi
cat
ion.
Theadopt
ionoft
het
extofat
reat
yatani
nter
nat
ionalconf
erencet
akespl
aceby
t
hev
oteoft
wo-
thi
rdsoft
heSt
atespr
esentand v
oti
ng,unl
essbyt
hesame
maj
ori
tyt
heyshal
ldeci
det
oappl
yadi
ff
erentr
ule.

Af
tert
het
extwasadopt
ed,
thepar
ti
est
othet
reat
yaut
hent
icat
edi
t.Aut
hent
icat
ion
i
sapr
ocedur
alst
epwher
ebyt
het
extoft
het
reat
yisest
abl
i
shedascor
rectand
genui
ne,andnotsubj
ectt
oal
ter
ati
on.I
tisnecessar
ytoenabl
etheSt
atespar
ti
es
t
othet
reat
ytoknowdef
ini
ti
vel
yit
scont
entsot
hatt
her
ewi
l
lbenoconf
usi
onast
o
i
tsexactt
erms.Theaut
hent
icat
ionoft
het
extofat
reat
ytakespl
aceaccor
dingt
o
t
hepr
ocedur
epr
ovi
dedi
nthet
extoragr
eeduponbyt
heSt
atespar
ti
cipat
ingi
nit
s
dr
awi
ngup.Fai
l
ingsuchpr
ocedur
e,aut
hent
icat
ionmayt
akepl
acebyt
hesi
gnat
ure,
si
gnat
ureadr
efer
endum ori
nit
iat
ionbyt
her
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
hepar
ti
cipat
ing
St
ates.

124|Page
2024
Theadopt
ionoft
het
extdoesnot
,byi
tsel
f,cr
eat
eanyobl
i
gat
ions.I
tdoesnot
meant
hatt
hepar
ti
ci
pat
ingSt
ateshav
eexpr
essedconsentt
obeboundbyt
he
t
reat
y.At
reat
ydoesnotcomei
ntobei
ngunt
ilt
woormor
est
atesconsentt
obe
boundbyi
t,andt
heexpr
essi
onofsuchconsentusual
l
ycomesaf
tert
headopt
ion
oft
het
extandi
sanent
ir
elysepar
atepr
ocess.Thet
extwi
l
lusual
l
yindi
cat
ehow
St
atesar
etoconsentt
othet
ermsoft
het
reat
y.

Ar
ti
cle11oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionpr
ovi
des:TheconsentofaSt
atet
obebound
byat
reat
ymaybeexpr
essedbysi
gnat
ure,
exchangeofi
nst
rument
sconst
it
uti
nga
t
reat
y,r
ati
fi
cat
ion,accept
ance,appr
ovaloraccessi
on,orbyanyot
hermeansi
fso
agr
eed.The mul
ti
pli
cit
yofmet
hodsofexpr
essi
ng consenthasunf
ort
unat
ely
i
ntr
oducedmuchconf
usi
oni
ntot
hel
aw.Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,si
gnat
ureandr
ati
fi
cat
ion
ar
ethemostf
requentmeansofexpr
essi
ngconsent
.

Si
gnat
ure

Si
gnat
urei
ndi
cat
esani
ntent
iont
obecomeapar
tyt
oat
reat
y,anddoesnotusual
l
y
est
abl
i
shconsentt
obeboundbyt
het
ermsoft
het
reat
y,unl
esst
het
reat
ypr
ovi
des
f
ort
hesi
gnat
urehav
ingt
hatef
fect
.Iti
sapr
eli
minar
yst
epi
nthepr
ocessof
becomi
ngboundbyat
reat
y.Ar
ti
cle12(
1)pr
ovi
des:TheconsentofaSt
atet
obe
boundbyat
reat
yisexpr
essedbyt
hesi
gnat
ureofi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
vewhen:

Thet
reat
ypr
ovi
dest
hatsi
gnat
ureshal
lhav
ethatef
fect
;

I
tisot
her
wiseest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
henegot
iat
ingSt
ateswer
eagr
eedt
hatsi
gnat
ure
shoul
dhav
ethatef
fect
;

Thei
ntent
ionoft
heSt
atet
ogi
vet
hatef
fectt
othesi
gnat
ureappear
sfr
om t
hef
ull
power
sofi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
veorwasexpr
esseddur
ingt
henegot
iat
ions.

Ther
efor
e,aSt
atemayber
egar
dedasconsent
edt
oat
reat
ybysi
gnat
urewhent
he
t
reat
ypr
ovi
dest
hatsi
gnat
ureshal
lhav
ethatef
fect
,wheni
tisest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
he
negot
iat
ingSt
ateswer
eagr
eedt
hatsi
gnat
ureshoul
dhav
ethatef
fect
,orwhent
he
i
ntent
ionoft
heSt
atet
ogi
vet
hatef
fectt
othesi
gnat
ureappear
sfr
om t
hef
ull

125|Page
2024
power
sofi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
vesorwasexpr
esseddur
ingt
henegot
iat
ion.Hencet
he
ef
fectofsi
gnat
uredependsupont
het
ermsoft
het
reat
y,t
heagr
eementoft
he
negot
iat
ingSt
atesort
hei
rint
ent
ion.

Rat
if
icat
ion

I hercasest
nsomeot heaut
hor
it
yoft
hedi
plomat
snegot
iat
ingat
reat
yismor
e
l
i
mit
ed,
andt
het
reat
ydoesnotbecomebi
ndi
ngunt
ili
tisr
ati
fi
ed(
thati
s,appr
oved)
byt
heconcer
nedbody
.MostSt
ateshav
eint
ernalpr
ocessesf
ort
heappr
ovalof
t
reat
iesandr
epr
esent
ati
vest
othet
reat
ynegot
iat
ionsmustr
etur
nhomet
ogett
his
appr
ovalbef
oreconsentcanbeexpr
essedt
obeboundbyt
het
reat
y.Asexpl
ained
al
ready
,theFDREConst
it
uti
on,
fori
nst
ance,
requi
rest
heappr
ovalofal
ltr
eat
iesby
t
he House ofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves.Hence,r
ati
fi
cat
ion i
s mandat
oryand
necessar
ybasedont
hel
awofourcount
ryt
obeboundbyt
het
reat
y.

Thei
deaofr
ati
fi
cat
ioni
stheconf
ir
mat
ionoft
hesi
gnat
ureoft
het
reat
y,andi
sthe
f
ormalactbywhi
chaSt
atei
ndi
cat
est
hati
tconsent
stobeboundbyt
het
reat
y.Or
adecl
arat
ionbysomeaut
hor
izedof
fi
cialoft
heSt
atet
hatt
heSt
ateconsi
der
s
i
tsel
fboundbyt
het
reat
y.Thi
sdecl
arat
ioni
susual
l
ycont
ainedi
nani
nst
rumentof
r
ati
fi
cat
ion‖(
inot
herwor
ds,wr
it
ing)t
hati
sexchangedbyt
hepar
ti
es(
int
hecase
ofbi
l
ater
alt
reat
ies)ordeposi
tedsomewher
eforsaf
e-keepi
ng(
usual
l
yatt
heUN
f
or mul
ti
lat
eral t
reat
ies)
. St
ri
ctl
y speaki
ng,r
ati
fi
cat
ion occur
s onl
y when
i
nst
rument
sofr
ati
fi
cat
ionar
eexchangedbet
weent
hecont
ract
ingst
ates,orar
e
deposi
tedwi
tht
hedeposi
tar
y.Formostt
reat
ies,t
hisi
stheendoft
het
reat
y
f
ormat
ionpr
ocessandt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heSt
ate‘
sint
ernat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionsunder
t
het
reat
y.Thet
reat
yhas―ent
eredi
ntof
orce.Ther
eisal
astst
epf
orl
arge
mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ies.Formul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ies,i
twoul
dbei
mpr
act
icalt
orequi
real
l
negot
iat
ingpar
ti
est
oconsentbef
oret
het
reat
yent
eredi
ntof
orce.Ther
efor
e,
mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
iesusual
l
ypr
ovi
det
hatt
het
reat
ywi
l
lent
eri
ntof
orceupont
he
consentofacer
tai
nnumberoft
hepar
ti
es.Letussayt
hat20St
atesnegot
iat
ea
t
reat
yand10St
atesmustr
ati
fyf
ort
het
reat
ytoent
eri
ntof
orce.Thef
ir
stSt
ate
mayr
ati
fyt
het
reat
ybutnotact
ual
l
ybeboundbyt
het
reat
yunt
il10St
atest
otal

126|Page
2024
r
ati
fyt
het
reat
yandt
het
reat
yent
ersi
ntof
orce.

An exampl
eist
he 1982 UN Law oft
he Sea Conv
ent
ion,whi
ch r
equi
red 60
r
ati
fi
cat
ionsbef
orei
tcamei
ntof
orcei
n1994.At
reat
yof
tenpr
ovi
dest
hati
tshal
l
ent
eri
ntof
orcewheni
thasbeenr
ati
fi
edbyaspeci
fi
ednumberofst
ates(
the
numberi
sfr
equent
lyashi
ghasat
hir
doft
henumberoft
henegot
iat
ingst
ates,
becauset
het
reat
ymi
ghtnotbeofanyusei
fitwer
eonl
yrat
if
iedbyav
erysmal
l
numberofst
ates)
.Thet
reat
ymaypr
ovi
def
ori
tsent
ryi
ntof
orceonaf
ixeddat
e,or
aspeci
fi
ednumberofday
sormont
hsaf
tert
hel
astr
ati
fi
cat
ion.

Basedont
heVCLT,
theconsentofaSt
atet
obeboundbyat
reat
yisexpr
essedby
r
ati
fi
cat
ion when:t
he t
reat
y pr
ovi
des f
orsuch consentt
o be expr
essed by
r
ati
fi
cat
ion;
iti
sot
her
wiseest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
henegot
iat
ingSt
ateswer
eagr
eedt
hat
r
ati
fi
cat
ionshoul
dber
equi
red;
ther
epr
esent
ati
veoft
heSt
atehassi
gnedt
het
reat
y
subj
ectt
orat
if
icat
ion;ort
hei
ntent
ionoft
heSt
atet
osi
gnt
het
reat
ysubj
ectt
o
r
ati
fi
cat
ionappear
sfr
om t
hef
ullpower
sofi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
veorwasexpr
essed
dur
ingt
henegot
iat
ions.

Ther
ear
etwoi
mpor
tantbenef
it
sthatst
atesgetf
rom consentbyr
ati
fi
cat
ion.
Ex
ter
nal
l
y,t
he del
ay bet
ween si
gnat
ure and r
ati
fi
cat
ion may of
ten be
adv
ant
ageous i
n al
l
owi
ng ext
rat
ime f
orconsi
der
ati
on,once t
he negot
iat
ing
pr
ocesshasbeencompl
eted.Buti
tist
hei
nter
nalaspect
sthatar
ethemost
i
mpor
tant
,fort
heyr
efl
ectt
hechangei
npol
i
ticalat
mospher
ethathasoccur
redi
n
t
hel
ast150 y
ear
sand hasl
ed t
o amuch gr
eat
erpar
ti
cipat
ion byast
ate’
s
popul
ati
oni
npubl
i
caf
fai
rs.Bypr
ovi
dingf
orr
ati
fi
cat
ion,t
hef
eel
i
ngsofpubl
i
c
opi
nionhav
eanoppor
tuni
tyt
obeexpr
essedwi
tht
hepossi
bil
i
tyt
hatast
rong
negat
iver
eact
ionmayr
esul
tint
hest
atedeci
dingnott
orat
if
ythet
reat
yunder
consi
der
ati
on.

Consentbyaccessi
on

I
naddi
ti
ont
osi
gnat
ureandr
ati
fi
cat
ion,
ast
atecanal
sobecomeapar
tyt
oat
reat
y
byaccessi
on(
other
wiseknownasadhesi
onoradher
ence)
.ASt
atewhi
chhasnot

127|Page
2024
si
gnedat
reat
ycanf
ormal
l
yindi
cat
eit
sint
ent
iont
obeboundbyt
het
reat
ybef
ore
oraf
tert
het
reat
yhascomei
ntof
orce.I
fa St
atei
snota si
gnat
oryt
o an
i
nter
nat
ionalconv
ent
ionbutdeci
dest
obecomeapar
ty,i
tsendsani
nst
rumentof
accessi
on.Accessi
ont
husr
efer
stoaf
ormalaccept
anceofat
reat
ybyaSt
ate
whi
chdi
dnotpar
ti
cipat
einnegot
iat
ingandsi
gni
ngi
t.Thedi
ff
erencebet
ween
accessi
on,ont
heonehand,andsi
gnat
ureorr
ati
fi
cat
ion,ont
heot
her
,ist
hatt
he
accedi
ngst
atedi
dnott
akepar
tint
henegot
iat
ionswhi
chpr
oducedt
het
reat
y,but
wasi
nvi
tedbyt
henegot
iat
ingst
atest
oaccedet
oit
.Accessi
oni
spossi
bleonl
yifi
t
i
spr
ovi
dedi
nthet
reat
y,ori
fal
lthepar
ti
est
othet
reat
yagr
eet
hatt
heaccedi
ng
st
ateshoul
dbeal
l
owedt
oaccede.Accessi
onhast
hesameef
fect
sassi
gnat
ure
andr
ati
fi
cat
ioncombi
ned.Putdi
ff
erent
ly,t
hel
egalef
fectoft
heaccessi
onand
r
ati
fi
cat
ionar
ethesame.

I
nter
pret
ati
onofTr
eat
yTer
ms

I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
reat
iesi
sthemostf
requentf
ocusofdi
sput
esar
isi
ngwi
thr
egar
d
t
otr
eat
ies.Becausel
anguagei
snotaper
fectmeansf
orexpr
essi
ngl
egalr
ules,
ambi
gui
ti
es and uncer
tai
nti
es i
n t
reat
y-t
ext
s ar
e common phenomena.
I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
reat
iesi
sar
ati
onalpr
ocessofcl
ari
fyi
ngandel
uci
dat
ingt
he
meani
ngofuncl
earandambi
guoust
reat
ypr
ovi
sions.I
tspur
posei
stoascer
tai
nin
goodf
ait
hthei
ntent
ionoft
hepar
ti
es.I
tisgov
ernedbynumer
ouspr
inci
plesand
r
ules dev
eloped by i
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
s,publ
i
cist
s,or
gans ofi
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionsanddi
plomat
icpr
act
ice.

Asf
arasi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
sconcer
ned,
ther
ear
ethr
eebasi
cappr
oachest
otr
eat
y
i
nter
pret
ati
on.Text
ualSchool
-or
dinar
ymeani
ngoft
ext
-Itcent
ersont
heact
ual
t
extof t
he agr
eementand emphasi
zes t
he anal
ysi
s of t
he wor
ds used.
I
nter
pret
ati
on oft
reat
yter
msaccor
ding t
othei
ror
dinar
ymeani
ng and asan
or
dinar
yper
sonwoul
dunder
standt
hem.Thus,i
fther
eisaquest
ionast
othe
meani
ngofawor
dinat
reat
y,t
hecour
tshoul
dlookupt
hewor
dint
hedi
cti
onar
y.
Accor
dingt
otheobj
ect
iveappr
oach,i
tisnoti
mpor
tantwhatwasi
nthemi
ndsof
t
hedr
aft
ersoft
het
reat
y.Af
teral
l
,ot
hermember
soft
het
reat
ycannotseei
ntot
he

128|Page
2024
mi
ndsoft
hedr
aft
ers.Whati
simpor
tanti
show t
hedr
aft
ersmani
fest
edt
hei
r
t
hought
sint
hewor
dsoft
het
reat
y.

I
ntent
ional
istSchool
-Seeki
ntent
ionoft
hedr
aft
ers-Thi
sschoolwel
comest
he
i
ntent
ionoft
hepar
ti
esadopt
ingt
heagr
eementast
hesol
uti
ont
oambi
guous
pr
ovi
sionsandcanbet
ermedt
hesubj
ect
iveappr
oachi
ncont
radi
sti
nct
iont
othe
obj
ect
iveappr
oachoft
hepr
evi
ousschool
.Suchschoolacknowl
edgest
hatwor
ds
onl
yhav
esuchmeani
ngast
hepar
ti
esgav
ethem.I
tispossi
blet
hatt
hepar
ti
est
o
t
het
reat
yhadsomespeci
alunder
standi
ngast
othemeani
ngoft
ermst
hati
snot
f
oundi
nadi
cti
onar
y.Thus,acour
tshoul
dlookatany
thi
ngt
hatmi
ghti
ndi
cat
e
whatt
hepar
ti
eswer
ethi
nki
ng–t
hei
rbehav
ior
,let
ter
s,andt
hedr
aft
inghi
stor
yof
t
het
reat
y.

Tel
eol
ogi
calSchool
-Suchappr
oachadopt
sawi
derper
spect
ivet
hant
heot
hert
wo
andemphasi
zest
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
yast
hemosti
mpor
tant
backcl
othagai
nstwhi
cht
hemeani
ngofanypar
ti
cul
art
reat
ypr
ovi
sionshoul
dbe
measur
ed.Thi
stel
eol
ogi
cal
school
oft
houghthast
heef
fectofunder
li
ningt
her
ole
oft
hej
udgeorar
bit
rat
or,si
ncehewi
l
lbecal
l
edupont
odef
inet
heobj
ectand
pur
poseoft
het
reat
y,andi
thasbeencr
it
ici
zedf
orencour
agi
ngj
udi
cial
law-
maki
ng.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,anyt
ruei
nter
pret
ati
onofat
reat
yini
nter
nat
ionall
aw wi
l
lhav
eto
t
akei
ntoaccountal
laspect
soft
heagr
eement
,fr
om t
hewor
dsempl
oyedt
othe
i
ntent
ionoft
hepar
ti
esandt
heai
msoft
hepar
ti
cul
ardocument
.Iti
snotpossi
ble
t
oexcl
udecompl
etel
yanyoneoft
hesecomponent
s.Onasi
mil
arcont
inuum,t
he
1969 Conv
ent
ion gav
erecogni
ti
on t
o t
he af
orement
ioned doct
ri
nes. The
conv
ent
ionl
aysdownt
hef
undament
alr
ulesofi
nter
pret
ati
onandcanbet
akenas
r
efl
ect
ingcust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw.Ar
ti
cle31(
1)decl
arest
hatat
reat
yshal
lbe
i
nter
pret
ed‘
i
ngoodf
ait
hinaccor
dancewi
tht
heor
dinar
ymeani
ngt
obegi
vent
o
t
het
ermsoft
het
reat
yint
hei
rcont
extandi
nthel
i
ghtofi
tsobj
ectandpur
pose’
.
Thus,t
heVCLTat
tempt
stocombi
net
hebestpar
tsofeachappr
oachi
ntoone
coher
entwhol
e.TheVCLTcont
ainsspeci
fi
cpr
ovi
sionsconcer
ninggener
alr
ulesof
t
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ion,suppl
ement
arymeansofi
nter
pret
ati
on,andi
nter
pret
ati
onof

129|Page
2024
t
reat
iesaut
hent
icat
edi
ntwoormor
elanguages.

Ar
ti
cle31.Gener
alRul
eofI
nter
pret
ati
on

1.
Thebasi
cpr
ovi
si
onr
elat
ingt
oint
erpr
etat
ioni
sfoundi
nAr
ti
cle31(
1):“
Atr
eat
y
shal
lbei
nter
pret
edi
ngoodf
ait
hinaccor
dancewi
tht
heor
dinar
ymeani
ngt
obe
gi
vent
othet
ermsoft
het
reat
yint
hei
rcont
extandi
nthel
i
ghtofi
tsobj
ectand
pur
pose.
”Thi
sisnotast
epbyst
epanal
ysi
s.Rat
her
,wheni
nter
pret
ingat
reat
y,t
he
st
udentshoul
dappl
yal
ltheseel
ement
s,att
hesamet
ime.

GoodFai
th

Tost
art
,thet
reat
ymustbei
nter
pret
edi
ngoodf
ait
h.I
not
herwor
ds,
apar
tyshoul
d
notat
temptt
otwi
stt
hel
anguageoft
het
reat
yinor
dert
osecur
esomesel
fi
sh
benef
itf
ori
tthatwasnotcont
empl
atedbyt
heot
herpar
ti
es.Goodf
ait
hrequi
res
neut
ral
i
ty.“
The pur
pose oft
he Tr
eat
y and t
he i
ntent
ions oft
he par
ti
es i
n
concl
udi
ngi
t…shoul
dpr
evai
lov
eri
tsl
i
ter
alappl
i
cat
ion…Thepr
inci
pleofgood
f
ait
hobl
i
gest
hePar
ti
est
oappl
y[t
het
reat
y]i
nar
easonabl
eway
…”

Or
dinar
yMeani
ng

Asf
ort
het
reat
yter
msconcer
ned,t
heymustbegi
vent
hei
r“or
dinar
ymeani
ng.
”
Theor
dinar
ymeani
ngi
sty
pical
l
ytheonef
oundi
nthedi
cti
onar
y.Howev
er,“
“[
a]
speci
almeani
ngshal
lbegi
vent
oat
ermi
fiti
sest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
hepar
ti
esso
i
ntended.
”(VCLTAr
ti
cle31(
4))Thi
. sleavesr
oom f
ort
hepar
ti
est
oint
roduceot
her
evi
dencet
hatwoul
dmodi
fyorchanget
hedi
cti
onar
ydef
ini
ti
onofat
erm.Thi
sis
t
he“
int
ent
ionoft
hepar
ti
es”appr
oachoft
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ion.

Cont
ext

Thecont
extofat
reat
yfort
hepur
poseofi
nter
pret
ati
oncompr
ises,i
naddi
ti
ont
o
i
tst
ext
,incl
udi
ngi
tspr
eambl
eandannexes,
anyagr
eementandi
nst
rumentr
elat
ed
t
oitandmadei
nconnect
ionwi
thi
tsconcl
usi
on.Thet
ermshencemustbe
i
nter
pret
ed“
int
hei
rcont
ext
.”I
not
herwor
ds,t
het
reat
ymustbei
nter
pret
edasa

130|Page
2024
whol
edocument
,noti
nbi
tsandpi
eces.Thecour
tshoul
dnotl
ookatspeci
fi
c
t
ermsi
nisol
ati
onf
rom t
her
estoft
het
reat
y.Rel
evantcont
exti
ncl
udes(
1)ot
her
t
ermsi
nthesamepr
ovi
sion,(
2)ot
herpr
ovi
sionsi
nthet
reat
y,(
3)t
hepr
eambl
eof
t
het
reat
y,and(
4)annexest
othet
reat
y.

Obj
ectandPur
pose

Asaf
inalcheckont
heappr
opr
iat
enessofi
nter
pret
ati
on,t
heVCLTr
emi
ndsus
t
hati
nter
pret
ati
onshoul
dpr
oceedi
nli
ghtoft
het
reat
y’sobj
ectandpur
pose.I
fa
l
i
ter
alunder
standi
ngofsomepr
ovi
sionconf
li
ctswi
tht
heunder
lyi
ngpur
poseof
t
het
reat
y,t
hent
heunder
lyi
ngpur
posemustpr
evai
l
.Inpr
act
icet
heobj
ectand
pur
poseoft
het
reat
ymaynotbepar
ti
cul
arl
yhel
pful
,ast
heobj
ectandpur
pose
i
tsel
fisexpl
ainedbyt
hewor
dsi
nthet
reat
yandmaybesubj
ectt
odi
ff
erent
i
nter
pret
ati
ons.Agoodpl
acet
olookf
ort
heobj
ectandpur
posei
sint
hepr
eambl
e
oft
het
reat
y.I
ntheend,r
esor
ttot
heobj
ectandpur
posei
smor
etoconf
ir
m an
i
nter
pret
ati
onbasedont
extandcont
ext
.

Subsi
diar
yorSuppl
ement
aryMeansofI
nter
pret
ati
on:Dr
aft
inghi
stor
y

TheVi
ennaConv
ent
ionpr
ovi
dest
hat“
[r
ecour
semaybehadt
osuppl
ement
ary
meansofi
nter
pret
ati
on,i
ncl
udi
ng t
hepr
epar
ator
ywor
koft
het
reat
yand t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesofi
tsconcl
usi
on”
,whent
hemeani
ngr
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ion
oft
heabov
egener
alr
ulesneedst
obeconf
ir
med,orwhent
hei
nter
pret
ati
on
accor
dingt
othesai
dgener
alr
ulesl
eav
est
hemeani
ngambi
guousorobscur
e,or
l
eadst
oamani
fest
lyabsur
dorunr
easonabl
eresul
t.

TheVCLThasr
atherspeci
fi
crul
eswi
thr
egar
dtot
heuseofdr
aft
inghi
stor
yin
t
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ion.Dr
aft
inghi
stor
yist
hebodyofwr
it
ingspr
oducedbyt
he
dr
aft
ersoft
het
reat
ydur
ingt
hedr
aft
ingpr
ocess.I
tmayi
ncl
ude,f
orexampl
e,
di
scussi
onsamongstpar
ti
est
othet
reat
yabouthowt
het
reat
yshoul
dbewr
it
ten,
oranal
ter
nat
ivepr
oposalbyoneoft
hepar
ti
est
hatwer
erej
ect
edandt
her
easons
f
orr
eject
ion.Al
thought
hesubj
ect
iveappr
oachal
way
swoul
dal
l
owdr
aft
inghi
stor
y
t
obeconsi
der
edwheni
nter
pret
ingt
reat
yter
ms,t
heVCLTdi
sfav
orst
hedr
aft
ing

131|Page
2024
hi
stor
yandonl
yal
l
owsi
tincer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances.

Ther
ear
esomegoodr
easonsf
orbei
ngcaut
iouswhenusi
ngdr
aft
inghi
stor
y.I
tis
t
empt
ing t
o use t
he dr
aft
ing hi
stor
y because i
tof
ten cont
ains a det
ail
ed
descr
ipt
ionofhowt
het
ermsoft
het
reat
ywer
enegot
iat
ed.Manywoul
dtaket
his
r
ecor
d ofnegot
iat
ions as t
he bestr
efl
ect
ion oft
he par
ti
es’i
ntentand best
expl
anat
ionf
ort
hepar
ti
es’
choi
ceofl
anguage.

I
nfact
,though,
Stat
erepr
esent
ati
vessaymanyt
hingst
hatt
heydonotmeani
nthe
cour
seofnegot
iat
ionsi
nor
dert
osecur
eabet
terbar
gai
ningposi
ti
on.Thus,t
he
l
anguageofbar
gai
ningmaynotr
efl
ectt
hepar
ti
es’t
ruei
ntent
ions.Mor
eov
er,not
al
lpar
ti
est
othet
reat
ymaybepr
esentatt
henegot
iat
ions.Thi
sisespeci
all
ytr
ue
f
orSt
ateswhoaccedet
oat
reat
ylat
eronandt
aket
het
ermsoft
het
reat
yatt
hei
r
f
acev
alue.How canwehol
dsuchSt
atest
oani
nter
pret
ati
onoft
reat
yter
ms
der
ivedf
rom t
her
ecor
dofnegot
iat
ionsi
nwhi
cht
heydi
dnotpar
ti
cipat
e?

Unl
i
ket
hepur
eobj
ect
iveappr
oach,t
heVCLTdoesnotf
orbi
dtheuseofdr
aft
ing
hi
stor
yal
toget
her
.Cl
ear
ly,t
hough,dr
aft
inghi
stor
yisgi
venasecondar
yrol
ein
t
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ion.Fi
rst
,i oconf
tmaybeusedt ir
mthemeani
ngofawor
dthat
hasal
readybeenest
abl
i
shedbyr
esor
ttot
extandcont
ext(
VCLTAr
ti
cle32.
).But
whati
fthedr
aft
inghi
stor
ysomehow changesorcont
radi
ctst
hemeani
ngofa
pr
ovi
sionest
abl
i
shedbyt
extandcont ?Thi
ext sisnotal
l
owed.Ther
ear
ecases,
howev
er,whent
hemeani
ngofapr
ovi
sionsi
mpl
ycannotbedet
ermi
nedbyt
ext
andcont .I
ext nsuchcasest
hedr
aft
inghi
stor
ymaybeusedasani
ndependent
sour
ceofmeani
ng.Ast
heVCLTexpl
ains,
draf
ti
nghi
stor
ymaybeusedoni
tsown
t
odet
ermi
net
hemeani
ngofwor
dswhenei
ther(
1)r
egul
ari
nter
pret
ati
onaccor
ding
t
otextandcont
ext“
leav
est
hemeani
ngambi
guousorobscur
e”or(
2)r
egul
ar
i
nter
pret
ati
on“
leadst
oar
esul
twhi
chi
smani
fest
lyabsur
dorunr
easonabl
e”(
See
VCLTAr
ti
cle32)
.

Themet
hodoft
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ionundert
heVCLT i
sknownas“
progr
essi
ve
enci
rcl
ement
.”Ther
ear
enotst
epst
o beappl
i
edl
i
near
lybutr
atherl
ayer
sof
meani
ngt
obeuncov
eredbyci
rcl
i
ngdeeperanddeeper
.Anexampl
eoft
reat
y

132|Page
2024
i
nter
pret
ati
onundert
heVCLTmayhel
pexpl
ain.Aust
ri
aent
eredi
ntoat
reat
yaf
ter
Wor
ldWarI
Ithatpr
ohi
bit
edAust
ri
ansf
rom buy
ing“
air
planes”f
rom Ger
manyor
Japan.Lat
er,
anAust
ri
anf
lyi
ngcl
ubwant
edt
opur
chaseagl
i
der(
anon-
mot
ori
zed
ai
rcr
aft
)fr
om Ger
many
.Thesi
mpl
equest
ion i
s,ar
e“gl
i
der
s”i
ncl
uded i
nthe
meani
ng oft
he wor
d“ai
rpl
ane”such t
hatt
he Aust
ri
ans ar
e notal
l
owed t
o
pur
chasegl
i
der
sfr
om Ger
many
?Thepl
ainmeani
ngoft
het
exti
ndi
cat
est
hat
“
air
plane”meansonl
ymot
ori
zedai
rcr
aft
.Agl
i
deri
snotmot
ori
zedandt
her
efor
eit
i
s notan ai
rpl
ane.The cont
ext
,howev
er,gi
ves us some mor
e cl
ues.Ot
her
pr
ovi
sionsi
nthet
reat
yref
err
edt
o“ai
rcr
aft
”whi
chi
sabr
oadercat
egor
yincl
udi
ng
bot
hmot
ori
zedandnonmot
ori
zedf
lyi
ngv
ehi
cles.I
tappear
edt
hatt
hedr
aft
ersof
t
het
reat
yusedt
hewor
d“ai
rpl
ane”i
nthi
spar
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sionasasy
nony
mfor
“
air
craf
t.
”Thus,i
tcanbei
nfer
redt
hatt
het
reat
ymeantt
obant
hepur
chaseofal
l
ai
rcr
aftf
rom Ger
many
,incl
udi
nggl
i
der
s.

I
nval
idi
tyofTr
eat
iesandTr
eat
yTer
minat
ion

Dearl
ear
ner
s,When and how t
reat
iest
ermi
nat
eand become
i
nval
id?

I
nval
i
dit
yofat
reat
ymeansnul
l
ityofat
reat
yori
tspar
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sionsbecauseof
t
heexi
stenceorabsenceofcer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancesorcondi
ti
onsaf
fect
ingi
tsl
egal
st
atus.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentr
easonst
hatat
reat
ybecomesi
rr
elev
antori
nval
i
d.The
1969Conv
ent
ioncl
ear
lyst
atedt
hev
ari
ousway
sofi
nval
i
dat
ingt
reat
ies.Ar
ti
cle42
st
atest
hatt
hev
ali
dit
yandcont
inuancei
nfor
ceofat
reat
ymayonl
ybequest
ioned
ont
hebasi
soft
hepr
ovi
sionsi
ntheVi
ennaConv
ent
ion.I
nrar
ecasesaseemi
ngl
y
bi
ndi
ngt
reat
yisdi
scov
eredt
obei
nval
i
dfr
om t
hebegi
nni
ng.I
nanycase,
inv
ali
dit
y
ofat
reat
yisdi
ff
icul
ttopr
oveandr
arel
yar
gued.Thegr
oundsofi
nval
i
dit
yof
t
reat
iesdeal
twi
tht
heVi
ennaconv
ent
ionasdi
scussedher
einundert
ogi
vea
compl
etepi
ctur
e.

At
reat
ymaybei
nval
i
dbecausei
tis“
ult
rav
ires”ori
not
herwor
dsbecauset
he
r
epr
esent
ati
veact
edbey
ondhi
saut
hor
it
yandagr
eedt
oat
reat
yorat
ermi
na

133|Page
2024
t
reat
ythatwasagai
nstt
heSt
ate’
sdomest
icl
aw.Thev
iol
ati
onofdomest
icl
aw
mustbe“
mani
fest
”(i
.e.obv
ious)
,andt
hedomest
icl
aw t
hati
svi
olat
edmustbe
one of“
fundament
ali
mpor
tance.
”(See VCLT Ar
ti
cle 46.
).St
ates t
hus can
i
nval
i
dat
eat
reat
yifi
tnegat
ivel
yaf
fect
sthef
undament
alpr
inci
plesofi
tsdomest
ic
l
aws.

At
reat
ymaybei
nval
i
dbecauseofer
rorori
ncor
rectunder
standi
ngoff
act
s
(
art
icl
e48)
.Forexampl
e,at
reat
yest
abl
i
shi
ngabor
dermaybei
nval
i
dbecausei
tis
basedonani
ncor
rectmap.Ar
ti
cle48decl
arest
hatast
atemayonl
yinv
okean
er
rori
nat
reat
yasi
nval
i
dat
ingi
tsconsentt
obeboundbyt
het
reat
y,i
ftheer
ror
r
elat
est
oaf
actorsi
tuat
ionwhi
chwasassumedbyt
hatst
atet
oexi
statt
het
ime
whent
het
reat
ywasconcl
udedandf
ormedanessent
ialbasi
sofi
tsconsentt
obe
boundbyt
het
reat
y.

At
reat
ymaybe i
nval
i
d because ofcor
rupt
ion,f
orexampl
e when a St
ate’
s
r
epr
esent
ati
vei
s

br
ibed(
Art
icl
e50)
.

At
reat
ymaybei
nval
i
dbecauseoff
raud,
ifaSt
atehasbeeni
nducedt
oconcl
udea
t
reat
ybyt
hef
raudul
entconductofanot
hernegot
iat
ingSt
ate,
theSt
atemayi
nvoke
t
hef
raudasi
nval
i
dat
ingi
tsconsentt
obeboundbyt
het
reat
y.Thedel
i
ber
ateuse
off
alsi
fi
edmaps,di
stor
tedorf
orgeddocument
sandf
alsest
atement
sbyt
he
r
epr
esent
ati
vesdur
ingdr
awi
ngupat
reat
ycani
nval
i
dat
etr
eat
y(Ar
ti
cle49)

At
reat
ymaybe i
nval
i
d because ofcoer
cion,f
orexampl
e when a St
atei
s
t
hreat
enedi
ntosi
gni
ngat
reat
y.Theappl
i
cat
ionoff
orce,i
nti
midat
ion,ordur
ess
dur
ingt
het
reat
ymaki
ngpr
ocesswi
l
linv
ali
dat
ethel
awf
ulnessofat
reat
y.St
ate'
s
r
epr
esent
ati
vemustbef
reeandgi
veconsent
s.Wher
econsenthasbeenobt
ained
bycoer
cingt
her
epr
esent
ati
veofast
ate,whet
herbyact
sort
hreat
sdi
rect
ed
agai
nsthi
m,i
tshal
l
,accor
dingt
oar
ti
cle51oft
heConv
ent
ion,
bewi
thoutanyl
egal
ef
fect
.

134|Page
2024
Fi
nal
l
y,at
reat
ymaybei
nval
i
dbecausei
tvi
olat
esaper
empt
or m(
ynor j
uscogens)
.
Ar
ti
cle53oft
heConv
ent
ionpr
ovi
dest
hat
:tr
eat
yisv
oidi
f,att
het
imeofi
ts
concl
usi
on,i
tconf
li
cts wi
th a per
empt
orynor
m ofgener
ali
nter
nat
ionall
aw.
Per
empt
orynor
ms ar
e cust
oms t
hathav
e become so wel
l
-accept
ed and no
der
ogat
ioni
sper
mit
ted.Ar
ti
cle53oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
ies,
1969,
prov
idest
hatat
reat
ywi
l
lbev
oid‘
i
f,att
het
ime ofi
tsconcl
usi
on,
itconf
li
cts
wi
thaper
empt
orynor
m ofgener
ali
nter
nat
ionall
aw’
.Suchnor
mscannotbe
modi
fi
edbyt
reat
iesandanyt
reat
ypr
ovi
sionwhi
chconf
li
ctswi
tht
her
ulesofj
us
cogenswi
l
lbenul
landv
oidi
rr
espect
iveofwhet
herr
ulesofj
uscogensdevel
op
bef
oreoraf
tert
het
reat
ycamei
ntof
orce(
art
icl
e64oft
heVi
ennaconv
ent
ionon
t
hel
aw oft
reat
ies)
.Thepr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
ure;t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofapar
thei
d;t
he
pr
ohi
bit
ion of genoci
de;t
he pr
ohi
bit
ion of aggr
essi
on;t
he r
ight t
o sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion;t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofr
aci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ion;t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofsl
aver
y;
andt
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofpi
racycanbet
ypi
cal
exampl
es.

Tr
eat
yTer
minat
ion

Ter
minat
ionofat
reat
ymeanst
heendoft
heoper
ati
onofat
reat
y,r
esul
ti
ngi
n
depr
ivi
ngal
lthepar
ti
esofal
lther
ight
s,andi
nrel
easi
ngt
hem f
rom per
for
ming
f
urt
herobl
i
gat
ions,undert
het
reat
y.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw doesnotal
l
ow t
reat
iest
o
endeasi
l
y.Ther
eisagener
alpol
i
cyoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyi
nfav
orof
st
abl
eint
erst
ater
elat
ions.The pol
i
cyal
so f
avor
s st
abl
etr
eat
yrel
ati
ons and
cont
inuat
ion of t
reat
y obl
i
gat
ions.One mi
ght compar
e,f
or exampl
e,t
he
t
ermi
nat
ionofcont
ract
sunderdomest
icl
awwi
tht
het
ermi
nat
ionoft
reat
iesunder
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Apar
tyt
oacont
ractmayuni
l
ater
all
yter
minat
ethecont
ractand
paydamagest
otheot
herpar
tyf
ort
heunl
awf
ulbr
each.I
nasense,t
hebr
eachi
ng
par
tyi
spay
ingt
obef
reef
rom t
hecont
ract
.Ini
nter
nat
ionall
aw,aSt
atecannot
uni
l
ater
all
yter
minat
eat
reat
yandsi
mpl
ypaydamagesf
ort
heunl
awf
ulbr
each.
Thet
reat
ywi
l
lcont
inuei
nfor
ceev
enaf
terpay
mentofdamagesbyt
hebr
eachi
ng
par
ty,unl
essofcour
set
henon-
breachi
ngpar
tyopt
stot
ermi
nat
ethet
reat
y(i
.e.
unl
esst
henon-
breachi
ngpar
tyagr
eeswi
tht
hebr
eachi
ngpar
tyt
oter
minat
e).

135|Page
2024
Ev
enwhent
ermi
nat
ioni
sper
missi
ble,
asf
orexampl
ebyt
hel
anguageoft
het
reat
y
i
tsel
forbecauseofmat
eri
albr
eachbyt
heot
herpar
ty,
ther
ear
ecer
tai
npr
ocedur
es
t
hataSt
atemustf
oll
owbef
oret
ermi
nat
ing(
SeeVCLTAr
ti
cle65.
).Fi
rst
,theSt
ate
t
hatwant
stot
ermi
nat
emustnot
if
ytheot
herpar
ti
est
othet
reat
yandgi
vei
ts
r
easonsf
ort
ermi
nat
ion.Then,
ift
heot
herpar
ti
esobj
ect
,theSt
atemustat
temptt
o
r
esol
ve t
he di
sagr
eement t
hrough i
nter
nat
ional di
sput
e mechani
sms l
i
ke
negot
iat
ionorar
bit
rat
ionoradj
udi
cat
ionbef
oreani
nter
nat
ionalcour
t.Basi
cal
l
y,
unl
esst
heot
herpar
ti
esconsent
,ter
minat
ionwi
l
lrequi
ret
hei
nter
vent
ionofan
i
mpar
ti
alt
hir
dpar
tyl
i
ket
heI
CJt
odet
ermi
net
hev
ali
dit
yoft
het
ermi
nat
ingpar
ty’
s
cl
aimsandt
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
ermi
nat
ioni
sper
missi
ble.I
not
herwor
ds,
ast
ate
cannotr
eleasei
tsel
ffr
om i
tst
reat
yobl
i
gat
ionswhenev
eri
tfeel
sli
kei
t;i
fitcoul
d,
l
egal
rel
ati
onswoul
dbecomehopel
essl
yinsecur
e.

Nowwecomet
othemor
eimpor
tantquest
ion,
whencanaSt
atet
ermi
nat
eat
reat
y?

Ter
minat
ionbyt
reat
ypr
ovi
sionoft
reat
y-Ar
ti
cle54oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ion
pr
ovi
des:‘
Thet
ermi
nat
ionofat
reat
yort
hewi
thdr
awalofapar
tymayt
akepl
ace;
(
a)i
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
het
reat
y.’I
ndeed,t
hemaj
ori
tyofmoder
n
t
reat
iescont
ainpr
ovi
sionsf
ort
ermi
nat
ionorwi
thdr
awal
.At
reat
ywi
l
lext
inctwhen
t
hei
rti
mel
i
mit
sexpi
re.Forexampl
e,t
het
reat
ymayl
astf
or20y
ear
sandt
hen
aut
omat
ical
l
yter
minat
e.Or
,thet
reat
ymayal
l
owt
ermi
nat
iononappl
i
cat
ionbyone
oft
hepar
ti
est
osomei
nter
nat
ional
body
.

Ter
minat
ionbyconsentoft
hepar
ti
es-
iti
sal
way
spossi
blet
oter
minat
ethet
reat
y
i
fal
lthepar
ti
est
othet
reat
yagr
eet
odoso.I
tcanbedi
ssol
vedbasedont
he
mut
ualconsentoft
hepar
ti
est
othet
reat
y.Justast
woormor
epar
ti
est
oa
mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ymaymodi
fyasbet
weent
hemsel
vespar
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sionsoft
he
agr
eement
,203sot
heymayunderar
ti
cle58agr
eet
osuspendt
heoper
ati
onof
t
reat
ypr
ovi
si
ons

At
reat
ymay
,ofcour
se,comet
oanendi
fit
spur
posesandobj
ect
iveshav
ebeen
f
ulf
il
ledori
fiti
scl
earf
rom i
tspr
ovi
sionst
hati
tisl
i
mit
edi
nti
meandt
her
equi
sit
e
per
iodhasel
apsed.

136|Page
2024
Wher
eal
lthepar
ti
est
oat
reat
ylat
erconcl
udeanot
heragr
eementr
elat
ingt
othe
samesubj
ectmat
ter
,theear
li
ert
reat
ywi
l
lber
egar
dedast
ermi
nat
edwher
eit
appear
sthatt
hemat
teri
stobegov
ernedbyt
hel
ateragr
eementorwher
ethe
pr
ovi
sionsoft
hel
atert
reat
yar
esoi
ncompat
ibl
ewi
tht
hoseoft
heear
li
eronet
hat
t
het
wot
reat
iesar
enotcapabl
eofbei
ngappl
i
edatt
hesamet
ime.

Thequest
i swhatwi
oni l
lhappenwher
eat
reat
ycont
ainsnopr
ovi
sionr
egar
ding
t
ermi
nat
ionanddoesnotpr
ovi
def
ordenunci
ati
onorwi
thdr
awalspeci
fi
cal
l
y.I
nthe
absenceofagr
eementamongt
hepar
ti
esast
oter
minat
ion,
thedef
aul
trul
eist
hat
t
ermi
nat
ioni
spossi
bleonl
yinf
oursi
tuat
ions.(
SeeVCLTAr
ti
cles60-
62.
)These
si
tuat
ionsar
e:

Ter
minat
ionbasedonmat
eri
albr
eachbyt
heot
herpar
ty,

At
reat
yter
minat
ionmayhappenwhenonepar
tybr
eachest
hepr
ovi
sionoft
he
agr
eement
sandt
heot
herpar
tyorpar
ti
esoptt
oconsi
dert
het
reat
yabr
ogat
edby
t
hev
iol
ati
on.I
fonest
atev
iol
atesani
mpor
tantpr
ovi
sioni
nanagr
eement
,iti
snot
unnat
uralf
ort
heot
herst
atesconcer
nedt
oregar
dthatagr
eementasendedbyi
t.
Theaggr
iev
edpar
ti
esmaydecl
aret
hatt
hev
iol
ati
onwassosev
eret
hatt
hey
consi
dert
het
reat
yvoi
dandt
heynol
ongerwantt
obeboundbyt
hepr
ovi
sioni
n
t
hei
nst
rument
s.

Ar
ti
cle60(
1)oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionpr
ovi
des:‘
Amat
eri
albr
eachofabi
l
ater
al
t
reat
ybyoneoft
hepar
ti
esent
it
lest
heot
hert
oinv
oket
hebr
eachasagr
oundf
or
t
ermi
nat
ingt
het
reat
yorsuspendi
ngi
tsoper
ati
oni
nwhol
eori
npar
t.
’Amat
eri
al
br
eachofat
reat
y,basedonAr
ti
cle60(
3)oft
heconv
ent
ion,
consi
sts:

ar
epudi
ati
onoft
het
reat
ynotper
mit
tedbyt
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ion;
or

t
hev
iol
ati
onofapr
ovi
sionessent
ialt
otheaccompl
i
shmentoft
heobj
ector
pur
poseoft
het
reat
y.

Wher
esuchabr
eachoccur
sinabi
l
ater
alt
reat
y,t
henunderar
ti
cle60(
1)t
he
i
nnocentpar
tymayi
nvoket
hatbr
eachasagr
oundf
ort
ermi
nat
ingt
het
reat
yor

137|Page
2024
suspendi
ngi
tsoper
ati
oni
nwhol
eori
npar
t.Ther
eisar
atherdi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ioni
n
t
hecaseofamul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ysi
nceanumberofi
nnocentpar
ti
esar
einv
olv
ed
t
hatmi
ghtnotwi
sht
het
reat
ytobedenouncedbyoneoft
hem becauseofa
br
eachbyanot
herst
ate.Tocov
ersuchsi
tuat
ions,ar
ti
cle60(
2)pr
escr
ibest
hata
mat
eri
albr
eachofamul
ti
lat
eral
treat
ybyoneoft
hepar
ti
esent
it
les:

t
heot
herpar
ti
esbyunani
mousagr
eementt
osuspendt
heoper
ati
onoft
het
reat
y
i
nwhol
eori
npar
tort
oter
minat
eitei
ther
:int
her
elat
ionsbet
weent
hemsel
vesand
t
hedef
aul
ti
ngst
ate,
orasbet
weenal
lthepar
ti
es;

apar
tyspeci
all
yaf
fect
edbyt
hebr
eacht
oinv
okei
tasagr
oundf
orsuspendi
ngt
he
oper
ati
onoft
het
reat
yinwhol
eori
npar
tint
her
elat
ionsbet
weeni
tsel
fandt
he
def
aul
ti
ngst
ate;

anypar
tyot
hert
hant
hedef
aul
ti
ngst
atet
oinv
oket
hebr
eachasagr
oundf
or
suspendi
ngt
heoper
ati
onoft
het
reat
yinwhol
eori
npar
twi
thr
espectt
oit
sel
fif
t
het
reat
yisofsuchachar
act
ert
hatamat
eri
albr
eachofi
tspr
ovi
sionsbyone
par
tyr
adi
cal
l
ychangest
heposi
ti
onofev
erypar
tywi
thr
espectt
othef
urt
her
per
for
manceofi
tsobl
i
gat
ionsundert
het
reat
y.

Fundament
alchangeofci
r ances,
cumst alsocal
l
ed(
rebussi
cst
ant
ibus)

Thedoct
rneofr
i ebussi
cst
ant
ibusi
sapr
inci
plei
ncust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw
pr
ovi
dingt
hatwher
ether
ehasbeenaf
undament
alchangeofci
rcumst
ancessi
nce
anagr
eementwasconcl
udedapar
tyt
othatagr
eementmaywi
thdr
aw f
rom or
t
ermi
nat
eit
.Iti
sjust
if
iedbyt
hef
actt
hatsomet
reat
iesmayr
emai
ninf
orcef
or
l
ongper
iodsoft
ime,
dur
ingwhi
chf
undament
alchangesmi
ght

hav
eoccur
red.Suchchangesmi
ghtencour
ageoneoft
hepar
ti
est
oadoptdr
ast
ic
measur
esi
nthef
aceofagener
alr
efusal
toacceptanal
ter
ati
oni
nthet
ermsoft
he
t
reat
y.

Af
undament
alchangei
nci
rcumst
ancesdoesnotmakei
timpossi
blet
oper
for
m

138|Page
2024
ont
het
reat
ybutr
athermakesi
tsensel
esst
oper
for
m.Thr
eer
equi
rement
smust
bemeti
nor
dert
oter
minat
ebasedonf
undament
alchange:

Thechangemustnotbef
oreseeabl
e(unf
oreseen;
)byt
hepar
ti
esatt
het
imeof
t
reat
yfor
mat
ion,t
heexi
stenceoft
heci
rcumst
ances(
thatnow hav
echanged)
mustbeanessent
ialbasi
soft
heagr
eement
,andt
hechangei
tsel
fmustbe
somet
hingsodr
amat
ict
hati
ttr
ansf
ormst
reat
yobl
i
gat
ions.

Super
veni
ngi
mpossi
bil
it
yofper
for
mance-
art
icl
e61

Wher
ethe car
ryi
ng outoft
he t
erms oft
he agr
eementbecomes i
mpossi
ble
because of t
he ‘
per
manent di
sappear
ance or dest
ruct
ion of an obj
ect
i
ndi
spensabl
efort
heexecut
ionoft
het
reat
y’
,apar
tymayv
ali
dlyt
ermi
nat
eor
wi
thdr
aw f
rom i
t.Howev
er,wher
ethei
mpossi
bil
i
tyi
sonl
ytempor
ary
,itmaybe
i
nvokedsol
elyt
osuspendt
heoper
ati
onoft
het
reat
y.

Anex
ampl
eof
tengi
veni
sift
het
reat
yper
tai
nst
oar
iverandt
hatr
iverl
aterdr
ies
uport
hesubmer
genceofani
sland.

Anew r
uleofj
uscogenst
hatemer
gessomet
imeaf
tert
het
reat
yisal
readyi
n
f
orce and t
hatconf
li
cts wi
tht
he t
reat
y.Ar
ti
cle 64 decl
ares t
hat‘
i
fa new
per
empt
orynor
m ofgener
ali
nter
nat
ionall
awemer
ges,
anyexi
sti
ngt
reat
ywhi
chi
s
i
nconf
li
ctwi
tht
hatnor
m becomesv
oidandt
ermi
nat
es’

Tr
eat
yReser
vat
ions

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whati
sthepr
eser
vat
ionoft
reat
ies,andhow cant
heybe
r
eser
ved?

Ast
atemaybewi
l
li
ngt
oacceptmostoft
hepr
ovi
sionsofat
reat
y,buti
tmay
,for
v
ari
ousr
easons,
obj
ectt
oot
herpr
ovi
sionsoft
het
reat
y.I
nsuchcasesst
atesof
ten
maker
eser
vat
ionswhent
heybecomepar
ti
est
oat
reat
y.Forexampl
e,t
heUni
ted
St
ates made a r
eser
vat
ion concer
ning t
he deat
h penal
tywhen i
tsi
gned t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCov
enanton Ci
vi
land Pol
i
ticalRi
ght
s.The St
ate wi
l
lmake a
r
eser
vat
iont
othatpr
ovi
sion,sot
hatt
het
reat
yisbi
ndi
ngont
hest
ate,exceptf
or

139|Page
2024
t
heonepr
ovi
si
on.

Ar
ti
cle 2(
1)(
d)oft
he Vi
enna Conv
ent
ion def
ines a r
eser
vat
ion as uni
l
ater
al
st
atement
…made bya St
ate,when si
gni
ng,r
ati
fyi
ng,accept
ing,appr
ovi
ng or
accedi
ngt
oat
reat
y,wher
ebyi
tpur
por
tst
oexcl
udeort
omodi
fyt
hel
egalef
fectof
cer
tai
npr
ovi
si
onsoft
het
reat
yint
hei
rappl
i
cat
iont
othatSt
ate.Ar
eser
vat
ioni
sa
l
i
mit
ati
onont
hecommi
tmentunder
takenbyast
ate.I
tmust
,ther
efor
e,bei
ncl
uded
i
nthei
nst
rumentofr
ati
fi
cat
ion,accept
ance,appr
ovaloraccessi
onorbeannexed
t
oit
.Wher
east
atei
ssat
isf
iedwi
thmostoft
het
ermsofat
reat
y,buti
sunhappy
aboutpar
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sions,i
tmay
,incer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances,wi
sht
oref
uset
o
acceptorbebound bysuch pr
ovi
sions,whi
l
econsent
ing t
other
estoft
he
agr
eement
.Byt
hedev
iceofexcl
udi
ngcer
tai
npr
ovi
sions,st
atesmayagr
eet
obe
bound by a t
reat
y whi
ch ot
herTo some ext
entr
eser
vat
ion i
s a means of
encour
agi
nghar
monyamongstst
atesofwi
del
ydi
ff
eri
ngsoci
al,economi
cand
pol
i
ticalsy
stems,byconcent
rat
ing upon agr
eed,basi
cissues and accept
ing
di
sagr
eementoncer
tai
not
hermat
ter
s.Si
ncest
atesar
esov
erei
gnact
orsandt
his
gi
vest
hem t
hepr
ivi
l
eget
oacti
nthei
rownchoi
cewi
thoutanypr
essur
efr
om
ot
her
s.Thi
sofcour
segi
vest
hem t
hecapaci
tyt
oref
usei
tsconsentt
opar
ti
cul
ar
pr
ovi
sionssot
hatt
heydonotbecomebi
ndi
nguponi
t.
wiset
heymi
ghtr
eject
ent
ir
ely
.On t
he ot
herhand,t
he pr
act
ice ofr
eser
vat
ion mi
ghtemer
ge asan
obst
acl
etot
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onofsi
gni
fi
cantt
ermsoft
reat
ies.I
tcoul
dser
iousl
y
di
slocat
ethewhol
epur
poseoft
heagr
eementandl
eadt
osomecompl
i
cat
ed
i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
psamongstst
ates.Theef
fectofar
eser
vat
iondependsonwhet
her
i
tisaccept
edorr
eject
edbyt
heot
herst
atesconcer
ned.Ar
eser
vat
iont
oabi
l
ater
al
t
reat
ypr
esent
snopr
obl
ems,
becausei
tis,
inef
fect
,anewpr
oposalr
eopeni
ngt
he
negot
iat
ionsbet
weent
het
wost
atesconcer
ningt
het
ermsoft
het
reat
y;and,
unl
essagr
eementcanber
eachedaboutt
het
ermsoft
het
reat
y,not
reat
ywi
l
lbe
concl
uded.Putdi
ff
erent
ly,anagr
eementbet
weent
wopar
ti
escannotexi
stwher
e
onepar
tyr
efusest
oacceptsomeoft
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
het
reat
y.Thi
sisnott
he
casewi
thr
espectt
omul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ies,andher
eiti
spossi
blef
ori
ndi
vi
dual

140|Page
2024
st
atest
odi
ssentf
rom par
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sions,
byannounci
ngt
hei
rint
ent
ionei
thert
o
omi
tthem al
toget
her
,orunder
standt
hem i
nacer
tai
nway
.Accor
dingl
y,t
heef
fect
ofar
eser
vat
ioni
ssi
mpl
ytoexcl
udet
het
reat
ypr
ovi
siont
owhi
cht
her
eser
vat
ion
hasbeenmadef
rom t
het
ermsoft
het
reat
yinf
orcebet
weent
hepar
ti
es.

I
nthecaseofamul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ythepr
obl
em i
smor
ecompl
i
cat
ed,becauset
he
r
eser
vat
ion may be accept
ed by some st
ates and r
eject
ed by ot
her
s.The
t
radi
ti
onalr
ulewast
hatast
atecoul
dnotmakear
eser
vat
iont
oat
reat
yunl
esst
he
r
eser
vat
ionwasaccept
edbyal
lthest
ateswhi
chhadsi
gned(
butnotnecessar
il
y
r
ati
fi
ed)oradher
edt
othet
reat
y.TheVi
ennaconv
ent
ionont
hel
awoft
reat
y,under
ar
ti
cle19st
atedt
hat"
ASt
atemay
,whensi
gni
ng,
rat
if
ying,
accept
ing,appr
ovi
ngor
accedi
ngt
oat
reat
y,f
ormul
atear
eser
vat
ionunl
ess:
"

Reser
vat
ion i
spr
ohi
bit
ed byt
he t
reat
y(E.
g.,Ar
t.120,I
CC St
atut
e and Most
env
ironment
alt
reat
iesdeposi
tedwi
tht
heS-
G(Mont
realPr
otocol
-onSubst
ances
t
hatDepl
etet
heOzoneLay
er,
1987-
Art
.18.Ky
otoPr
otocol
,Rot
ter
dam Conv
ent
ion,
St
ockhol
m Conv
ent
ion,
Car
tagenaPr
otocol
,et
c.,
UNConv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
he
Sea,pur
suantt
oit
sar
ti
cle309,st
atest
hatnor
eser
vat
ionsmaybemadet
othe
Conv
ent
ionunl
essexpr
essl
yper
mit
tedbyot
herar
ti
clesoft
hisConv
ent
ion.
)

Thet
reat
ypr
ovi
dest
hatonl
yspeci
fi
edr
eser
vat
ions,whi
chdonoti
ncl
udet
he
r
eser
vat
ioni
nquest
ion,
maybemade;
or

I
n cases notf
ail
i
ng under subpar
agr a) and (
aphs ( b),t
he r
eser
vat
ion i
s
i
ncompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
y.

Ther
efor
e,ar
eser
vat
ioni
sper
missi
bleunl
esst
het
reat
yit
sel
fpr
ohi
bit
sit
,ort
he
t
reat
yper
mit
sonl
ycer
tai
nreser
vat
ionsnoti
ncl
udi
ngt
heonei
nquest
ion,ort
he
r
eser
vat
ioni
sincompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
y.

Reser
vat
ionsusual
l
yar
emadet
omul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
ies,especi
all
yhumanr
ight
s
t
reat
ies.Thi
sisnott
osayt
hatr
eser
vat
ionscanonl
ybemadet
oHumanRi
ght
s
t
reat
ies.TheU.
S.i
snot
ori
ousf
ormaki
ngsuchr
eser
vat
ions.Togi
veanexampl
e,
t
heU.
S.madet
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eser
vat
ionst
othe1948Genoci
deConv
ent
ion:

141|Page
2024
TheLawoft
heSeaandLandl
ockedSt
ates

I
nter
nat
ionalLaw oft
heseas,popul
arl
yknownas‘
Law oft
heSea’expl
i
cit
ly
enshr
inedi
ntheUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
hesea(
UNCLOS)whi
ch
hasbeent
aggedwi
thsev
eralnomencl
atur
essuchas“
Lawoft
heSeaConv
ent
ion”
,
“
TheLaw oft
heSea Tr
eat
y’or“
Const
it
uti
on f
ort
heOceans”
,isoneoft
he
br
anchesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
tismaj
orl
yconcer
nedabouthow t
oachi
eveand
mai
ntai
npeace,decor
um andor
deratsea.Theoceansl
awandpol
i
cyar
emeant
t
opr
omot
erul
eofl
awi
nthewor
ld’
soceans;
theessenceofi
nter
nat
ionalmar
it
ime
agr
eementamongnat
ionsoft
hewor
ldi
sthepr
omot
ionoft
heunder
standi
ngof
andadher
encet
other
uleofl
awsot
hatanar
chyandchaoswoul
dnotbet
heor
der
oft
heday
.So,
aswehav
ethel
awoft
hel
andt
hatgui
dest
heconductofhumani
ty,
sot
her
eisal
sot
hel
awoft
heoceanst
hatr
egul
atet
heact
ivi
ti
esofseaf
arer
s.

Thecondi
ti
onsofl
and-
lockedst
atesar
eal
soaddr
essedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ions
Conv
ent
ionsont
heLaw oft
heSeasof1982(
UNCLOSI
II
).Ar
ti
cle124oft
he
conv
ent
iondef
inest
hel
and-
lockedst
ateasa‘
stat
ewhi
chhasnosea-
coast
’.Ther
e
ar
eei
ght
eenoft
hosest
atesi
nthewor
ld.I
nAf
ri
cal
and-
lockedSt
atesi
ncl
ude
Bur
undi
,Cent
ralAf
ri
ca Republ
i
c,Et
hiopi
a,Ni
ger
,Rwanda,Sout
h Sudan and
Swazi
l
and.Ar
ti
cl
e125st
atesamongot
hert
hings,
that
:

Land-
lockedst
atesshal
lhav
ether
ightofaccesst
oandf
rom t
heseaf
ort
he
pur
poseofexer
cisi
ngt
her
ight
spr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthi
sconv
ent
ioni
ncl
udi
ngt
hose
r
elat
ingt
othef
reedom oft
hehi
ghseasandt
hecommonher
it
ageofmanki
nd.

The1982Conv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
heSea

Forcent
uri
es,
thel
awoft
heseawasbasedont
heconceptoff
reedom oft
heseas,
wi
thnat
ions'
cont
rol
oft
heoceansl
i
mit
edt
onar
rowbandsadj
acentt
othei
rcoast
s.
I
twaspr
imar
il
ybasedoncust
omar
ylaw;i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
swer
eli
kel
yto
i
nvol
veasmal
lnumberofst
atesorcov
erapar
ti
cul
arr
egi
on.Byt
hemi
ddl
eoft
he
t
went
iet
hcent
ury
,ast
henat
ionsi
ncr
easedt
hei
rcapabi
l
ityt
oengagei
nlongr
ange
f
ishi
ng and commer
cialext
ract
ion,concer
ns ar
ose aboutpol
l
uti
on and t
he
exhaust
ibi
l
ityofoceanr
esour
ces.I
naddi
ti
on,t
heconceptoff
reedom oft
heseas

142|Page
2024
waser
odi
ng,
asmanynat
ionshadasser
tedsov
erei
gnt
yov
erwi
derar
eas,
clai
ming
r
ight
stot
her
esour
cesoft
hecont
inent
alshel
fandt
hewat
erabov
e.I
tbecame
necessar
ytodev
elopat
reat
y-basedr
egi
mef
oroceangov
ernance.A ser
iesof
Uni
tedNat
ionsconf
erencesont
hel
aw oft
hesea,conv
enedi
n1958,1960and
1973-
1982,pr
oducedanumberoft
reat
yagr
eement
sandt
heThi
rdConf
erence
cul
minat
edi
ntheadopt
ioni
n1982ofacompr
ehensi
vet
reat
yinst
rument
,the
Uni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLawofSea.

I
nthef
ir
stUNConf
erenceont
hel
awoft
heseawhi
chwashel
din1958i
nGenev
a,
t
he i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty adopt
ed f
ourmul
ti
lat
eralconv
ent
ions cov
eri
ng
v
ari
ousaspect
sont
hel
aw oft
hesea.Thesei
ncl
ude,1)Conv
ent
ionont
he
Ter
ri
tor
ialSeaandCont
iguousZone;Conv
ent
ionont
heHi
ghSeas;Conv
ent
ionon
Fi
shi
ngandConser
vat
ionofLi
vi
ngResour
ces;andConv
ent
ionont
heCont
inent
al
Shel
f.Al
ltheseconv
ent
ionsar
einf
orce,t
houghi
nmanyaspect
stheyhav
ebeen
out
dat
edbyt
he1982UN Conv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSeawhi
chi
smai
nlyof
gener
alappl
i
cat
ion,i
.e.
,iti
snotconf
inedt
oonespeci
fi
caspectoft
hel
awoft
he
sea.Fornon-
par
ti
est
othe1982Conv
ent
ionandf
ort
hosemat
ter
sonwhi
cht
he
1982 Conv
ent
ion i
ssi
l
ent
,the1958 Conv
ent
ionswi
l
lcont
inuet
o gov
ernt
he
r
elat
ionsofSt
atest
hathav
erat
if
iedt
hem.ForSt
atest
hatar
enei
therpar
tyt
othe
1982Conv
ent
ionnort
othe1958Conv
ent
ions,
ther
elev
antl
awi
sthecust
omar
y.

The1982Uni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSea(
UNCLOS)cr
eat
esa
compr
ehensi
ver
egi
megov
erni
ngt
her
ight
sofnat
ionswi
thr
espectt
othewor
ld'
s
oceans.Theconv
ent
ionaddr
essesanumberoft
opi
cs,i
ncl
udi
ngeconomi
czones
oft
hesea,t
hecont
inent
alshel
f,r
ight
stot
hedeepseabed,nav
igat
ionalr
ight
sin
t
err
it
ori
alandhi
ghseas,conser
vat
ionandmanagementoft
hel
i
vingr
esour
cesof
t
he sea,pr
otect
ion and pr
eser
vat
ion oft
he mar
ine env
ironment
,and ot
her
s.
Pr
ocedur
esf
ort
her
esol
uti
onofdi
sput
esar
eincl
uded.Theconv
ent
ionhas320
ar
ti
clesandni
neannexes.I
naddi
ti
on,t
woot
heragr
eement
sthatsuppl
ement
UNCLOShav
ebeenadopt
ed:TheAgr
eementRel
ati
ngt
otheI
mpl
ement
ati
onof
Par
tXIoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSeaof10December
1982andTheUni
tedNat
ionsAgr
eementf
ort
heI
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
hePr
ovi
sions

143|Page
2024
oft
heUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSeaof10December1982
Rel
ati
ng t
otheConser
vat
ionand ManagementofSt
raddl
i
ng Fi
shSt
ocksand
Hi
ghl
yMi
grat
oryFi
shSt
ocks.

Rel
ati
onsbet
weenCoast
alandLandl
ockedSt
ates

Ar
ti
cle125ofUNCLOSst
atedt
her
ightofaccesst
oandf
rom t
heseaandf
reedom
oft
ransi
tforl
andl
ockedst
ates.Accor
dingl
y;

1.
Landl
ockedSt
atesshal
lhav
ether
ightofaccesst
oandf
rom t
heseaf
ort
he
pur
poseofexer
cisi
ngt
her
ight
spr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthi
sConv
ent
ioni
ncl
udi
ngt
hose
r
elat
ingt
othef
reedom oft
hehi
ghseasandt
hecommonher
it
ageofmanki
nd.To
t
hisend,l
and-
lockedSt
atesshal
lenj
oyf
reedom oft
ransi
tthr
ought
het
err
it
oryof
t
ransi
tSt
atesbyal
lmeansoft
ranspor
t.

2.
Thet
ermsandmodal
i
tiesf
orexer
cisi
ngf
reedom oft
ransi
tshal
lbeagr
eed
bet
weent
hel
and-
lockedSt
atesandt
ransi
tSt
atesconcer
nedt
hroughbi
l
ater
al,
sub
r
egi
onal
orr
egi
onal
agr
eement
s.

3.
Transi
tSt
ates,i
ntheexer
ciseoft
hei
rful
lsov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
hei
rter
ri
tor
y,shal
l
hav
ether
ightt
otakeal
lmeasur
esnecessar
yto ensur
ethatt
her
ight
sand
f
aci
l
iti
espr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthi
sPar
tforl
and-
lockedSt
atesshal
linnowayi
nfr
inge
t
hei
rlegi
ti
mat
eint
erest
s.Ther
efor
e,l
and-
lockedst
atesar
econf
err
edwi
thsev
eral
r
ight
stoexer
cisei
nthef
oll
owi
ngmar
it
imezones.

Ter
ri
tor
ialsea:
Itext
endsupt
o12naut
ical
mil
es,
measur
edf
rom basel
i
nes(
Art
icl
e
3)
.Subj
ectt
otheConv
ent
ion,shi
psofal
lSt
ates,whet
hercoast
alorl
andl
ocked,
enj
oyt
her
ightofi
nnocentpassaget
hrought
het
err
it
ori
alsea(
Art
icl
e17)and
f
reedom ofnav
igat
ioni
nthewat
ersbey
ondt
het
err
it
ori
alsea(
Art
icl
e38(
1).Hence,
l
and-
lockedst
ateshav
ether
ightofi
nnocentpassage,passagewhi
chi
s“not
pr
ejudi
ci
alt
othepeace,
goodor
derorsecur
it
yoft
hecoast
alst
ate”(
art
icl
e19(
1).

Excl
usi
veeconomi
czone:Ar
ti
cle57ext
endst
heexcl
usi
veeconomi
czoneupt
o
200naut
ical
mil
esf
rom t
hebasel
i
nes.Ar
ti
cle58(
1)pr
ovi
des:

144|Page
2024
I
ntheexcl
usi
veeconomi
czone,al
lSt
ates,whet
hercoast
alorl
and-
locked,enj
oy,
subj
ectt
other
elevantpr
ovi
sionsoft
hisConvent
ion,t
hef
reedomsr
efer
redt
oin
ar
ti
cle87ofnavi
gat
ionandover
fl
ightandoft
hel
ayi
ngofsubmar
inecabl
esand
pi
pel
i
nes,and ot
heri
nter
nat
ional
l
ylawf
uluses oft
he sea r
elat
ed t
othese
f
reedoms,suchast
hoseassoci
atedwi
tht
heoper
ati
onofshi
ps,ai
rcr
aftand
submar
inecabl
esandpi
pel
i
nes,andcompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heot
herpr
ovi
sionsoft
his
Convent
ion.

Ar
ti
cle69(
1)oft
heconv
ent
ional
sopr
ovi
dest
hat“
landl
ockedSt
atesshal
lhav
e
t
her
ightt
opar
ti
cipat
e,onanequi
tabl
ebasi
s,i
ntheexpl
oit
ati
onofanappr
opr
iat
e
par
toft
hesur
plusoft
hel
i
vingr
esour
cesoft
heexcl
usi
veeconomi
czonesof
coast
alSt
at .
es”

A.
Highseas:Asperar
ti
cle86oft
heconv
ent
ionhi
ghseasmeans“
allpar
tsoft
he
seat
hatar
enoti
ncl
udedi
ntheexcl
usi
veeconomi
czone,
int
het
err
it
ori
alseaori
n
t
hei
nter
nalwat
ersofaSt
ate,ori
nthear
chi
pel
agi
cwat
ersofanar
chi
pel
agi
c
St
ate”
.Li
keot
hermar
it
imezones,t
hehi
ghseasar
ear
egi
mewher
eland-
locked
st
atesar
eal
l
owedt
oexer
ciseconsi
der
abl
eri
ght
s.Thehi
ghseasar
ebey
ondt
he
nat
ionalj
uri
sdi
cti
onofanyst
ate.Ar
ti
cle89oft
heconv
ent
ionunder
scor
edt
hatno
st
atecancl
aim sov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
hehi
ghseas.Ar
ti
cle87(
1)al
soaf
fi
rmst
hat
,“t
he
hi
ghseasar
eopent
oal
lSt
ates,whet
hercoast
alorl
and-
locked”
.Fol
l
owi
ngt
his
pr
emi
se,
theconv
ent
ionundert
hesamepr
ovi
sionpr
ovi
dedf
oral
lst
ates:

……… (
a)f
reedom ofnavi
gat
ion;(
b)f
reedom ofover
fl
ight
;(c)f
reedom t
olay
submar
inecabl
esand pi
pel
i
nes,subj
ectt
o Par
tVI
;(d)f
reedom t
o const
ruct
ar
ti
fi
ciali
slandsandot
heri
nst
all
ati
onsper
mit
tedunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,subj
ect
t
oPar
tVI
;(e)f
reedom off
ishi
ng,
subj
ectt
othecondi
ti
onsl
aiddowni
nsect
ion2;
(f)
f
reedom ofsci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch,
subj
ectt
oPar
tsVIandXI
II
.

Thus,i
tisev
identt
hatl
and-
lockedst
atesar
econf
err
edwi
thsi
gni
fi
cantr
ight
son
t
hehi
ghseasequal
l
ywi
thcoast
alst
ates.Ar
ti
cle90oft
hesamef
urt
heral
l
ows
t
hem t
oequal
l
ysai
lshi
psf
lyi
ngt
hei
rfl
agsont
hehi
ghseasascoast
alst
ates.Af
ter
al
l
,thehi
ghseasar
emar
it
imezoneswher
enoexcl
usi
vej
uri
sdi
cti
onofanyst
ate

145|Page
2024
canbecl
aimedorexer
cised.

B.
TheAr
ea/Seabedr
egi
me:Ar
ti
cle136oft
heconv
ent
ionst
atest
hatt
hear
eaand
i
tsr
esour
cesar
ethecommonher
it
ageofmanki
nd;wher
enost
atecancl
aim or
exer
cisesov
erei
gnt
yorsov
erei
gnr
ight
s(Ar
ti
cle137(
1).

Mor
eimpor
tant
ly,ar
ti
cle148oft
heconv
ent
iont
endst
opr
omot
etheef
fect
ive
par
ti
cipat
ionofl
and-
lockedst
atesi
ntheact
ivi
ti
esoft
hear
eahav
ingduer
egar
dto
t
hei
rspeci
alneeds.

Whati
sther
oleofnegot
iat
ingbi
lat
eralandmul
ti
lat
eralagr
eement
stoenj
oy
t
heser
ight
sforl
andl
ockedst
ates?

To enj
oyal
lthoser
ight
sment
ioned abov
e,l
and-
locked st
atesneed t
o make
agr
eement
swi
tht
het
ransi
tst
ates.

Secur
ingaccesst
otheseai
sthebackboneofenj
oymentoft
heent
ir
eri
ght
sont
he
sea.Thoughl
and-
lockedst
atesar
egi
venwi
thl
egalr
ightofaccesst
oandf
rom t
he
seaandf
reedom oft
ransi
tunderar
ti
cle125(
1),suchr
ight
sar
eputal
ongwi
th
si
gni
fi
cantpr
act
icalr
est
ri
cti
ons.Accor
dingl
y,ar
ti
cle125(
2)st
atest t
hat‘het
erms
andmodal
i
tiesf
orexer
cisi
ngf
reedom oft
ransi
tshal
lbeagr
eedbet
weent
hel
and-
l
ocked St
atesand t
ransi
tSt
atesconcer
ned t
hrough bi
l
ater
al,sub r
egi
onalor
r
egi
onalagr
eement
s.’Event
houghonecannotdenyt
her
elev
anceofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awoft
heseat
othel
and-
lockedst
ates’
over
allr
ight
sont
hesea,
thef
actr
emai
ns
t
hatt
hev
eryenj
oymentoft
hoser
ight
siscont
ingentupont
henegot
iat
iont
obe
madebet
weenl
and-
lockedandt
ransi
tst
ates.Thi
siscl
ear
lyar
ti
cul
atedbyShaw
(
2008)t
hat“
itwi
l
lthusbeseent
hatt
her
eisnoabsol
uter
ightoft
ransi
t,butr
ather
t
hatt
ransi
tdependsuponar
rangement
stobemadebet
weent
hel
andl
ockedand
t
ransi
tst
ates.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
theaf
fi
rmat
ionofar
ightofaccesst
otheseacoasti
s
ani
mpor
tantst
epi
nassi
sti
ngl
andl
ockedst
ates.
”

Li
kewi
se,
ther
ightpr
ovi
dedunderAr
ti
cle125(
1)seemsnotanabsol
uter
ightand
i
tshoul
dbeconsi
der
edal
ongwi
thsubar
ti
cl
e2and3oft
hesamear
ti
cle.Ar
ti
cle
125(
3)st
atest t
hat‘r
ansi
tSt
ates,i
ntheexer
ciseoft
hei
rful
lsover
eignt
yovert
hei
r

146|Page
2024
t
err
it
ory,shal
lhavet
her
ightt
otakeal
lmeasur
esnecessar
ytoensur
ethatt
he
r
ight
sandf
aci
l
iti
espr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthi
sPar
tforl
andl
ockedSt
atesshal
linnoway
i
nfr
inge t
hei
rlegi
ti
mat
eint
erest
s.Fol
l
owi
ng t
his,i
tis al
so ar
gued t
hatt
he
conv
ent
iondoesnotputacommi
tmentont
het
ransi
tst
atest
oref
rai
nfr
om
cr
eat
ingconst
rai
ntsf
orl
andl
ockedst
atesassubar
ti
cle3gi
vescompl
eter
ight
sto
t
het
ransi
tst
atest
otakeal
lmeasur
esnecessar
ytoensur
ethatt
het
ransi
tofl
and-
l
ockedst
atesi
nnowaycont
rav
enest
hei
rlegi
ti
mat
eint
erest
s,t
houghwhet
heri
tis
possi
blet
otot
all
yst
oppassageoroncer
tai
noccasi
onsi
snotcl
ear
.

Hence,
thel
egal
,admi
nist
rat
iveandpol
i
ticaladj
ust
ment
sint
henei
ghbor
ingst
ates
canbehi
ndr
ancest
othel
and-
lockedst
ates’accessr
ight
sundert
hegui
seof
l
egi
ti
mat
eint
erest
.Thi
sshowst
hef
actt
hateasyandf
reeaccesst
oandf
rom t
he
seaf
all
sundert
hemer
cyoft
heconcer
nedst
ates’negot
iat
ions.So,l
and-
locked
st
atesar
esodependentonbi
l
ater
alagr
eement
sper
tai
ningt
otr
ansi
ttr
aff
ic.

I
nter
nat
ionalLawandEt
hiopi
a’sRi
ghtAccesst
otheSea
Cur
rent
ly,
Ethi
opi
aisdependentont
het
ransi
trout
esofDj
i
bout
itoaccesst
hesea.
Oncei
tbecameal
and-
lockedst
atef
oll
owi
ngt
hesecessi
onofEr
it
reaand,mor
e
i
mpor
tant
ly,t
heoccur
renceoft
heEt
hio-
Eri
tr
eanwar(
1998-
2000)
.Thebi
l
ater
al
agr
eement
sofEt
hiopi
aandDj
i
bout
ihel
pedEt
hiopi
atoenj
oyt
hepor
tofDj
i
bout
i
andot
herr
elat
edser
vices.Hence,t
her
elat
ionoft
heset
wocount
ri
es,t
houghnot
t
heonl
y,i
sthebestexampl
eoft
her
elev
anceofagr
eement
s/negot
iat
ionsf
orl
and-
l
ockedst
atest
oaccesst
heseaandenj
oybenef
it
sont
hesea.

Land-
lockedst
atesar
etoodependentont
hei
rpol
i
ticalr
elat
ionswi
tht
het
ransi
t
st
atesi
nexer
cisi
ngt
hei
rri
ght
s.Tr
ansi
tst
atescanputi
mpedi
ment
sift
heyar
ein
conf
li
ct(
mil
i
tar
yordi
plomat
ic)wi
thl
and-
lockedst
ates(
ibi
d).Ev
ent
hought
her
eis
al
egalbasi
sforl
andl
ockedst
atest
oaccesst
oandf
rom t
heseat
hrought
ransi
t
st
atesasout
li
nedi
nAr
ti
cle125(
1)oft
heConv
ent
ion,pr
act
ical
l
y,t
hisr
ightof
accessmustbebasedonagr
eementwi
tht
het
ransi
tnei
ghbor(
Art
icl
e125(
2)and
(
3)andi
scont
ingentupont
hepr
evai
l
ingr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hel
andl
ockedand

147|Page
2024
t
ransi
tst
ates.

Ther
efor
e,onecansaf
elysayt
hatnegot
iat
ionsandagr
eement
shav
epi
vot
alr
oles
soast
oful
l
yenj
oyt
her
ight
sofl
and-
lockedst
ates,t
her
ebyf
il
li
nggapsi
nthe
subst
ant
iver
ight
sofl
and-
lockedst
atesi
nthei
nter
nat
ionall
awoft
hesea.Put
ti
ng
i
tdi
ff
erent
ly,negot
iat
ing bi
l
ater
aland mul
ti
lat
eralagr
eement
swi
thconcer
ned
st
ateshasav
erysi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
naccessi
ngt
heseasaswel
lasenj
oyi
ngt
he
ent
ir
eri
ght
sont
heseas.Thi
sisbecause,i
ntheabsenceofagr
eement
,the
possi
bil
i
tyofcompel
l
ingt
ransi
tst
atest
ogi
vepassagef
orl
and-
lockedst
ates
seemsnonexi
stentascanbededucedf
rom t
her
elev
antl
egal
prov
isi
ons.

Uni
tSummar
y
Thet
erm“
treat
y”i
susedasagener
ict
erm embr
aci
ngal
lki
ndsofi
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
swhi
char
eknownbyav
ari
etyofdi
ff
erentnamessuchas,
conv
ent
ions,
pact
s,gener
alact
s,char
ter
s,st
atut
es,
decl
arat
ions,
cov
enant
s,pr
otocol
,aswel
las,
t
henameagr
eement
sit
sel
f.At
reat
ymaybedef
inedasani
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
concl
udedbet
weenSt
atesi
nwr
it
tenf
orm andgov
ernedbyI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.
Tr
eat
iesar
eoneoft
hemaj
orsour
cesofI
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Mor
ethananyot
her
sour
ce,
treat
iesar
ethemostf
ormal
andbi
ndi
ngsour
ce.

Thef
ormat
ionofat
reat
yisnotanov
erni
ghtpr
ocess.I
trequi
resacompr
omi
seof
nat
ionali
nter
est
,ti
meandot
herr
esour
ces.Tr
eat
iesar
emadev
iasev
eralst
eps,
whi
chusual
l
ytakesev
eraly
ear
stocompl
ete.Thei
nter
nat
ionall
aw hasnost
ri
ct
pr
ovi
sionont
hef
ormat
ionoft
reat
ies.Ther
eisnopr
escr
ibedf
orm orpr
ocedur
e,
andhowat
reat
yisf
ormul
atedandbywhom i
tisact
ual
l
ysi
gnedwi
l
ldependupon
t
he i
ntent
ion and agr
eementoft
he st
ates concer
ned.Howev
er,t
he 1969
Conv
ent
ion on t
he Law ofTr
eat
ies pr
ovi
des gener
alr
ules appl
i
cabl
etot
he
concl
usi
onoft
reat
ies,r
ulesr
egar
dingt
hecapaci
tyandt
hecompet
entper
sonst
o
concl
udet
reat
ies,t
headopt
ionandaut
hent
icat
ionoft
het
extoft
reat
ies,andt
he
adopt
ionoft
reat
ies.I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
reat
iesi
sar
ati
onalpr
ocessofcl
ari
fyi
ngand
el
uci
dat
ingt
hemeani
ngofuncl
earandambi
guoust
reat
ypr
ovi
sions.I
tspur
pose

148|Page
2024
i
stoascer
tai
ningoodf
ait
hthei
ntent
ionoft
hepar
ti
es.I
tisgov
ernedbynumer
ous
pr
inci
plesand r
ulesdev
eloped byi
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
s,publ
i
cist
s,or
gansof
i
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ionsanddi
plomat
icpr
act
ice.

I
nval
i
dit
yofat
reat
ymeansnul
l
ityofat
reat
yori
tspar
ti
cul
arpr
ovi
sionsbecauseof
t
heexi
stenceorabsenceofcer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancesorcondi
ti
onsaf
fect
ingi
tsl
egal
st
atus.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentr
easonst
hatat
reat
ybecomesi
rr
elev
antori
nval
i
d.The
1969 Conv
ent
ion cl
ear
ly st
ated t
he v
ari
ous way
s of i
nval
i
dat
ing t
reat
ies.
Ter
minat
ionofat
reat
ymeanst
heendoft
heoper
ati
onofat
reat
y,r
esul
ti
ngi
n
depr
ivi
ngal
lthepar
ti
esofal
lther
ight
s,andi
nrel
easi
ngt
hem f
rom per
for
ming
f
urt
herobl
i
gat
ions,undert
het
reat
y.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw doesnotal
l
ow t
reat
iest
o
endeasi
l
y.Ther
eisagener
alpol
i
cyoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyi
nfav
orof
st
abl
eint
erst
ater
elat
ions.The pol
i
cyal
so f
avor
s st
abl
etr
eat
yrel
ati
ons and
cont
inuat
ionoft
reat
yobl
i
gat
ions.

Ast
atemaybewi
l
li
ngt
oacceptmostoft
hepr
ovi
sionsofat
reat
y,buti
tmay
,for
v
ari
ousr
easons,
obj
ectt
oot
herpr
ovi
sionsoft
het
reat
y.I
nsuchcasesst
atesof
ten
maker
eser
vat
ionswhent
heybecomepar
ti
est
oat
reat
y.Ar
ti
cle2(
1)(
d)oft
he
Vi
ennaConv
ent
iondef
inesar
eser
vat
ionasuni
l
ater
alst
atement
…madebyaSt
ate,
whensi
gni
ng,r
ati
fyi
ng,accept
ing,appr
ovi
ngoraccedi
ngt
oat
reat
y,wher
ebyi
t
pur
por
tst
oexcl
udeort
omodi
fyt
hel
egalef
fectofcer
tai
npr
ovi
sionsoft
het
reat
y
i
nthei
rappl
i
cat
iont
othatSt
ate.

The1982Uni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSea(
UNCLOS)cr
eat
esa
compr
ehensi
ver
egi
megov
erni
ngt
her
ight
sofnat
ionswi
thr
espectt
othewor
ld'
s
oceans.Thecondi
ti
onsofl
and-
lockedst
atesar
eal
soaddr
essedbyt
heUni
ted
Nat
ionsConv
ent
ionsont
heLawoft
heSeasof1982(
UNCLOSI
II
).Ar
ti
cle124of
t
heconv
ent
iondef
inest
hel
and-
lockedst
ateasa‘
stat
ewhi
chhasnosea-
coast
’.

Cur
rent
ly,
Ethi
opi
aisdependentont
het
ransi
trout
esofDj
i
bout
itoaccesst
hesea.
Oncei
tbecameal
and-
lockedst
atef
oll
owi
ngt
hesecessi
onofEr
it
reaand,mor
e
i
mpor
tant
ly,t
heoccur
renceoft
heEt
hio-
Eri
tr
eanwar(
1998-
2000)
.Thebi
l
ater
al
agr
eement
sofEt
hiopi
aandDj
i
bout
ihel
pedEt
hiopi
atoenj
oyt
hepor
tofDj
i
bout
i

149|Page
2024
andot
herr
elat
edser
vices.Land-
lockedst
atesar
etoodependentont
hei
rpol
i
tical
r
elat
ionswi
tht
het
ransi
tst
atesi
nexer
cisi
ngt
hei
rri
ght
s.Tr
ansi
tst
atescanput
i
mpedi
ment
sift
heyar
einconf
li
ct(
mil
i
tar
yordi
plomat
ic)wi
thl
and-
lockedst
ates.
Ev
ent
hought
her
eisal
egalbasi
sforl
andl
ockedst
atest
oaccesst
oandf
rom t
he
seat
hrought
ransi
tst
atesasout
li
nedi
nAr
ti
cl
e125(
1)oft
he1982Uni
tedNat
ions
Conv
ent
ionont
heLawoft
heSea.
,pr
act
ical
l
y,t
hisr
ightofaccessmustbebased
onagr
eementwi
tht
het
ransi
tnei
ghbor(
Art
icl
e125(
2)and(
3)andi
scont
ingentup
ont
hepr
evai
l
ingr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hel
andl
ockedandt
ransi
tst
ates.

Sel
f-
checkQuest
ions
Di
scusst
reat
iesandt
hei
rpur
pose.

Ex
plai
nthepr
ocedur
esandf
ormal
i
tiesoft
reat
yfor
mat
ion.

El
abor
atet
heessenceoft
reat
yinv
ali
dit
yandt
ermi
nat
ion;
anddi
scusscausest
hat
mayl
eadt
othet
ermi
nat
ionandi
nval
i
dit
yoft
reat
ies.

Whati
str
eat
yreser
vat
ion,
andwhyst
atesmayhav
etr
eat
yreser
vat
ion?

Di
scusst
he1982Uni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSea,andi
ts
i
mpl
i
cat
iononl
andl
ockedst
ates.

Concept
ual
i
zet
henexusbet
weenEt
hiopi
a’
sri
ghtt
oaccessseaandI
nter
nat
ional
l
aws.

CHAPTERFOUR:I
NTERNATIONALLAW ONWARCRI
MESAND
PROTECTI
ONOFHUMANRI GHTS
Lear
ningOutcomes

Att
heendoft
hechapt
erst
udent
swi
llbeabl
eto:

Concept
ual
i
zewarcr
ime

150|Page
2024
Ex
ami
net
hePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sinI
nter
nat
ional
Lev
el

WarCr
imes:Theor
yandPr
act
ice

DearLear
ner
s,whatdoy
out
hinkaboutwarcr
imes?Andhowdoy
ouunder
stand
i
tst
heor
eti
calpr
act
ical
aspect
s?

Li
keanyhumanphenomenon,
wari
sgov
ernedbyl
aw.Thei
nter
nat
ionall
awcov
ers
sev
erali
ssuesl
i
kel
awoft
reat
ies,sea,ai
randdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.Warorar
med
conf
li
ctsi
sal
sooneoft
hemaj
orar
easofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Si
ncet
heanci
ent
per
iod human bei
ngsat
tempt
ed t
o empl
oydi
ff
erentl
awst
hatgov
ern ar
med
conf
li
cts.Thesel
awswhi
chemanat
edf
rom v
ari
oust
reat
iesandcust
omar
ylaws
st
atedaccept
abl
eact
sandt
hoseact
swhi
char
eregar
dedasunaccept
abl
e.The
l
awofar
medconf
li
ctsout
lawedact
sofwarknownaswarcr
imes.

Def
ini
ngwarcr
imei
sadi
ff
icul
tjobt
odo.Oner
easonf
ort
hisi
sthatbot
hter
ms
warandcr
imebyt
hemsel
vesar
econt
rov
ersi
ali
nthei
rrespect
.Whenwesi
ngl
eout
t
het
erm war
,iti
soneoft
heconcept
sthathav
enocommonl
yagr
eeddef
ini
ti
on.
I
nst
ead,schol
arsof
tenchooset
o def
inet
het
erm ‘
war
’byi
dent
if
ying cer
tai
n
el
ement
sli
ke(
a)acont
ent
ion;(
b)bet
weenatl
eastt
wonat
ion-st
ates;(
c)wher
ein
ar
med f
orcei
sempl
oyed;(
d)wi
thani
ntentt
o ov
erwhel
m.Ther
efor
e,wari
s
i
dent
if
iedasaphenomenont
hati
nvol
vest
hecont
ent
ionoft
woormor
epar
ti
es
(
stat
es)wher
ebyt
heconf
li
cti
ngpar
ti
esempl
oyf
ir
ear
msorweapons.

Mostpeopl
ethi
nkt
hatwarandl
aw ar
eincompat
ibl
ewi
theachot
her
.Butt
hisi
s
nott
ruel
i
keot
herhumanact
ivi
ty:conv
ent
ionalwar
sar
egov
ernedbyi
nter
nat
ional
l
awsofar
medconf
li
cts.Li
kedomest
icl
aw,t
hei
nter
nat
ionall
awofwarhascome
upwi
thcer
tai
ncr
imesofwar
.Asmuchaspossi
blet
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty
wor
kst
omai
ntai
ntheobser
vanceoft
hel
awsofwarandt
osomeext
entpuni
shes
t
hosest
atest
hatcommi
tt
edser
iousv
iol
ati
onsoft
hel
awsofar
medconf
li
cts.For
i
nst
ance,dur
ingWW IandWW I
Itempor
aryi
nter
nat
ionalwarcr
imet
ri
bunal
swer
e
est
abl
i
shedt
opuni
shmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cial
sandst
ateswhocommi
tt
edwarcr
imes.

151|Page
2024
Br
oadl
yspeaki
ng,Warcr
imesar
eessent
ial
l
yser
iousv
iol
ati
onsoft
her
ulesof
cust
omar
yandt
reat
ylaw concer
ningi
nter
nat
ionalhumani
tar
ianl
aw ort
hel
aw
gov
erni
ngar
medconf
li
cts.Warcr
imescanbeconsi
der
edasubsetofcr
imes
agai
nsthumani
ty,butt
hel
att
ermakenodi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenwar
swi
thi
nst
ates
andwar
sbet
weenst
ates.Theyi
ncl
udesuchat
roci
ti
esasmur
der
,ensl
avement
,
depor
tat
ion,t
ort
ure,andr
ape.Fr
om Legalper
spect
ive,t
he1945Char
teroft
he
I
nter
nat
ionalMi
l
itar
yTr
ibunalatNur
ember
gdef
inedwarcr
imesas‘
vi
olat
ionsof
t
hel
awsorcust
omsofwar
’,i
ncl
udi
ngmur
der
,il
l
-tr
eat
ment
,ordepor
tat
ionof
ci
vi
li
ansi
noccupi
edt
err
it
ory
;mur
derori
l
l-t
reat
mentofpr
isoner
sofwar
;ki
l
li
ngof
host
ages; pl
under of publ
i
c or pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty; want
on dest
ruct
ion of
muni
cipal
i
ties;andanydev
ast
ati
ont
hatwasnotmi
l
itar
il
ynecessar
y.The1949
Genev
a Conv
ent
ions mar
ked t
he f
ir
stat
temptt
o codi
fy warcr
imes i
na
humani
tar
ianl
aw t
reat
y.Warcr
imeswer
edef
inedas‘
grav
ebr
eaches’ofeachof
t
hef
ourConv
ent
ions(
onwoundedandsi
ckonl
and,woundedandsi
ckatsea,
pr
isoner
sofwar
,andci
vi
li
ans)
.Theyi
ncl
ude:wi
l
lfulki
l
li
ng;t
ort
ureori
nhuman
t
reat
ment
;wi
l
lful
l
y causi
ng gr
eatsuf
fer
ing;want
on dest
ruct
ion ofpr
oper
ty
unj
ust
if
iedbymi
l
itar
ynecessi
ty;compel
l
ingci
vi
li
ansorpr
isoner
sofwart
oser
ve
t
hehost
il
epower
;wi
l
lful
l
ydepr
ivi
ngci
vi
li
ansorpr
isoner
sofwarofaf
airt
ri
al;
unl
awf
uldepor
tat
ionorconf
inementofci
vi
li
ans;
thet
aki
ngofhost
ages.

I
naddi
ti
on,t
heempl
oymentofpoi
sonousweapons,i
ntent
ionaldest
ruct
ionof
ci
ti
es,
townsorv
il
lages,
att
ack,
orbombar
dmentofundef
endedt
owns,
vil
l
ages,
or
bui
l
dings,sei
zur
eof
,dest
ruct
ionofi
nst
it
uti
onofr
eli
gion,char
it
yandeducat
ion,
t
hear
tsandsci
ences,hi
stor
icmonument
sandwor
ksofar
tandsci
ence;andt
he
pl
underofpubl
i
corpr
ivat
epr
oper
tyi
ntheoccupi
edt
err
it
oryar
eal
soamongt
he
ser
iouswarcr
imes.I
nsi
mpl
eter
ms,warcr
imesr
efert
ocr
imescommi
tt
edby
count
ri
esi
nvi
olat
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
lawsgov
erni
ngwar
s.Thet
erm‘
warcr
ime’
i
sthet
echni
calexpr
essi
onf
orav
iol
ati
onoft
hel
aw ofwarbyanyper
sonor
per
sons,mi
l
itar
yorci
vi
li
an.Ev
eryv
iol
ati
onoft
hel
aw ofwari
sawarcr
ime.War
cr
imesar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wobr
oadcat
egor
ies.Thef
ir
star
ecal
l
edcr
imesagai
nst
peace.Cr
imesagai
nstpeacei
ncl
udet
hepl
anni
ng,pr
epar
ati
on,ori
nit
iat
ionofa

152|Page
2024
warofaggr
essi
on.Fori
nst
ance,whenEr
it
reawagedawaragai
nstEt
hiopi
ain
1998i
sawarcr
imebyi
tsel
f.Because,t
heactofEr
it
reat
oactaggr
essi
vel
yand
dr
aggedEt
hiopi
aint
otheWari
sthev
iol
ati
onoft
hei
nter
nat
ionall
aw ofar
med
conf
li
cts.Thesecondcat
egor
yiswhatwecancal
lcr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty.These
i
ncl
udeki
l
li
ngofci
vi
li
ans,i
ndi
scr
imi
nat
ebombi
ng,t
heuseofcer
tai
nty
pesof
weapons,
kil
l
ingofdef
ensel
esssol
dier
s,i
l
ltr
eat
mentofPOWsandat
tacksonnon-
mi
l
itar
ytar
get
s.

Accor
dingt
oAr
ti
cl
e8oft
heRomeSt
atut
ewhi
chgov
ernscr
imesi
nint
ernat
ional
ar
medconf
li
ct,
thel
i
stofwarcr
imesi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ngact
s:

I
ntent
ional
l
ydi
rect
ingat
tacksagai
nstt
heci
vi
li
anpopul
ati
onassuchoragai
nst
i
ndi
vi
dual
civ
il
iansnott
aki
ngdi
rectpar
tinhost
il
it
ies;

I
ntent
ional
l
ydi
rect
ingat
tacksagai
nstci
vi
li
anobj
ect
s,t
hati
s,obj
ect
swhi
char
enot
mi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ives;

I
ntent
ional
l
ydi
rect
ingat
tacksagai
nstper
sonnel
,inst
all
ati
ons,mat
eri
al,uni
tsor
v
ehi
cles i
nvol
ved i
n a humani
tar
ian assi
stance orpeacekeepi
ng mi
ssi
on i
n
accor
dancewi
tht
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions,asl
ongast
heyar
eent
it
ledt
o
t
hepr
otect
iongi
vent
oci
vi
li
ansorci
vi
li
anobj
ect
sundert
hei
nter
nat
ionall
aw of
ar
medconf
li
ct;

I
ntent
ional
l
ylaunchi
nganat
tacki
ntheknowl
edget
hatsuchat
tackwi
l
lcause
i
nci
dent
all
oss ofl
i
fe ori
njur
yto ci
vi
li
ans ordamage t
o ci
vi
li
an obj
ect
s or
wi
despr
ead,
long-
ter
m andsev
eredamaget
othenat
uralenv
ironmentwhi
chwoul
d
becl
ear
lyexcessi
vei
nrel
ati
ont
otheconcr
eteanddi
rectov
eral
lmi
l
itar
yadv
ant
age
ant
ici
pat
ed;

At
tacki
ng orbombar
ding,by what
evermeans,t
owns,v
il
lages,dwel
l
ings or
bui
l
dingswhi
char
eundef
endedandwhi
char
enotmi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ives;

Ki
l
li
ngorwoundi
ngacombat
antwho,hav
ingl
aiddownhi
sar
msorhav
ingno
l
ongermeansofdef
ense,
hassur
render
edatdi
scr
eti
on;

153|Page
2024
Maki
ngi
mpr
operuseofaf
lagoft
ruce,oft
hef
lagoroft
hemi
l
itar
yinsi
gni
aand
uni
for
m oft
heenemyoroft
heUni
tedNat
ions,aswel
lasoft
hedi
sti
nct
ive
embl
emsoft
heGenev
aConv
ent
ions,
resul
ti
ngi
ndeat
horser
iousper
sonal
inj
ury
;

Thet
ransf
er,di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly,byt
heOccupy
ingPowerofpar
tsofi
tsown
ci
vi
li
anpopul
ati
oni
ntot
het
err
it
oryi
toccupi
es,
ort
hedepor
tat
ionort
ransf
erofal
l
orpar
tsoft
hepopul
ati
onoft
heoccupi
edt
err
it
orywi
thi
norout
sidet
hist
err
it
ory
;

I
ntent
ional
l
ydi
rect
ingat
tacksagai
nstbui
l
dingsdedi
cat
edt
orel
i
gion,
educat
ion,
art
,
sci
enceorchar
it
abl
epur
poses,hi
stor
icmonument
s,hospi
tal
sandpl
aceswher
e
t
hesi
ckandwoundedar
ecol
l
ect
ed,
prov
idedt
heyar
enotmi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ives;

Subj
ect
ingper
sonswhoar
eint
hepowerofanadv
ersepar
tyt
ophy
sicalmut
il
ati
on
ort
omedi
cal
orsci
ent
if
icexper
iment
sofanyki
ndwhi
char
enei
therj
ust
if
iedbyt
he
medi
cal
,dent
alorhospi
tal
treat
mentoft
heper
sonconcer
nednorcar
ri
edouti
nhi
s
orheri
nter
est
,andwhi
chcausedeat
htoorser
iousl
yendangert
heheal
thofsuch
per
sonorper
sons;

Ki
l
li
ngorwoundi
ngt
reacher
ousl
yindi
vi
dual
sbel
ongi
ngt
othehost
il
enat
ionor
ar
my;

Decl
ari
ngt
hatnoquar
terwi
l
lbegi
ven;

Dest
roy
ingorsei
zi
ngt
heenemy
’spr
oper
tyunl
esssuchdest
ruct
ionorsei
zur
ebe
i
mper
ati
vel
ydemandedbyt
henecessi
ti
esofwar
;

Decl
ari
ngabol
i
shed,suspendedori
nadmi
ssi
blei
nacour
tofl
aw t
her
ight
sand
act
ionsoft
henat
ional
soft
hehost
il
epar
ty;

Compel
l
ingt
henat
ional
soft
hehost
il
epar
tyt
otakepar
tint
heoper
ati
onsofwar
di
rect
edagai
nstt
hei
rowncount
ry,ev
eni
ftheywer
eint
hebel
l
iger
ent
sser
vice
bef
oret
hecommencementoft
hewar
;

154|Page
2024
Pi
l
lagi
ngat
ownorpl
ace,
evenwhent
akenbyassaul
t;

Empl
oyi
ngpoi
sonorpoi
sonedweapons;

Empl
oyi
ngasphy
xiat
ing,poi
sonousorot
hergasses,andal
lanal
ogousl
i
qui
ds,
mat
eri
alsordev
ices;

Empl
oyi
ngbul
l
etswhi
chexpandorf
lat
teneasi
l
yint
hehumanbody
,suchas
bul
l
etswi
thahar
denv
elopewhi
chdoesnotent
ir
elycov
ert
hecor
eori
spi
erced
wi
thi
nci
sions;

Empl
oyi
ngweapons,
proj
ect
il
esandmat
eri
alandmet
hodsofwar
far
ewhi
char
eof
a nat
uret
o cause super
fl
uous i
njur
yorunnecessar
ysuf
fer
ing orwhi
ch ar
e
i
nher
ent
lyi
ndi
scr
imi
nat
einv
iol
ati
onoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
lawofar
medconf
li
ct.

Commi
tt
ingout
ragesuponper
sonal
digni
ty,
inpar
ti
cul
arhumi
l
iat
inganddegr
adi
ng
t
reat
ment
;

Commi
tt
ingr
ape,
sexualsl
aver
y,enf
orcedpr
ost
it
uti
on,
for
cedpr
egnancy
,enf
orced
st
eri
l
izat
ion,oranyot
herf
orm ofsexualv
iol
enceal
soconst
it
uti
ngagr
avebr
each
oft
heGenev
aConv
ent
ions;

Ut
il
izi
ngt
hepr
esenceofaci
vi
li
anorot
herpr
otect
edper
sont
orendercer
tai
n
poi
nts,
areasormi
l
itar
yfor
cesi
mmunef
rom mi
l
itar
yoper
ati
ons;

I
ntent
ional
l
y di
rect
ing at
tacks agai
nstbui
l
dings,mat
eri
al,medi
caluni
ts and
t
ranspor
t,andper
sonnelusi
ngt
hedi
sti
nct
iveembl
emsoft
heGenev
aConv
ent
ions
i
nconf
ormi
tywi
thi
nter
nat
ional
law;

I
ntent
ional
l
yusi
ngst
arv
ati
onofci
vi
li
ansasamet
hodofwar
far
ebydepr
ivi
ngt
hem
ofobj
ect
sindi
spensabl
etot
hei
rsur
viv
al,
incl
udi
ngwi
l
lful
l
yimpedi
ngr
eli
efsuppl
i
es
aspr
ovi
dedf
orundert
heGenev
aConv
ent
ions;

Conscr
ipt
ingorenl
i
sti
ngchi
l
drenundert
heageoff
if
teeny
ear
sint
othenat
ional
ar
medf
orcesorusi
ngt
hem t
opar
ti
cipat
eact
ivel
yinhost
il
it
ies.

155|Page
2024
Lawsi
nWarVer
susLawsofWar

DearLear
ner
s,whatdowemeanbyl
awsi
nwarandl
awsof
war
?

Lawsofwarhav
eexi
stedandev
olv
edf
ort
housandsofy
ear
s.Si
ncet
heanci
ent
per
iodmanki
ndhasal
way
ssoughtt
oli
mitt
heef
fectofconf
li
ctoncombat
ant
s
andhascomet
oregar
dwarnotasast
ateofanar
chyj
ust
if
yingi
nfl
i
cti
onof
unl
i
mit
edsuf
fer
ingbutasanunf
ort
unat
ereal
i
tywhi
chmustbegov
ernedbysome
r
ulesofwar
.Asar
esul
t,despi
tet
hef
actt
hatt
her
ulesar
evi
olat
edori
gnor
ed,
manki
ndi
sbet
terof
fwi
thl
awsofwart
hanwi
thoutt
hem.Hav
ingl
awst
hatgov
ern
warorar
med conf
li
cti
sbey
ond necessi
ty.A warwi
thoutt
hese l
awsmi
ght
er
adi
cat
ethespeci
esofhumanr
acef
rom t
hef
aceoft
heear
th.I
naddi
ti
on,
r
egul
ati
ngt
heconductofwar
far
eisi
roni
cal
l
yessent
ialt
othepr
eser
vat
ionofa
ci
vi
li
zedwor
ld.Pr
act
ical
l
y,ev
eni
fsomest
atesar
erel
uct
antt
oobser
veorr
espect
l
awsofar
medconf
li
cts,al
mostal
lst
atesneedt
heexi
stenceandobser
vanceof
t
hesel
aws.I
nthecont
empor
arywor
ld,consi
der
ingt
hel
awsofwari
stakenasa
st
rat
egi
cmov
ebyabel
l
iger
entst
ateduet
ovar
iousr
easons.Reci
proci
tyi
soneof
t
hebenef
it
sofobser
vingl
awsofwar
.Ast
hepastexper
iencesdemonst
rat
ed,an
actofr
espect
ingt
hesel
awsmot
ivat
est
heenemyt
oobser
vet
hesamer
ules.At
t
hesamet
ime,t
heactofcompl
yi
ngwi
thi
nter
nat
ionalhumani
tar
ianl
aw may
mot
ivat
etheenemyt
osur
render
.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,i
thast
hepowert
oguar
d
agai
nstt
heunnecessar
ysuf
fer
ingandpr
otect
sthebasi
cfundament
alhuman
r
ight
s.

Thel
aw ofwari
sthecust
omar
yandt
reat
ylaw appl
i
cabl
etot
heconductof
war
far
eonl
andandt
orel
ati
onshi
psbet
weenbel
l
iger
ent
sandneut
ralSt
ates.The
l
aw ofwari
s al
so cal
l
ed ‘
Law ofAr
med Conf
li
cts’(
LOAC)ori
nter
nat
ional
humani
tar
ianl
aw (
IHL)
’.Thepr
imar
yint
ent
ionofl
awsofwari
snotmai
ntai
ning
wor
ldpeace.I
nst
ead,
itseekst
oli
mitt
hedamagesofwaront
hecombat
ant
sand
ci
vi
li
ansi
nthewarzone.I
trequi
rest
hatbel
l
iger
ent
sref
rai
nfr
om empl
oyi
ngany
ki
ndordegr
eeofv
iol
encewhi
chi
snotact
ual
l
ynecessar
yformi
l
itar
ypur
poses.I
n

156|Page
2024
si
mpl
eter
mst
hel
awofwart
ri
est
oincul
cat
ethei
deaofhumani
tyi
nthepr
act
ice
ofwar
far
e.I
naddi
ti
on,
itai
msatshor
teni
ngt
heper
iodofwarassoonaspossi
ble.
Because,i
fthewari
sunr
egul
atedt
her
eper
cussi
onswi
l
lbegr
eatandt
hiswi
l
lin
t
urnhav
easpi
l
lov
eref
fectwhi
chsur
elyi
gni
tesanot
herr
oundofar
medconf
li
cts.
Ther
efor
e,mostst
atesconductt
hepr
act
iceofwarwi
thi
nthef
ramewor
koft
he
l
awofar
medconf
li
cts.

TheRol
eofI
CConWarCr
imes

DearLear
ner
s,whatki
ndofr
olesI
CCi
spl
ayi
ngorhaspl
ayedi
npr
event
ingwar
cr
imes?

TheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
twasest
abl
i
shedon17Jul
y1998,
byaconf
erence
whi
chwer
eat
tendedby160St
ates.Thet
reat
yadopt
eddur
ingt
hatconf
erencei
s
knownast
heRomeSt
atut
eoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
t.Amongot
her
t
hings,i
tset
soutt
hecr
imesf
all
i
ngwi
thi
nthej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
heI
CC,t
her
ulesof
pr
ocedur
e and t
he mechani
sms f
orSt
ates t
o cooper
ate wi
tht
he I
CC.The
count
ri
eswhi
chhav
eaccept
edt
heser
ulesar
eknownasSt
atesPar
ti
esandar
e
r
epr
esent
ed i
nthe Assembl
yofSt
ates Par
ti
es.As of1 Febr
uar
y2012,120
count
ri
esar
eSt
atesPar
ti
est
otheRomeSt
atut
e.Oft
hese,33ar
efr
om Af
ri
ca,18
f
rom t
heAsi
a-Paci
fi
c,18f
rom East
ernEur
ope,26f
rom Lat
inAmer
icaandt
he
Car
ibbeanand25f
rom West
ernEur
opeanandNor
thAmer
ica.Theseatoft
he
Cour
tisi
nTheHaguei
ntheNet
her
lands.TheRomeSt
atut
epr
ovi
dest
hatt
he
Cour
tmaysi
tel
sewher
ewhenev
ert
hej
udgesconsi
deri
tdesi
rabl
e.TheCour
thas
al
sosetupof
fi
cesi
nthear
easwher
eiti
sconduct
ingi
nvest
igat
ions.

Wi
thr
egar
dtoi
tsst
ruct
ure,
itconsi
stsof18j
udgesandt
heyser
veamaxi
mum of
9y
ear
ster
m.TheCour
tiscomposedoft
hef
oll
owi
ngor
gans:(
a)ThePr
esi
dency
;
(
b)AnAppeal
sDi
vi
si
on,aTr
ialDi
vi
sionandaPr
e-Tr
ialDi
vi
sion;(
c)TheOf
fi
ceof
t
hePr
osecut
or;and(
d)TheRegi
str
y.I
tisgi
vent
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
oadj
udi
cat
ethe
mostser
iousofi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imesf
air
lyandi
mpar
ti
all
y,wher
enat
ionalj
udi
cial
sy
stemshav
efai
l
ed.I
thasaut
omat
icj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
ergenoci
de,warcr
imesand
cr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty,andani
ndependentPr
osecut
orempower
ed,subj
ectt
o

157|Page
2024
j
udi
cialr
evi
ew,t
oini
ti
atepr
osecut
ionsei
theroccur
ri
ngont
het
err
it
oryofast
ate
par
tyoral
l
egedl
ycommi
tt
edbyanat
ionalofast
atepar
ty.Thel
engt
hyand
el
abor
ateRomeSt
atut
eand i
tsRul
esofPr
ocedur
eand Ev
idencehav
equi
te
det
ail
edpr
ocedur
alr
ulesgov
erni
ngi
nvest
igat
ion,pr
osecut
ionandt
ri
alofcr
imi
nal
char
ges,
andappeal
oft
heCour
t'
sjudgment
s.

TheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
tisnotasubst
it
utef
ornat
ionalcour
ts.Accor
ding
t
otheRomeSt
atut
e,i
tist
hedut
yofev
erySt
atet
oexer
cisei
tscr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
on
ov
ert
hoser
esponsi
blef
ori
nter
nat
ionalcr
imes.TheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
t
canonl
yint
erv
enewher
eaSt
atei
sunabl
eorunwi
l
li
nggenui
nel
ytocar
ryoutt
he
i
nvest
igat
ion and pr
osecut
ethe per
pet
rat
ors.The pr
imar
y mi
ssi
on of t
he
I
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
Cour
tist
ohel
pputanendt
oimpuni
tyf
ort
heper
pet
rat
orsof
t
hemostser
iouscr
imesofconcer
ntot
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyasawhol
e,and
t
hust
ocont
ri
but
etot
hepr
event
ionofsuchcr
imes.

TheRomeSt
atut
e'spr
eambl
epoi
ntedt
hatt
heI
CCcanf
orgear
elat
ionshi
pwi
th
ot
herpower
fuli
nter
nat
ionalbodi
essuchast
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Itr
ecogni
zesa
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
heai
msofj
ust
iceandmai
ntai
ningpeaceandsecur
it
y.I
t
af
fi
rmst
hatgr
avecr
imesmustnotgounpuni
shedbecauset
heyt
hreat
ent
he
peace,
secur
it
yandwel
l
-bei
ngoft
hewor
ld.I
texpr
essesadet
ermi
nat
iont
oputan
endt
oimpuni
tyf
ort
heper
pet
rat
orsoft
hesecr
imesandt
hust
ocont
ri
but
etot
he
pr
event
ionoft
hesecr
imes.

TheI
CCpl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
ntheaspectofser
vingj
ust
icet
othev
ict
imsof
warcr
imes.I
nev
erymaj
orwarandi
nsomepar
ti
cul
arcasest
her
ewer
etempor
ary
cour
tswhi
chwer
eest
abl
i
shedt
odealwi
tht
hei
ssueofwarcr
imes.Thel
i
stof
t
hese at
tempt
sincl
ude,t
he Nur
ember
g Mi
l
itar
y Tr
ibunal
,the Toky
o Mi
l
itar
y
Tr
ibunal
,theI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalTr
ibunalf
ort
heFor
merYugosl
avi
a(I
CTY)
,the
I
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalTr
ibunalf
orRwandaort
heI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
tand
t
heCr
imi
nalTr
ibunalf
orSi
err
aLeone.Themaj
ordr
awbackoft
heset
ri
bunal
swas
t
hemul
ti
pli
cat
ionofst
andar
dst
hatt
hej
udgesusedt
opr
osecut
ewarcr
imi
nal
s.
Lat
eront
heI
CCwasest
abl
i
shedandi
tisbel
i
evedt
hati
thaser
adi
cat
edsuch

158|Page
2024
pr
obl
emsofdoubl
est
andar
ds.Att
hesamet
imei
tisaper
manentcour
twi
tht
he
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyofpuni
shi
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
satanyl
evelofgov
ernmentposi
ti
onwhen
t
heyar
efoundgui
l
tyofcommi
tt
ingwarcr
imes.Sur
pri
singl
y,t
heI
CCi
sal
sot
ryi
ng
t
opr
osecut
eanumberofpeopl
edespi
tet
hei
ract
iver
olei
nthepol
i
ticalset
ti
ngof
t
hei
rcount
ry.ThecaseofAlBashi
rwhoi
sthepr
esi
dentofSudani
soneoft
he
cont
rov
ersi
alcasesoft
heI
CC.

Ar
ti
cle12oft
heRomeSt
atut
epr
ovi
dest
hatt
heI
CC wi
l
lhav
ejur
isdi
cti
ont
o
pr
osecut
ethenat
ional
sofanyst
atewhencr
imeswi
thi
ntheCour
t’
ssubj
ect
-mat
ter
j
uri
sdi
cti
onar
ecommi
tt
edont
het
err
it
oryofast
atet
hati
sapar
tyt
othet
reat
yor
t
hatconsent
sadhoct
oICCj
uri
sdi
cti
onf
ort
hatcase.Thatt
err
it
ori
albasi
swoul
d
empowert
heCour
ttoexer
cisej
uri
sdi
cti
onev
eni
ncaseswher
ethedef
endant
’s
st
ateofnat
ional
i
tyi
snotapar
tyt
othet
reat
yanddoesnotconsentt
otheexer
cise
ofj
uri
sdi
cti
on.Ther
ati
onal
efort
hisj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
ernonpar
tynat
ional
sist
hat
,
whent
hecr
imei
scommi
tt
edont
het
err
it
oryofast
atepar
tyorast
ateconsent
ing
adhoc,t
hatst
atehasdel
egat
edi
tst
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
obeexer
cisedbyt
he
I
CC.Ther
easoni
ngi
sthat
,si
ncet
het
err
it
ori
alst
atewoul
dhav
ether
ightt
o
pr
osecut
eforof
fensescommi
tt
edoni
tst
err
it
ory
,thet
err
it
ori
alst
ateal
sohast
he
r
ightt
odel
egat
ethatj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
obeexer
cisedbyani
nter
nat
ionalcour
t.Under
t
hist
heor
y,t
heI
CC’
sjur
isdi
cti
onov
ernat
ional
sofnonpar
tyst
atesr
est
sont
he
del
egat
edj
uri
sdi
cti
onofapar
tyst
ate.

TheI
CCi
sanext
raor
dinar
yexampl
eofj
ust
icesanspol
i
ce–aCour
tcompl
etel
y
behol
den t
othe goodwi
l
lofst
ates f
ornotonl
yit
s exi
stence,butal
so i
ts
enf
orcement power
.If conf
li
cts of j
uri
sdi
cti
on ar
ise, t
he pr
inci
ple of
compl
ement
ari
ty,enshr
inedi
nthepr
eambl
etot
heI
CC st
atut
e,aswel
lasi
n
Ar
ti
cles1and17,mandat
est
hatt
hecasebedi
smi
ssed.Ev
eni
fast
atei
snot
pur
sui
ngpr
osecut
ions,i
tmaybet
hatt
hei
nter
est
sofj
ust
ice,asout
li
nedi
nAr
ti
cle
53(
c)oft
heSt
atut
e,suggestt
hatt
heI
CCpr
osecut
orshoul
dnotpur
suet
hecase.

LawsofWarandPr
otect
ionofCi
vi
li
ans

159|Page
2024
DearLear
ner
s,whoar
eci
vi
li
ansandhowdoy
ouexami
net
hepr
act
icalpr
otect
ion
ofci
vi
li
ansi
nthet
imeofwar
?

Thepr
otect
ionofci
vi
li
ansi
nthest
ateofwarhasdr
amat
ical
l
yexpandedi
nthe
post
-1949per
iod.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,t
hedr
aft
ingofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vin1949
mar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofanewer
ainr
elat
iont
othel
awsofci
vi
li
anpr
otect
ion.For
t
hist
her
oleoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCommi
tt
eeoft
heRedCr
oss(
ICRC)i
sinv
aluabl
e.
Asanexampl
e,onemayr
efert
otheenor
mousr
eli
efoper
ati
onsconduct
edbyt
he
I
CRC,i
ncooper
ati
onwi
tht
heSwedi
shRedCr
oss,i
n1942and1943,desi
gnedt
o
r
eli
evet
he suf
fer
ing oft
he st
arv
ing ci
vi
li
an popul
ati
on i
n occupi
ed Gr
eece.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
headopt
ionofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vregar
dingt
hepr
otect
ionoft
he
ci
vi
li
anpopul
ati
oni
nti
mesofwar
,thel
evelofpr
otect
ionaf
for
dedt
oci
vi
li
ans
gr
eat
lyi
ncr
eased.

Thet
erm‘
ci
vi
li
an’cov
ersal
lnon-
combat
antper
sons,r
oughl
yspeaki
ngal
lthose
whoar
enotmember
soft
hear
medf
orces.I
nci
rcumst
anceswher
eci
vi
li
anst
ake
par
tinar
medconf
li
ctasi
rr
egul
ars,whoi
l
legal
l
ytakeupar
ms,t
heyshoul
dbe
consi
der
edasci
vi
li
ansdur
ingt
het
imet
hatt
heydonotact
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
eint
he
ar
medconf
li
ctas‘
i
rregul
arcombat
ant
s’.I
nanyev
ent
,incaseswher
ether
eis
doubtast
otheci
vi
li
anornon-
civ
il
ianst
atusofaper
son,t
heper
sonshoul
dbe
pr
esumedt
obeaci
vi
li
an.Thepr
otect
ionofci
vi
li
ansi
nthest
ateofwarhast
wo
di
mensi
ons.Ononehand,ci
vi
li
anscaughtupi
nar
medconf
li
ctneedpr
otect
ioni
f
t
heyf
alli
ntot
hehandsof‘
enemyf
orces’
.Theai
m oft
hel
awi
nthesecasesi
sto
pr
otectci
vi
li
ansf
rom ar
bit
rar
yact
sbyt
heopposi
ngf
orcesunderwhosecont
rol
t
heyf
indt
hemsel
ves.Thi
scont
rolmayf
lowmai
nlyf
rom t
hepr
esenceofaci
vi
li
an
ont
het
err
it
oryofanadv
ersebel
l
iger
entorwi
thi
nter
ri
tor
yoccupi
edbyanadv
erse
bel
l
iger
ent
.Ont
heot
herhand,ci
vi
li
ansar
epr
otect
edast
arget
sdur
ingwar
far
e.
Ci
vi
li
ansal
soneedpr
otect
iondur
ingt
heact
ivephaseofwar
far
e.Ther
ulest
hat
at
temptt
o pr
otectci
vi
li
ansagai
nstt
heef
fectofact
ivehost
il
it
iesar
emai
nly
cont
ained i
nthe Hague Regul
ati
ons and i
n Addi
ti
onalPr
otocolI
.Genev
a
Conv
ent
ionI
Vor
dinar
il
yappl
i
est
o‘enemyci
vi
li
ans’
becauset
heyar
ethoughtt
obe

160|Page
2024
i
nneedofpr
otect
iononaccountoft
hei
radv
erseal
l
egi
ance,andduet
othef
act
t
hat t
hey cannot be pr
otect
ed by t
he nor
malmechani
sm of di
plomat
ic
r
epr
esent
ati
onast
heset
iesar
esev
eredonaccountoft
hesi
tuat
ionofar
med
conf
li
ctbet
weent
hebel
l
iger
ent
s.Enemyci
vi
li
ans,consi
der
edf
rom t
hest
andpoi
nt
ofapar
ti
cul
arbel
l
iger
ent
,ar
ethosehav
ingt
henat
ional
i
tyof
,orowi
ngal
l
egi
ancet
o,
anadv
ersebel
l
iger
ent
.Genev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vgov
ernst
her
elat
ionsofsuchenemy
ci
vi
li
answi
tht
hebel
l
iger
entopposedt
othest
atet
owhi
cht
heyoweal
l
egi
ance,i
n
caseswher
ethatopposedbel
l
iger
entexer
cisescont
rolov
ert
hem.I
tal
socov
ers
ci
vi
li
ansoft
hir
dst
atesi
ftheynol
ongerenj
oyt
hedi
plomat
icpr
otect
ionoft
hei
r
homest
ateandt
husf
indt
hemsel
vesi
nneedofaguar
ant
eeagai
nstar
bit
rar
yact
s
byast
atet
hathast
hem i
nit
spower
.

I
nthesamet
oken,
Genev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vgr
ant
snopr
otect
ionagai
nstt
heact
sofa
ci
vi
li
an’
sownnat
ionalst
ate.Howev
er,Par
tIIofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Visan
except
iont
othi
sgener
alr
ule.Thi
spar
tappl
i
est
oal
lci
vi
li
ansont
het
err
it
ori
esof
t
hebel
l
iger
ent
sand deal
swi
th gener
alpr
otect
ion ofci
vi
li
ansagai
nstcer
tai
n
consequencesofwar
,thr
oughmechani
smssuchast
heest
abl
i
shmentofsaf
ety
andhospi
talzonesf
orr
efuge,t
heest
abl
i
shmentandpr
otect
edst
atusofci
vi
li
an
hospi
tal
sandt
hepr
otect
ionofv
ehi
clesandai
rcr
aftcar
ryi
ngt
hewoundedandsi
ck.

Theov
eral
lideaofpr
ovi
dingpr
otect
iont
oci
vi
li
ansi
sthatwarhast
obel
i
mit
edt
o
mi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ives.Mi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ive’i
sdef
ined i
n Ar
ti
cle52(
2)ofAddi
ti
onal
Pr
otocolI
,mi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ivesar
eli
mit
edt
othoseobj
ect
swhi
chbyt
hei
rnat
ure,
l
ocat
ion,pur
poseorusemakeanef
fect
ivecont
ri
but
iont
omi
l
itar
yact
ionand
whoset
otalorpar
ti
aldest
ruct
ion,capt
ureorneut
ral
i
zat
ion,i
ntheci
rcumst
ances
r
uli
ngatt
het
ime,of
fer
sadef
ini
temi
l
itar
yadv
ant
age.Thet
esti
sthusbasedon
t
woessent
ialandcumul
ati
veel
ement
s,t
hat
:(i
)anobj
ectorper
sonmakesan
ef
fect
iveanddi
rectcont
ri
but
iont
omi
l
itar
yact
ion;and(
ii
)it
sat
tackof
fer
s,i
nthe
concr
eteci
rcumst
ances,adi
rectanddi
sti
nctmi
l
itar
yadv
ant
age.Thet
esti
sthus
concr
eteandcont
ext
ual
.Ther
ear
enomi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ivespersef
rom t
hepoi
ntof
v
iew oft
arget
ing.Anat
tacki
spossi
bleonl
yifbot
hoft
hement
ionedcr
it
eri
aar
e
met
.Themi
l
itar
ycont
ri
but
ionandt
headv
ant
agehav
etobedi
rect
.Indi
rector

161|Page
2024
hy
pot
het
icalcont
ri
but
ionsandadv
ant
agescannotbet
akeni
nto consi
der
ati
on
whenassessi
ngt
hel
egal
i
tyofanat
tackonapar
ti
cul
arobj
ect
,si
ncet
hiswoul
dput
t
ooheav
yast
rai
nont
hepr
inci
pleofdi
sti
nct
ion.

Dur
ingpeacet
ime,
andi
npar
ti
cul
ardur
ingt
imesofar
medconf
li
ct,
stat
esmustact
i
nsuchawayt
oensur
ethatt
her
uleguar
ant
eei
ngt
hei
mmuni
tyofci
vi
li
ansi
s
wor
kabl
e.Hence,st
atesmustt
akeal
lpossi
blest
epst
o ensur
ethatmi
l
itar
y
obj
ect
ivesar
espat
ial
l
ysepar
atedf
rom ar
easofci
vi
li
anpopul
ati
onsandmust
av
oidpl
aci
ngmi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ives,suchasammuni
ti
ondeposi
ts,i
nthev
ici
nit
yof
popul
atedar
eas.Mor
eov
er,eachst
atehasanobl
i
gat
ionnott
opl
aceci
vi
li
ansi
n
par
ti
cul
arposi
ti
onswi
tht
heai
m ofei
therpr
otect
ingmi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ivesf
rom at
tack
orf
aci
l
itat
ing mi
l
itar
yoper
ati
ons.Human shi
elds ar
ethe mostconspi
cuous
exampl
eofav
iol
ati
onoft
hisr
ule.Thesepr
ohi
bit
ionshav
etheobj
ect
iveofspar
ing
ci
vi
li
ansf
rom at
tack.I
tiscl
eart
hatev
eni
fmi
l
itar
yobj
ect
ivesar
epl
aced i
n
popul
atedzones,ori
fci
vi
li
ansar
edel
i
ber
atel
ylocat
edi
nthev
ici
nit
yofmi
l
itar
y
obj
ect
ives,t
he opposi
ng bel
l
iger
entmay st
il
lat
tack t
he mi
l
itar
y obj
ect
ives.
Howev
er,dur
ingsuchanat
tackheorshemayi
nci
dent
all
yhi
ttheci
vi
li
ansi
nthe
sur
roundi
ngar
ea.

Gener
all
y,t
hesy
stem ofpr
otect
ionofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Visdi
vi
dedi
ntof
our
par
ts.Fi
rst
,ther
ear
esomegener
alr
ulesf
oral
lci
vi
li
ans,r
egar
dlessofnat
ional
i
ty,
ont
het
err
it
ori
esoft
hebel
l
iger
entpar
ti
es.Theser
ulesconcer
ngener
alpr
otect
ion
oft
heci
vi
li
ans,suchashospi
talzonesandt
heev
acuat
ionofwoundedandsi
ck
ci
vi
li
ans.Secondl
y,t
her
ear
esomegener
alr
ulest
hatappl
ytopr
otect
edper
sonsi
n
t
henar
rowersense,asdef
inedi
nAr
ti
cle4ofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
V,whi
chappl
y
wher
evert
heseper
sonsf
indt
hemsel
ves.Thi
rdl
y,t
her
ear
especi
alr
ulest
hatappl
y
t
o‘enemy
’ci
vi
li
ans,andsomeot
herpr
otect
edci
vi
li
ans,whof
indt
hemsel
veson
t
het
err
it
oryofanopposedbel
l
iger
ent
.Theser
ulespr
inci
pal
l
yai
mtor
egul
atet
he
r
ightt
oleav
etheenemyt
err
it
oryandt
heexer
cisebyt
hebel
l
iger
ent
soft
hepower
t
oint
ern‘
enemy
’ci
vi
li
anssi
tuat
edont
hei
rter
ri
tor
y.Four
thl
y,t
her
ear
erul
est
hat
gov
ernt
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween ‘
enemy
’ci
vi
li
ans,and some ot
herpr
otect
ed
ci
vi
li
ans,
andt
hear
medf
orcesofadv
ersebel
l
iger
ent
sinoccupi
edt
err
it
ori
es.

162|Page
2024
LawsonPr
isoner
sofWar(
POW)

I
nanci
entt
imest
hecapt
ivesofwarcoul
dbeki
l
led,sol
dorputt
owor
katt
he
di
scr
eti
onoft
hecapt
or.Theconductoft
hecapt
orswasungov
ernedwhi
chl
edt
o
t
heunl
i
mit
edsuf
fer
ingofcapt
ives.Asar
esul
t,sol
dier
spr
efer
redt
ofi
ghtanddi
e
ont
hebat
tl
efi
eld.Ofcour
se,
thi
shascausedgr
eatdamagei
nter
msofhumanl
oss.

TheAmer
icanWarofI
ndependencemar
kedt
heemer
genceoft
hepr
act
iceofPOW.
Pr
isoner
sofwarwer
espar
edf
rom bei
ngt
ri
edf
ort
reasonbyt
heBr
it
ishf
orce.
Howev
er,st
il
lther
ewasi
l
landi
nhumant
reat
mentofwarpr
isoner
sfr
om bot
h
si
des.I
n1785t
hef
ir
stt
reat
yonpr
isonerofwarwassi
gnedbet
weent
heU.
Sand
Pr
ussi
a.Thi
sshowst
hatt
heU.
Spl
ayedasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
ntheemer
genceofbot
h
t
hepr
act
iceandt
reat
yofPOW.

The f
ir
stmul
ti
lat
erali
nter
nat
ionalat
temptt
oregul
atet
he handl
i
ng ofPOWs
occur
redi
n1907wi
tht
hepr
omul
gat
ionoft
heHagueRegul
ati
onsRespect
ingt
he
LawsandCust
omsofWaronLand.But
,ther
egul
ati
onswer
epr
imar
il
yconcer
ned
wi
tht
hemet
hodsandmeansofwar
far
erat
hert
hant
hecar
eofv
ict
imsofwar
.Yet
,
t
her
ewer
epr
ovi
si
onsont
hehandl
i
ngsoft
hewoundedandsi
ck.

Dur
ingWW It
her
ewer
enear
ly8mi
l
li
onPOWs.Par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
hosePOWswhower
e
undert
heGer
mancont
rolhadsuf
fer
edser
iousl
yfr
om t
hei
nhumant
reat
mentby
t
heGer
mans.The1907t
reat
yfai
l
edt
opr
otectt
hesepr
isoner
sduet
oit
spr
ovi
sion
whi
chl
i
mit
stheser
viceoft
het
reat
yont
henonsi
gnat
oryst
ates.Asar
esul
t,t
he
Ger
manscl
aimedt
hatt
het
reat
ywasnotbi
ndi
ngont
hePOWsoft
hesest
ates.

Consequent
ly,t
heGenev
aConv
ent
ionRel
ati
vet
otheTr
eat
mentofPOW was
si
gnedi
n1929.Thi
str
eat
yexpandedt
hesaf
etyofPOWst
hant
he1907conv
ent
ion.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,
thei
nhumant
reat
mentofPOWscont
inueddur
ingWW I
I.Abov
eal
l
,it
wasJapanandGer
manyt
hatunder
minedal
ltr
eat
iesonPOW.Fori
nst
ance,most
POWsi
nthehandsofJapanwer
efor
cedt
ounder
goext
remel
yinhumant
reat
ment
.
I
nthesameway
,theGer
mansf
oll
owedt
hesamepat
hsandmadet
hesol
dier
sof
t
heUSSRsuf
ferf
rom i
nhumant
reat
ment
.Forexampl
e,60,
000Sov
ietPOWsdi
ed

163|Page
2024
ofhunger
,fl
oggi
ng,
tor
tur
eandshoot
ingi
ntheWi
nterof1941-
42.

Then,t
hehor
ror
soft
heSecondWor
ldWarl
edt
othesi
gni
ngoft
heGenev
a
conv
ent
ionRel
ati
vet
otheTr
eat
mentofPr
isoner
sofWari
n1949.Oneoft
he
r
easonsf
ort
hecr
eat
ionoft
hist
reat
yist
oer
adi
cat
ethegapsoft
hepr
evi
ous
conv
ent
ions on t
he i
ssue.Mor
eov
er,t
hist
reat
ywas expanded byt
he 1977
Addi
ti
onalPr
otocolI
(API
).TheAddi
ti
onalPr
otocolcl
ear
lyst
atedaboutwhoi
s
ent
it
ledt
othePOW pr
otect
ionsi
nint
ernat
ional
armedconf
li
ct.

Accor
dingt
oAddi
ti
onalPr
otocolIi
nAr
ti
cle45(
1)A per
sonwhot
akespar
tin
host
il
it
iesandf
all
sint
othepowerofanadv
ersePar
tyi
spr
esumedt
obeapr
isoner
ofwar
,andhe/
shemustbepr
otect
edbyt
heThi
rdConv
ent
ion,i
fhecl
aimst
he
st
atusofpr
isonerofwar
,ori
fheappear
stobeent
it
ledt
osuchst
atus,ori
fthe
Par
tyonwhi
chhedependscl
aimssuchst
atusonhi
sbehal
fbynot
if
icat
iont
othe
det
aini
ng Powerort
othe Pr
otect
ing Power
.Accor
ding t
othe 1949 Genev
a
Conv
ent
ion I
II
,POWs ar
e member
s oft
he r
egul
arar
med f
orces i
nvol
ved i
n
i
nter
nat
ionalar
medconf
li
cts.Thi
sisappl
i
cabl
ewhent
hewari
sbet
weent
woor
mor
est
ates.I
fthear
medconf
li
cti
swi
thi
nasi
ngl
est
ate,member
sofmi
l
iti
asor
r
esi
stancef
ight
ersbel
ongi
ngt
oapar
tint
heconf
li
ctar
eref
err
edt
oasPOWs.The
l
aw al
soexpl
ainst
hatMedi
calandr
eli
giousper
sonnelcannotbeconsi
der
edas
POW.But
,ot
hernon-
mil
i
tar
yagent
s such as cont
ract
ors,j
our
nal
i
sts,ci
vi
li
an
member
sofmi
l
itar
yai
rcr
aftcr
ews,mer
chantmar
ineandci
vi
lav
iat
ioncr
ewsand
per
sonsaccompany
ingar
medf
orces(
dependent
s)ar
eel
i
gibl
efort
hest
atusof
POWs.

I
faper
sonwhot
akespar
tinar
medconf
li
ctdoesnotf
ulf
il
lthecondi
ti
onsf
orbei
ng
a‘
regul
arcombat
ant
’,whati
shi
sorherst
atusundert
heLOAC?Suchper
sonsar
e
somet
imescal
l
ed‘
i
rregul
ar’or‘
unl
awf
ul’combat
ant
s.Somepr
act
icalexper
iences
showed t
hatsuch per
sonsar
enotent
it
led t
othebenef
itoft
hepr
otect
ions
accor
dedbyGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
IIbecauset
heyar
enotr
egul
arcombat
ant
s.
Howev
er,gi
vent
hatGenev
aConv
ent
ionsI
–II
IandGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
V wer
e
dr
aft
edt
oensur
ethatt
her
ewer
enogapsi
nthepr
otect
ionsaf
for
ded,aper
son

164|Page
2024
whodoesnotf
allwi
thi
nGenev
aConv
ent
ionsI
–II
Ithusaut
omat
ical
l
yfal
l
swi
thi
n
Genev
aConv
ent
ionI
V.Thi
sconv
ent
ionconsi
der
sthesei
rr
egul
arcombat
ant
sas
ci
vi
li
ans.Howev
er,somest
ateshav
ecl
aimedt
hatper
sonst
aki
ngpar
tint
hef
ight
coul
dnotber
egar
dedas‘
ci
vi
li
ans’
underGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
V.

Asacust
omar
ylaw mostst
atesi
ncl
udi
ngt
heUni
tedSt
ates,cl
aimt
hat‘
i
rregul
ar
combat
ant
s’f
allnei
therwi
thi
nther
eachofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
IInorwi
thi
nthe
r
eachofGenev
aConv
ent
ion

I
V.Onl
ymi
nimum guar
ant
eesappl
ytot
hem.Thi
smeanst
hati
tisnecessar
yto
expl
oret
hemi
nimum st
andar
dsf
ort
reat
mentofi
rr
egul
ars.Fi
rstofal
l
,human
r
ight
slaw guar
ant
eesappl
y.Secondl
y,some mi
nimum guar
ant
eesundert
he
LOAC—especi
all
ythemi
nimum humanet
reat
mentandf
airt
ri
alr
ight
senshr
inedi
n
CommonAr
ti
cl
e3t
othef
ourGenev
aConv
ent
ionsandAr
ti
cle75ofPr
otocol
I
—appl
y.Asi
tisst
atedunderAr
ti
cle5(
3)ofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vsuchper
sons
shal
lnev
ert
hel
essbet
reat
edwi
thhumani
tyand,i
ncaseoft
ri
al,shal
lnotbe
depr
ivedoft
her
ight
soff
airandr
egul
art
ri
alpr
escr
ibedbyt
hepr
esentConv
ent
ion.
Thi
spr
ovi
si
onshowst
hatanyl
i
mit
ati
onspl
aced ont
hepr
otect
ionsgi
vent
o
capt
uredcombat
ant
sshoul
dbeast
empor
aryaspossi
bleandshoul
dnev
erf
all
bel
owt
hehumani
tar
ianmi
nimum.

Asf
arast
hepr
otect
ionsofPOW ar
econcer
ned,t
her
ear
eanumberofr
ight
sthat
t
hesei
ndi
vi
dual
senj
oy.Theser
ight
sanddut
iesar
espel
l
edouti
ndet
aili
nGenev
a
Conv
ent
ionI
II
,muchofwhi
chhasobt
ainedcust
omar
yst
atus.Thecombi
nat
ionof
t
he cust
omar
y and conv
ent
ionall
aw pr
ovi
des an ext
remel
y det
ail
ed and
compr
ehensi
vecodef
ort
het
reat
mentofPOWs.Thegener
alr
ulest
hatconcer
n
t
hepr
otect
ion ofdet
aineesar
eto bef
ound i
n Ar
ti
cles12 t
o 16 ofGenev
a
Conv
ent
ionI
IIundert
het
it
le‘
Gener
alPr
otect
ionofPr
isoner
sofWar
’.Theyar
e
mot
ivat
edbyt
hepr
inci
pleofhumani
tyandofhumanet
reat
ment
.Theycov
erwhat
t
heEr
it
rea-Et
hiopi
a Cl
aimsCommi
ssi
on hascal
l
ed t
he‘
cor
e’oft
heGenev
a
Conv
ent
ionI
IIr
egi
me,
‘t
hel
egal
obl
i
gat
ionst
okeepPOWsal
i
veandi
ngoodheal
th’
.
Ar
ti
cles13t
o16cont
aint
hemosti
mpor
tantgener
alr
ules.Ar
ti
cle13concer
nst
he

165|Page
2024
‘
absol
utel
yfundament
al’dut
yofhumanet
reat
ment
;Ar
ti
cle14cov
ersr
espectf
or
t
hei
ntegr
it
yoft
heper
sonandt
hei
rhonor
;Ar
ti
cle15deal
swi
tht
hedut
yto
mai
ntai
nandpr
ovi
demedi
calcar
etot
hepr
isoner
sfr
eeofchar
ge;andAr
ti
cle16
concer
nst
hedut
ytot
reatdet
aineesequal
l
y,except
ingwel
l
-foundeddi
sti
nct
ions
suchasr
ank,
sexorpr
ofessi
onal
qual
i
ficat
ions.

Mor
eov
er,Ar
t13st
atest
hatpr
isoner
sofwarmustatal
lti
mesbehumanel
y
t
reat
ed.Anyunl
awf
ulactoromi
ssi
onbyt
heDet
aini
ngPowercausi
ngdeat
hor
ser
iousl
yendanger
ingt
heheal
thofapr
isonerofwari
nit
scust
odyi
spr
ohi
bit
ed,
andwi
l
lber
egar
dedasaser
iousbr
eachoft
hepr
esentConv
ent
ion.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
nopr
isonerofwarmaybesubj
ect
edt
ophy
sicalmut
il
ati
onort
omedi
calor
sci
ent
if
icexper
iment
sofanyki
ndwhi
char
enotj
ust
if
iedbyt
hemedi
cal
,dent
alor
hospi
talt
reat
mentoft
hepr
isonerconcer
ned and car
ri
ed outi
n hi
sint
erest
.
Li
kewi
se,pr
isoner
sofwarmustatal
lti
mesbepr
otect
ed,par
ti
cul
arl
yagai
nstact
s
ofv
iol
enceori
nti
midat
ionandagai
nsti
nsul
tsandpubl
i
ccur
iosi
ty.

I
nAr
ti
cles49–57,t
heConv
ent
ionseekst
opr
ohi
bitcer
tai
nfor
msofl
abor
,in
par
ti
cul
arwor
kthati
sei
therdanger
ousorhumi
l
iat
ing.I
tal
soat
tempt
stosecur
e
pr
operwor
kingcondi
ti
ons,suchasmaxi
mum dur
ati
onofwor
kinghour
sperday
,
mi
nimum r
ates ofpay
mentf
orwor
k under
taken,r
esponse t
o occupat
ional
i
nci
dent
sandal
l
ocat
iont
olabordet
achment
s.Par
ti
cul
arl
y,Ar
ti
cle49st
atest
hat
t
heDet
aini
ngPowermayut
il
izet
hel
aborofpr
isoner
sofwarwhoar
ephy
sical
l
yfi
t,
t
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hei
rage,sex,r
ankandphy
sicalapt
it
ude,andwi
thav
iew
par
ti
cul
arl
ytomai
ntai
ningt
hem i
nagoodst
ateofphy
sicalandment
alheal
th.I
n
t
hesamet
oken,
Art
icl
e50(
1)expl
i
cit
lypoi
ntedoutt
het
ypeofj
obst
hatPOWscan
bedepl
oyed.Besi
deswor
kconnect
edwi
thcampadmi
nist
rat
ion,i
nst
all
ati
onor
mai
ntenance,pr
isoner
sofwarmaybecompel
l
ed t
o do onl
ywor
kssuch as
agr
icul
tur
e;i
ndust
ri
esconnect
edwi
tht
hepr
oduct
ionort
heext
ract
ionofr
aw
mat
eri
als,and manuf
act
uri
ng i
ndust
ri
es,wi
tht
he except
ion ofmet
all
urgi
cal
,
machi
ner
yandchemi
cali
ndust
ri
es;publ
i
cwor
ksandbui
l
dingoper
ati
onswhi
ch
hav
enomi
l
itar
ychar
act
erorpur
pose;t
ranspor
tandhandl
i
ngofst
oreswhi
char
e
notmi
l
itar
yinchar
act
er,commer
cialbusi
ness,andar
tsandcr
aft
s;domest
ic

166|Page
2024
ser
vice;
andpubl
i
cut
il
it
yser
viceshav
ingnomi
l
itar
ychar
act
erorpur
pose.

I
nrel
ati
ont
owarcr
imes,pr
isoner
sofwarmaybepr
osecut
edf
orwarcr
imesor
ot
hercommoncr
imesundert
hel
egi
slat
ionoft
hedet
aini
ngpower
;howev
er,such
t
ri
alsmustf
oll
owduepr
ocessofl
awandmustconf
ormt
othef
airt
ri
alguar
ant
ees
f
oundi
ntheConv
ent
ion.Ev
eni
fconv
ict
ed,t
hepr
isonerofwarr
etai
nst
hest
atus
andr
ight
sgr
ant
edt
ohi
m orherbyGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
II
.Speci
alr
est
ri
cti
onsar
e
putupont
hedeat
hpenal
ty.Onemustdi
sti
ngui
sht
hosesanct
ionsi
mposedf
or
br
eachesoft
hedi
sci
pli
nar
yregul
ati
onsappl
i
cabl
etot
hecamporf
orat
tempt
sto
escapef
rom cr
imi
nalsanct
ionsf
orconducti
nbr
eachofei
theri
nter
nat
ionall
awor
t
hecr
imi
nal
lawappl
i
cabl
etot
hear
medf
orcesoft
hedet
aini
ngpower
.

JustWarVer
susAggr
essi
onWar

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenj
ustwarandaggr
essi
on
war
?

Aggr
essi
oni
stheuseofar
medf
orcei
nvi
olat
ionofsomeoneel
se'
sbasi
cri
ght
s.
Theaggr
essi
oni
nvol
vedi
nwari
satoddswi
thbasi
cval
uesofci
vi
li
zat
ion.I
t
at
tackspeopl
e’
sri
ght
stol
i
fe,secur
it
y,subsi
stence,peaceandl
i
ber
ty.Howev
er,
j
ustwart
heor
ycl
aimst
hatwarcan,undercer
tai
ncondi
ti
ons,bemor
all
yjust
if
ied.
Paci
fi
sm ar
guest
hatwari
snev
ermor
all
yjust
if
ied.Real
i
sm say
sthatmor
al
concept
scannotbeappl
i
edt
oquest
ionsofwar(
orf
orei
gnpol
i
cygener
all
y).Just
wart
heor
ydi
vi
desi
ntot
hreepar
ts:

i
)jusadbel
l
um –t
hej
ust
iceofr
esor
ti
ngt
owar
;

i
i
)jusi
nbel
l
o–j
ustconducti
nwar
;ii
i
)jusi
i
i.
postbel
l
um –j
ust
iceatt
heendof
war
.

I
. JUSADBELLUM

Thef
oll
owi
ngsi
xcr
it
eri
ahav
ebeensuggest
edf
orawart
obej
ust
.Thef
ir
stt
hree
ar
edeont
ologi
cal
;thel
astt
hreear
ebasedonsecur
ingt
hebestconsequences.
Warmustbef
oraj
ustcause.Ther
eisdi
sagr
eementov
erwhatconst
it
utesaj
ust

167|Page
2024
cause.Exampl
esof
fer
edar
esel
f-
def
ense,t
hedef
enseofot
her
sfr
om aggr
essi
ve
at
tack,t
hepr
otect
ionofi
nnocentpeopl
efr
om aggr
essi
ver
egi
mes,orcor
rect
ive
puni
shmentf
oraggr
essi
onpastact
ion.Al
linv
olv
ethe‘
resi
stanceofaggr
essi
on’
,
t
hev
iol
ati
onofbasi
cri
ght
sbyuseofar
medf
orce.Wecanal
soar
guet
hatonl
ya
l
egi
ti
mat
est
atecanbegi
nawarwi
thj
ustcause.Tobel
egi
ti
mat
e,ast
atemustbe
r
ecogni
zedasl
egi
ti
mat
ebyi
tsci
ti
zensandbyot
herst
ates;i
tmustnotv
iol
atet
he
r
ight
sofot
herl
egi
ti
mat
est
ates;and i
tmustr
espectt
hebasi
cri
ght
sofi
ts
ci
ti
zens.

Ther
ighti
ntent
ionf
orf
ight
ingt
hewari
sbecausei
tisf
oraj
ustcause.Anyot
her
i
ntent
ion,

e.
g.mat
eri
algai
n,under
minest
hej
ust
iceoft
hewar
.

Thedeci
si
ont
ogot
owarmustbemadewi
tht
hepr
operaut
hor
it
y(usual
l
ylai
d
downi
nthest
ate’
sconst
it
uti
on)andbyapubl
i
cdecl
arat
ion.

Thedecl
arat
ionofwarmustbeal
astr
esor
t,f
oll
owi
ngt
heexhaust
ionofal
l
pl
ausi
bleal
ter
nat
ivest
oresol
vi
ngt
heconf
li
ct.

A decl
arat
ionofwarcanonl
ybej
usti
fthest
atecanf
oreseeapr
obabi
l
ityof
successi
nresol
vi
ngt
heconf
li
ctt
hroughwar
.Vi
olencewi
thoutl
i
kel
ygai
ncannot
bej
ust
if
ied.

Ther
esponseofdecl
ari
ngwarmustbepr
opor
ti
onat
e,i
.e.t
hegoodt
hatcanbe
secur
edt
hroughwarmustout
wei
ght
heev
ilt
hatwi
l
lmostl
i
kel
yoccur
.Theend
mustj
ust
if
ythemeans.Andi
nthi
scal
cul
ati
on,
thest
atemustconsi
dernotj
ustt
he
cost
sandbenef
it
stoi
tsel
f,butt
hoset
hatwi
l
laf
fectev
ery
onei
nvol
vedi
nthewar
(
e.g.i
ncl
udi
ngenemycasual
ti
es)
.

I
I. JUSI
NBELLO

Jusi
nBel
l
omeansj
ust
icei
nwar
,andhast
radi
ti
onal
l
ybeenconcer
nedwi
tht
he
t
reat
mentoft
heenemy
.Thef
oll
owi
ngsi
xrul
esar
eagener
alsummar
y:

168|Page
2024
Weaponspr
ohi
bit
edbyi
nter
nat
ional
lawmustnotbeused.

Ther
eisadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weencombat
ant
sandnon-
combat
ant
s.Onl
ycombat
ant
s
maybet
arget
ed.I
tiswr
ong t
oint
end t
hedeat
hsofnon-
combat
ant
s.Some
phi
l
osopher
sar
guet
hati
tiswr
ongev
ent
oint
endt
hedeat
hsofcombat
ant
s,as
onl
ythemi
nimum useoff
orcei
slegi
ti
mat
e.

Ar
medf
orcesmustusepr
opor
ti
onal
for
ce,
i.
e.pr
opor
ti
onal
toachi
evi
ngt
heend.

Pr
isoner
sofwarmustbet
reat
edwel
l
,becauseoncecapt
ured,
theyhav
eceasedt
o
bet
het
hreatt
oli
feandsecur
it
y.

Noweaponsormeansofwart
hatar
e‘ev
ili
nthemsel
ves’
areper
mit
ted.Exampl
es
i
ncl
udeet
hni
ccl
eansi
ngandmassr
ape.

Ar
medf
orcesar
enotj
ust
if
iedi
nbr
eaki
ngt
heser
ulesi
nresponset
otheenemy
br
eaki
ngt
heser
ules.

I
II
. JUSPOSTBELLUM

Ther
eisl
i
ttl
eagr
eementont
her
ulesofj
uspostbel
l
um.Howev
er,wecanappl
ya
numberoft
hev
aluesexpr
essedi
njusadbel
l
um andj
usi
nbel
l
otof
orm an
out
li
ne.

Ther
ight
swhosev
iol
ati
onj
ust
if
iedt
hewarshoul
dbesecur
ed.

Justast
hedecl
arat
ionofwarmustbepubl
i
clymadebyt
hepr
operaut
hor
it
y,so
mustt
hedecl
arat
ionofpeace.

Pr
opor
ti
onal
i
tygov
ernsbot
hjusadbel
l
um andj
usi
nbel
l
o,andsoi
tshoul
dgov
ern
t
hepeaceset
tl
ementaswel
l
.Itshoul
dber
easonabl
e,notaf
orm ofr
evenge,
whi
ch
wi
l
lli
kel
yfuel
resent
mentandf
urt
heraggr
essi
on.

The di
scr
imi
nat
ion bet
ween combat
ant
s (
incl
udi
ng pol
i
tical l
eader
s) and
noncombat
ant
sst
il
lappl
i
eswhenseeki
ngpuni
shment
.Publ
i
c,i
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
als
f
orwarcr
imesshoul
dbeconduct
ed.

169|Page
2024
ThePr
otect
ionofHumanRi
ght
sinI
nter
nat
ionalLev
el

Dearst
udent
s,do y
ou t
hink human r
ighti
sful
lyand equal
lypr
otect
ed at
i
nter
nat
ionall
evel
?

Li
ter
atur
esonhumanr
ight
sar
guet
hatt
heor
igi
nsoft
heconceptcanbet
raced
backt
oanci
entGr
eeceandRome,wher
eitwasl
i
nkedt
opr
e-moder
nnat
urall
aw
doct
ri
nesaccor
dingt
owhi
chhumanconductshoul
dbej
udgedaccor
dingt
othe
‘
l
aw ofnat
ure’
.Itwasnotunt
ilaf
tert
heMi
ddl
eAges,howev
er,t
hatnat
urall
aw
doct
ri
nesbecameassoci
atedwi
thl
i
ber
alpol
i
ticalt
heor
iesaboutnat
uralr
ight
s.I
n
Gr
aeco-
Romanandmedi
evalt
imes,nat
urall
aw doct
ri
nest
aughtt
hedut
ies,as
di
sti
nctf
rom t
her
ight
s,of‘
Man’
.Mor
eov
er,t
hesedoct
ri
nesof
tenr
ecogni
zedt
he
l
egi
ti
macyofsl
aver
yandser
fdom andt
her
efor
eexcl
udedt
hecent
rali
deasof
humanr
ight
sast
heyar
eunder
stoodt
oday–t
hei
deasofuni
ver
salf
reedom and
equal
i
ty.

Howev
er,
theemer
genceofanewt
rendcamewi
tht
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heUNi
n
1945.Par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
headopt
ionbyt
heUN Gener
alAssembl
yoft
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sin1948ser
vedasaf
oundi
nggr
oundf
ort
hemoder
n
under
standi
ngandpr
act
iceofhumanr
ight
s.Thet
erm‘
humanr
ight
s’became
popul
ari
nthepost
-WW I
Iper
iod.I
trepl
acedt
hephr
ase‘
nat
uralr
ight
s’,aswel
las
t
hephr
ase‘
ther
ight
sofMan’
,whi
chwasnotuni
ver
sal
l
yunder
stoodt
oincl
udet
he
r
ight
sofwomen.

Theadopt
ionofUDHRi
n1948pav
edt
hewayf
ort
hecr
eat
ionofanunpr
ecedent
ed
numberofst
andar
dst
o pr
otecthuman di
gni
ty.Themostsi
gni
fi
cantar
ethe
I
nter
nat
ionalConv
ent
ion on Ci
vi
land Pol
i
ticalRi
ght
s(I
CCPR,1966)and t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonEconomi
cs,Soci
alandCul
tur
alRi
ght
s(I
CESCR,1966)
,
whi
chpr
ovi
dedt
hef
oundat
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ionall
egalf
ramewor
kthatpr
otect
s
humanr
ight
s.Theset
wocov
enant
stoget
herwi
tht
heUDHRf
ormt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Bi
l
lofHumanRi
ght
s.Ot
hermaj
orhumanr
ight
str
eat
iesi
ncl
udet
heI
nter
nat
ional
Conv
ent
ionont
heEl
i
minat
ionofAl
lFor
msofRaci
alDi
scr
imi
nat
ion(
CERD,1965)
,
t
he Conv
ent
ion on t
he El
i
minat
ion ofAl
lFor
ms ofDi
scr
imi
nat
ion agai
nst

170|Page
2024
Women(
CEDAW,1979)
,theConv
ent
ionagai
nstTor
tur
eandOt
herCr
uel
,Inhuman
orDegr
adi
ngTr
eat
mentorPuni
shment(
CAT,1984)
,theConv
ent
ionont
heRi
ght
s
oft
heChi
l
d(CRC,
1989)
,andt
heI
nter
nat
ionalConv
ent
ionont
hePr
otect
ionoft
he
Ri
ghtofAl
lMi
grantWor
kerandMember
sofThei
rFami
l
ies(
ICMW,
1990)
.

I
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
stext
smaybedi
vi
dedi
nto“
har
dlaw”and“
sof
tlaw”
i
nst
rument
s.Thef
ir
stgr
oupi
scomposedofconv
ent
ions,
cov
enant
sandpr
otocol
s
t
hatar
ebi
ndi
ngonst
ateswhi
chhav
erat
if
ied,accept
edoraccededt
othem.The
secondgr
oupi
ncl
udesdecl
arat
ions,
pri
nci
ples,
plansofact
ionandgui
del
i
nes.I
tis
of
tensai
dthatt
hesedocument
sar
enotl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngbecausest
ateshav
enot
f
ormal
l
yagr
eedt
obeboundbyt
hepr
ovi
siont
heycont
ain.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
theyhav
e
consi
der
abl
epol
i
tical
andl
egal
wei
ght
.

Unt
ilnow,t
hemostcommonpr
ocedur
efornegot
iat
inganewbi
ndi
ngi
nst
rument
has been t
o mandat
e an open-
ended wor
king gr
oup t
o dr
aftt
he i
nst
rument
concer
ned.Most wor
king gr
oups wer
e est
abl
i
shed by t
he Human Ri
ght
s
Commi
ssi
on.Har
dlaw i
nst
rument
sof
tenr
equi
remanyy
ear
sofnegot
iat
ion.On
t
heot
herhand,decl
arat
ionsandot
hersof
tlaw document
sof
feramor
efl
exi
ble
f
orum i
nwhi
cht
odev
elopanor
m andt
hepr
ocesst
endst
obel
essar
duous.Sof
t
l
awi
nst
rument
spr
epar
ethewayf
orabi
ndi
ngdocument
,butt
hist
ooi
sadi
ff
icul
t
mat
tert
opr
edi
ct.Negot
iat
ionofsof
tlawdocument
scanal
sobeext
remel
yhar
d.

Gr
adual
l
y,sof
tlawi
nst
rument
smayacqui
reanaut
hor
it
ythatwasnotf
oreseenat
t
het
imeoft
hei
radopt
ion.Themostobv
iousexampl
eint
hiscasei
stheUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s(UDHR,1948)
.Ini
ti
all
y,i
twasmer
elyanon-
bindi
ng
decl
arat
ionadopt
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
y,butt
odaymanyofi
tsar
ti
cleshav
e
becomest
atement
sofcust
omar
ylawt
hatar
ehel
dtohav
euni
ver
sal
appl
i
cat
ion.

Ther
ear
efourbasi
cchar
act
eri
sti
csofhumanr
ight
s.Fi
rst
,regar
dlessoft
hei
r
ul
ti
mat
eor
igi
norj
ust
if
icat
ion,
humanr
ight
srepr
esenti
ndi
vi
dual
orgr
oupdemands
f
ort
heshapi
ngandshar
ingofpower
,weal
th,andot
herhumangoods.Second,
human r
ight
scommonl
yref
ert
ofundament
alsasdi
sti
nctf
rom nonessent
ial
cl
aimsorgoods.I
nfact
,somet
heor
ist
sgosof
arast
oli
mithumanr
ight
stoa

171|Page
2024
si
ngl
ecor
eri
ght
,ort
wo–f
orexampl
e,t
her
ightt
oli
feort
her
ightt
oequal
freedom
ofoppor
tuni
ty.Thi
rd,mostasser
ti
ons ofhuman r
ight
s ar
e qual
i
fied byt
he
l
i
mit
ati
ont
hatt
her
ight
sofanypar
ti
cul
ari
ndi
vi
dualorgr
oupar
epr
oper
lyr
est
ri
cted
asmuchasi
snecessar
ytosecur
ethecompar
abl
eri
ght
sofot
her
s.Fi
nal
l
y,i
fa
r
ighti
sdet
ermi
ned t
o bea human r
ight
,iti
sunder
stood t
o beuni
ver
sali
n
char
act
er,
equal
l
ypossessedbyal
lhumanbei
ngs.

Br
oadl
yspeaki
ng,
ther
ear
ethr
eegener
ati
onsofhumanr
ight
s.Af
ir
stgener
ati
onof
ci
vi
land pol
i
ticalr
ight
sder
ivesf
rom t
hesev
ent
eent
h-and ei
ght
eent
h-cent
ury
r
evol
uti
onsi
nBr
it
ain,Fr
ance,andt
heUni
tedSt
ates.I
nfusedwi
tht
hepol
i
tical
phi
l
osophyofl
i
ber
ali
ndi
vi
dual
i
sm andt
her
elat
edeconomi
candsoci
aldoct
ri
neof
l
aissez-
fai
re,t
heser
ight
sar
econcei
vedmor
einnegat
ive(
freedomsf
rom)t
han
posi
ti
ve(
ri
ght
sto)t
erms.Theyar
elai
ddowni
nAr
ti
cles2–21oft
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s,and i
ncl
ude;f
reedom f
rom gender
,raci
al,and
equi
val
entf
ormsofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion;t
her
ightt
oli
fe,l
i
ber
ty,andt
hesecur
it
yoft
he
per
son;f
reedom f
rom sl
aver
yori
nvol
unt
aryser
vit
ude;f
reedom f
rom t
ort
ureand
f
rom cr
uel
,inhuman,ordegr
adi
ng t
reat
mentorpuni
shment
;fr
eedom f
rom
ar
bit
rar
yar
rest
,det
ent
ion,orexi
l
e;t
her
ightt
oaf
airandpubl
i
ctr
ial
;fr
eedom f
rom
i
nter
fer
encei
npr
ivacyandcor
respondence;f
reedom ofmov
ementandr
esi
dence;
t
her
ightt
oasy
lum f
rom per
secut
ion;
freedom oft
hought
,consci
ence,
andr
eli
gion;
f
reedom of opi
nion and expr
essi
on;f
reedom of peacef
ulassembl
y and
associ
ati
on;t
he r
ightt
o par
ti
cipat
ein gov
ernment
,di
rect
ly ort
hrough f
ree
el
ect
ions;andt
her
ightt
oownpr
oper
tyandt
her
ightnott
obedepr
ivedofi
t
ar
bit
rar
il
y.

A secondgener
ati
onofeconomi
c,soci
al,andcul
tur
alr
ight
sfi
ndsi
tsor
igi
ns
pr
imar
il
yint
hesoci
ali
stt
radi
ti
on.Ther
ight
sint
hiscat
egor
yrespondi
nlar
gepar
t
t
otheabusesandmi
susesofcapi
tal
i
stdev
elopmentandwhatwascl
aimedt
obe
i
tsunder
lyi
ngconcept
ionofi
ndi
vi
duall
i
ber
tyt
hatt
oler
atedt
heexpl
oit
ati
onof
wor
kingcl
assesandcol
oni
alpeopl
es.Hi
stor
ical
l
y,i
tisacount
erpoi
ntt
othef
ir
st
gener
ati
on ofci
vi
land pol
i
ticalr
ight
s,wi
th human r
ight
sconcei
ved mor
ein
posi
ti
ve(
ri
ght
sto)t
han negat
ive(
freedoms f
rom)t
erms,and r
equi
ri
ng t
he

172|Page
2024
i
nter
vent
ionr
athert
hant
heabst
ent
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
omot
eequal
i
ty.These
posi
ti
ver
ight
sar
eli
stedi
nAr
ti
cles22–27oft
heUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHuman
Ri
ght
s,andi
ncl
ude:t
her
ightt
osoci
alsecur
it
y;t
her
ightt
owor
kandt
opr
otect
ion
agai
nstunempl
oyment
;ther
ightt
orestandl
eisur
e,i
ncl
udi
ngper
iodi
chol
i
day
s
wi
thpay
;ther
ightt
oast
andar
dofl
i
vingadequat
efort
heheal
thandwel
l
bei
ngof
sel
fandf
ami
l
y;t
her
ightt
oeducat
ion;andt
her
ightt
othepr
otect
ionofone’
s
sci
ent
if
ic,
li
ter
ary
,andar
ti
sti
cpr
oduct
ion.

Fi
nal
l
y,at
hir
dgener
ati
onofsol
i
dar
it
yri
ght
sisapr
oductofbot
hther
iseandt
he
decl
i
neoft
henat
ion-
stat
eint
hel
asthal
foft
het
went
iet
hcent
ury
.For
eshadowed
i
nAr
ti
cle28oft
heUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s,whi
chpr
ocl
aimst
hat
‘
ever
yonei
sent
it
ledt
oasoci
alandi
nter
nat
ionalor
deri
nwhi
cht
her
ight
ssetf
ort
h
i
nthi
sDecl
arat
ioncanbef
ull
yreal
i
zed’
,itappear
ssof
art
oembr
acesi
xri
ght
s.
Thr
eeoft
heser
efl
ectt
heemer
genceofThi
rdWor
ldnat
ional
i
sm andi
tsr
evol
uti
on
ofr
isi
ngexpect
ati
ons,i
.
e.i
tsdemandf
oragl
obalr
edi
str
ibut
ionofpower
,weal
th,
andot
heri
mpor
tantv
alues:
ther
ightt
opol
i
tical
,economi
c,soci
al,
andcul
tur
alsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion;t
her
ightt
oeconomi
candsoci
aldev
elopment
;andt
her
ightt
o
par
ti
cipat
einandbenef
itf
rom ‘
thecommonher
it
ageofmanki
nd’
.Theot
hert
hree
t
hir
d-gener
ati
onr
ight
s–t
her
ightt
opeace,t
her
ightt
oaheal
thyandsust
ainabl
e
env
ironment
,andt
her
ightt
ohumani
tar
iandi
sast
err
eli
efsuggestt
hei
mpot
ence
ori
nef
fi
ciencyoft
henat
ion-
stat
eincer
tai
ncr
it
ical
respect
s.

Pr
imar
yresponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hepr
omot
ionandpr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
sundert
he
UNChar
terr
est
swi
tht
heGener
alAssembl
yand,
underi
tsaut
hor
it
y,t
heEconomi
c
andSoci
alCounci
l(ECOSOC)
,theCommi
ssi
ononHumanRi
ght
s,andt
heUNHi
gh
Commi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
s(UNHCHR)
.TheUN Commi
ssi
ononHuman
Ri
ght
s,ani
nter
gov
ernment
alsubsi
diar
ybodyofECOSOC est
abl
i
shedi
n1947,
ser
vesast
heUN’
scent
ralpol
i
cyor
gan i
nthehuman r
ight
sfi
eld.TheHi
gh
Commi
ssi
onerf
orHumanRi
ght
s,apostcr
eat
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yin1993,
i
sresponsi
blef
ori
mpl
ement
ingandCoor
dinat
ingUni
tedNat
ionshumanr
ight
s
pr
ogr
amsandpr
oject
s,i
ncl
udi
ngov
eral
lsuper
visi
onoft
heUN’
sGenev
a-based
Cent
ref
orHumanRi
ght
s,abur
eauoft
heUNSecr
etar
iat
.

173|Page
2024
TheRol
eofAmnest
yInt
ernat
ional
andHumanRi
ght
sWat
ch

Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionalandHumanRi
ght
sWat
char
etwooft
hemosti
mpor
tant
i
nst
it
uti
onsi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sdi
alogue.Theypl
ayacr
it
icalr
olei
n
el
evat
inghumanr
ight
stot
hecor
eoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalagenda.Whi
l
enei
ther
or
gani
zat
ioncandi
ctat
eanycount
ry’
sfor
eignpol
i
cy,bot
hhav
epr
est
igi
ousv
oices
t
hatcannotbei
gnor
edandi
ndeedhav
ehadav
eryposi
ti
vei
mpacti
namel
i
orat
ing
humanr
ight
sinmanycount
ri
esasdocument
edt
hor
oughl
yont
hewebsi
tesof
bot
hor
gani
zat
ions.

HumanRi
ght
sWat
chwasst
art
edi
n1978asHel
sinkiWat
chi
nor
dert
omoni
tor
t
heSov
ietUni
on’
scompl
i
ancet
otheHel
sinkiAccor
ds.TheHel
sinkiAccor
dsi
sthe
Fi
nalActoft
he Conf
erence on Secur
it
yand Cooper
ati
on i
n Eur
ope i
n 1975
bet
weent
heUni
tedSt
ates,
Canada,
USSRandEur
opeancount
ri
es.Thepar
toft
he
agr
eementr
egar
dingci
vi
lri
ght
spr
ovi
dedt
hebasi
sfort
hewor
kofHumanRi
ght
s
Wat
ch.I
nat
wodecadeper
iodt
heor
gani
zat
ionbecameagl
obalent
it
y.Today
,
HRW i
sthel
argesthumanr
ight
sor
gani
zat
ionbasedi
ntheUni
tedSt
atesandi
t
oper
atesi
nmor
ethansev
ent
ycount
ri
es.I
tisanon-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ion
wi
tht
hei
ntent
iont
ogai
npr
ofi
tfr
om i
tswor
ks.

Themosti
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
ionoft
heHRW f
ort
hepr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
sat
agl
oball
eveli
sthr
oughi
tsf
unct
ionofcr
eat
ingandr
aisi
ngawar
enessabout
humanr
ight
s.But
,ther
eali
ntent
ionsoft
heor
gani
zat
ionsar
ebr
oader
.Ithasa
mi
ssi
ont
opr
otectt
hehumanr
ight
sofpeopl
ear
oundt
hewor
ld.Asf
arasi
tsv
isi
on
i
sconcer
ned,i
thasav
isi
ont
oseehumanr
ight
sbei
ngenj
oyedequal
l
ybyal
l
peopl
eregar
dlessofsoci
alcl
ass,f
ait
horpol
i
ticalopi
niont
heypr
omot
e.Tot
his
end,i
tinv
est
igat
es and exposes human r
ight
svi
olat
ions and hol
ds abuser
s
account
abl
e.I
tchal
l
engesgov
ernment
sandt
hosehol
dingpowert
oendabusi
ve
pr
act
icesandr
especti
nter
nat
ional
humanr
ight
slaws.

HumanRi
ght
sWat
chwasamongt
hesi
xint
ernat
ionalNGOst
hatf
oundedt
he
Coal
i
tiont
ost
opt
heUseofChi
l
dSol
dier
sin1998.Thecoal
i
tionadv
ocat
edt
he
adopt
ionofr
egi
onal
,nat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionall
egalst
andar
dspr
ohi
bit
ingt
he

174|Page
2024
mi
l
itar
yrecr
uit
mentanduseofanyper
sony
oungert
hanei
ght
eeny
ear
sofage.
Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,t
hiscampai
gnl
edt
othei
ncl
usi
onofOpt
ionalPr
otocolont
he
I
nvol
vementofChi
l
dreni
nAr
medConf
li
cti
ntheUni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
he
Ri
ght
soft
heChi
l
d,whi
chwenti
ntof
orcei
n2002.Ot
hermaj
ori
ssuesr
aisedby
HRW i
ncl
udesoci
alandgenderdi
scr
imi
nat
ion,t
ort
ure,gov
ernmentcor
rupt
ion,t
he
deat
hpenal
i
ty,
abor
ti
on,
andabusesi
ncr
imi
nal
just
icesy
stem .

Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionali
sawor
ld-
wideor
gani
zat
ionwhi
chhasmember
sinov
er
onehundr
edf
if
tycount
ri
es.I
tisgov
ernedbyani
nter
nat
ionalcounci
lcomposedof
r
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom al
lofi
tssect
ions.ThegoalofAmnest
yInt
ernat
ionali
sto
pr
omot
ehumanr
ight
saccor
dingt
othe1948UDHR.Theor
gani
zat
ionwor
kst
o
pr
event phy
sicaland ment
alhuman r
ight
s abuses,pr
omot
es f
reedom of
consci
enceandexpr
essi
on,andf
reedom f
rom di
scr
imi
nat
ion.I
tseekst
okeep
at
tent
iononhumanr
ight
sabusesspeci
fi
cal
l
ythr
oughr
esear
chandact
ionacr
oss
al
lregi
onsoft
hewor
ldandf
ocusesoni
ncr
easi
ngt
hev
isi
bil
i
tyoft
hecasesand
pet
it
ioni
ngt
hoser
esponsi
blef
ort
hei
ract
ions.

AIusesv
ari
ousv
enuest
oat
tai
nit
sgoal
s.I
tact
sthr
oughpr
essr
eleasesand
publ
i
shesannualhumanr
ight
srepor
tsi
nanat
temptt
oeducat
ethepubl
i
con
humanr
ight
sissues,
.
Ital
soor
gani
zesl
ett
erwr
it
ingcampai
gnst
opr
essur
ethe
gov
ernment
s,cor
por
ati
ons,orot
heror
gani
zat
ionst
hatar
eresponsi
blef
orhuman
r
ight
sabuse.Si
ncet
hesecondhal
fof1970s,
Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionalbr
avel
yfought
f
ort
hepr
otect
ionofhumanr
ight
s.Fori
nst
ance,i
n1977 i
thad or
gani
zed a
conf
erenceatSt
ockhol
m aspar
tofi
tscampai
gnagai
nstt
hedeat
hpenal
tywhi
ch
t
heor
gani
zat
ionv
iewedasani
nhumanf
orm ofpuni
shment
.Cur
rent
ly,ar
ound
ei
ght
yst
ateshav
ebanned t
hedeat
hpenal
ty.Theor
gani
zat
ional
so pl
ayed a
si
gni
fi
cantr
olei
nther
educt
ionofv
iol
enceagai
nstwomenwhi
chf
ocuseson
di
scr
imi
nat
ionandv
iol
encecases.I
naddi
ti
on,i
twor
kst
oencour
agesi
gni
ngof
l
egi
slat
ionssuchast
heUN Women’
sConv
ent
ionandi
tsOpt
ionalPr
otocol
.The
ai
m oft
hiscampai
gnhasbeent
obr
ingpubl
i
cat
tent
iont
othepr
obl
em ofv
iol
ence
agai
nstwomenandt
oencour
agewomen’
sact
ivi
sm.Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionalhasa
r
eput
ati
oni
ndi
ff
erentcampai
gnssuchasef
for
tst
oendchi
l
dsol
i
derpr
act
ice,t
o

175|Page
2024
cont
rolorl
i
mitar
mst
rade,st
opt
ort
ure,pr
otectr
efugeer
ight
s,andencour
aget
he
expansi
onandappl
i
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
lawandj
ust
ice.

Tosum up,
HumanRi
ght
sWat
chandAmnest
yInt
ernat
ional
aret
het
womaj
ornon-
gov
ernment
ali
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionst
hatar
eput
ti
ngaposi
ti
vemar
kont
he
uni
ver
salobser
vat
ion ofhuman r
ight
s.Si
nce t
hei
rest
abl
i
shmentt
hese t
wo
or
gani
zat
ionshav
eenj
oyedsi
gni
fi
cantachi
evement
swhi
chpr
ovet
hewor
thof
t
hei
rexi
stence.Fori
nst
ance,t
heymanagedt
oinf
luencet
heUN wi
thr
egar
dto
adopt
ingcer
tai
npr
otocol
smai
nlyduet
othest
rongpr
essur
efr
om t
heset
wo
or
gani
zat
ions.Howev
er,t
heseor
gani
zat
ionshav
eal
i
mit
edcapaci
tyi
nter
msof
br
ingi
ngt
hoseper
sonswhoar
eresponsi
blef
orhumanr
ightabuset
ojust
ice.
Agai
n,t
osomeext
entt
hewayt
heycol
l
ecti
nfor
mat
ionandt
heannualr
epor
tsar
e
cr
it
ici
zedbysomegov
ernment
sforbei
ngsubj
ect
ive.

TheRol
eofUNHCRonRef
ugees

Accor
dingt
o1951r
efugeeconv
ent
ion,ar
efugeei
ssomeonewhoi
sout
side
hi
s/hercount
ryofor
igi
n;hasawel
l
-foundedf
earofper
secut
ionbecauseofhi
s/her
r
ace,r
eli
gion,nat
ional
i
ty,member
shi
pinapar
ti
cul
arsoci
algr
oup,orpol
i
tical
opi
nion;andi
sunabl
eorunwi
l
li
ngt
oav
ailhi
m/her
sel
foft
hepr
otect
ionoft
hat
count
ry,ort
oret
urnt
her
e,f
orf
earofper
secut
ion.Mor
eov
er,sev
eralr
egi
onal
t
reat
iesi
ncl
udi
ngOAU[
Organi
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty]Conv
ent
ionGov
erni
ngt
he
Speci
fi
cAspect
sofRef
ugeePr
obl
emsi
nAf
ri
ca,
adopt
edi
n1969,
def
inesr
efugees
si
mil
arl
yandcov
ersanyper
soncompel
l
edt
oleav
ethei
rcount
ry.Accor
dingl
y,a
r
efugeei
saper
son“
owi
ngt
oext
ernalaggr
essi
on,occupat
ion,f
orei
gndomi
nat
ion
orev
ent
sser
iousl
ydi
stur
bingpubl
i
cor
deri
nei
therpar
tort
hewhol
eofhi
scount
ry
ofor
igi
n ornat
ional
i
ty.
"Thatmeans t
hatper
sons f
leei
ng ci
vi
ldi
stur
bances,
wi
despr
eadv
iol
enceandwarar
eent
it
ledt
ocl
aimt
hest
atusofr
efugeei
nSt
ates
t
hatar
epar
ti
est
othi
sConv
ent
ion,
whet
herornott
heyhav
eawel
l
-foundedf
earof
per
secut
ion.

I
n1984,agr
oupofgov
ernmentr
epr
esent
ati
ves,academi
csanddi
sti
ngui
shed
l
awy
ersf
rom Lat
in Amer
ica meti
n Car
tagena,Col
ombi
a,and adopt
ed what

176|Page
2024
becameknownast
heCar
tagenaDecl
arat
ion.Amongot
hert
hings,
theDecl
arat
ion
def
inesr
efugeesasper
sonswhof
leet
hei
rcount
ry"
becauset
hei
rli
ves,saf
etyor
f
reedom hav
ebeent
hreat
enedbygener
ali
zedv
iol
ence,
for
eignaggr
essi
on,
int
ernal
conf
li
cts,massi
vev
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
sorot
herci
rcumst
anceswhi
chhav
e
ser
iousl
ydi
stur
bedpubl
i
cor
der
."Thi
sdef
ini
ti
oni
ssi
mil
art
othatf
oundi
ntheOAU
Conv
ent
ion.Though t
he Decl
arat
ion i
s notl
egal
l
y bi
ndi
ng on St
ates,Lat
in
Amer
icanSt
atesappl
ythedef
ini
ti
onasamat
terofpr
act
iceandsomehav
e
i
ncor
por
atedi
tint
othei
rownnat
ional
legi
slat
ion.

Aper
sonbecomesar
efugeeonl
ywhenhe/
shecr
ossesani
nter
nat
ionalbor
der
.In
cont
rast
,ani
nter
nal
l
ydi
spl
acedper
sonr
emai
nsi
nsi
det
heboundar
iesofhi
s/her
own count
ry.Thus,t
he di
ff
erence bet
ween r
efugees and i
nter
nal
l
ydi
spl
aced
per
sonsi
stechni
cal
andl
egal
,andhasl
i
ttl
etodowi
tht
hei
rreasonsf
orf
li
ght
.Bot
h
cat
egor
iesofper
sonsar
eof
tenaf
fect
edbyt
hesamecausesofdi
spl
acement
.
Theyof
tenhav
eident
icalpr
otect
ionandmat
eri
alneedst
hatdeser
vet
heequal
at
tent
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.Mosthumani
tar
ianagenci
eshav
ethe
oper
ati
onalf
lexi
bil
i
tyt
o addr
ess t
he needs ofbot
href
ugees and i
nter
nal
l
y
di
spl
acedper
sons.UNHCR,whosest
atut
orymandat
eist
opr
otectr
efugees,has
beenaut
hor
ized,onanadhocbasi
sbyt
heUni
tedNat
ions,t
oactonbehal
fof
i
nter
nal
l
ydi
spl
acedper
sons.

I
tis,f
ir
standf
oremost
,ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyofSt
atest
opr
otectt
hei
rci
ti
zens.When
gov
ernment
sar
eunwi
l
li
ngorunabl
eto pr
otectt
hei
rci
ti
zens,i
ndi
vi
dual
smay
suf
fersuchser
iousv
iol
ati
onsoft
hei
rper
sonalr
ight
sthatt
heyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
oleav
e
t
hei
rhomes,t
hei
rfr
iends,may
beev
ensomeoft
hei
rfami
l
y,t
oseeksaf
etyi
n
anot
hercount
ry.Si
nce,bydef
ini
ti
on,t
hebasi
cri
ght
sofr
efugeesar
enol
onger
pr
otect
ed by t
he gov
ernment
s of t
hei
r home count
ri
es,t
he i
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyt
henassumest
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyofensur
ingt
hatt
hosebasi
cri
ght
sar
e
r
espect
ed.Thephr
ase“
int
ernat
ionalpr
otect
ion”cov
erst
hegamutofact
ivi
ti
es
t
hroughwhi
chr
efugees’
right
sar
esecur
ed.

The Of
fi
ce oft
he Uni
ted Nat
ions Hi
gh Commi
ssi
onerf
orRef
ugees,mor
e

177|Page
2024
commonl
yref
err
edt
oast
heUNr
efugeeagencyorUNHCR,
wascr
eat
edbyt
heUN
Gener
alAssembl
yin1950andbeganwor
kon1Januar
y1951.I
tsst
atut
ewas
dr
aft
edv
irt
ual
l
ysi
mul
taneousl
ywi
tht
he1951Conv
ent
ionRel
ati
ngt
otheSt
atusof
Ref
ugees,whi
chbecamet
hecor
ner
stoneofr
efugeepr
otect
ioni
nsubsequent
decades.

Chapt
erSummar
y
Li
keanyhumanphenomenon,
wari
sgov
ernedbyl
aw.Thei
nter
nat
ionall
awcov
ers
sev
erali
ssuesl
i
kel
awoft
reat
ies,sea,ai
randdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.Warorar
med
conf
li
ctsi
sal
sooneoft
hemaj
orar
easofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
nthecont
empor
ary
wor
ld,consi
der
ingt
hel
awsofwari
stakenasast
rat
egi
cmov
ebyabel
l
iger
ent
st
ateduet
ovar
iousr
easons.Reci
proci
tyi
soneoft
hebenef
it
sofobser
vingl
aws
ofwar
.Ast
hepastexper
iencesdemonst
rat
ed,anactofr
espect
ingt
hesel
aws
mot
ivat
est
heenemyt
oobser
vet
hesamer
ules.Att
hesamet
ime,t
heactof
compl
yi
ng wi
thi
nter
nat
ionalhumani
tar
ian l
aw may mot
ivat
ethe enemy t
o
sur
render
.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,i
thast
hepowert
oguar
dagai
nstt
heunnecessar
y
suf
fer
ingandpr
otect
sthebasi
cfundament
alhumanr
ight
s.

Thepr
otect
ionofci
vi
li
ansi
nthest
ateofwarhasdr
amat
ical
l
yexpandedi
nthe
post
-1949per
iod.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,t
hedr
aft
ingofGenev
aConv
ent
ionI
Vin1949
mar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofanewer
ainr
elat
iont
othel
awsofci
vi
li
anpr
otect
ion.The
t
erm‘
ci
vi
li
an’cov
ersal
lnon-
combat
antper
sons,r
oughl
yspeaki
ngal
lthosewho
ar
enotmember
soft
hear
medf
orces.I
nci
rcumst
anceswher
eci
vi
li
anst
akepar
t
i
n ar
med conf
li
ctas i
rr
egul
ars,who i
l
legal
l
ytake up ar
ms,t
hey shoul
d be
consi
der
edasci
vi
li
ansdur
ingt
het
imet
hatt
heydonotact
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
eint
he
ar
medconf
li
ctas‘
i
rregul
arcombat
ant
s.

Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionalandHumanRi
ght
sWat
char
etwooft
hemosti
mpor
tant
i
nst
it
uti
onsi
nthei
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sdi
alogue.Theypl
ayacr
it
icalr
olei
n
el
evat
inghumanr
ight
stot
hecor
eoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalagenda.HumanRi
ght
s

178|Page
2024
Wat
ch and Amnest
yInt
ernat
ionalar
ethe t
wo maj
or non- gov
ernment
al
i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions t
hatar
e put
ti
ng a posi
ti
ve mar
k on t
he uni
ver
sal
obser
vat
ionofhumanr
ight
s.Si
ncet
hei
rest
abl
i
shmentt
heset
woor
gani
zat
ions
hav
eenj
oyedsi
gni
fi
cantachi
evement
swhi
chpr
ovet
hewor
thoft
hei
rexi
stence.

Sel
f-
CheckExer
cise
1.
Elabor
atet
heconceptofwarcr
imes,anddi
scusst
het
heor
eti
calandpr
act
ical
r
elat
ionsofwarcr
imes

2.Di
ff
erent
iat
eandexpl
aint
heessenceofl
awsi
nwarandl
awsofwar

3.Doy
out
hinkI
CChasar
olei
npr
event
ingwarcr
imesandi
ntaki
ngmeasur
eson
warcr
imi
nal
s?I
fyouransweri
syes,ment
ionsomeofi
tsr
olesandmeasur
es
t
aken.

4.def
inewhoar
eci
vi
li
ansandexami
net
hedi
scr
epancybet
weent
hel
aw ofwar
andt
hepr
act
ical
prot
ect
ionofci
vi
li
ansi
nthet
imeofwar
.

5.Di
ff
erent
iat
eJustwarandAggr
essi
onwar
,andel
abor
atet
heconceptofeach.

6.Exami
net
hel
evel
ofhumanr
ight
spr
otect
ionati
nter
nat
ional
lev
el.

7.Di
scusst
her
oleofAmnest
yInt
ernat
ionalandHumanRi
ght
sWat
chi
nhuman
r
ightpr
otect
ionandpr
omot
ion.

CHAPTERFI
VE:I
NTERNATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS(
IOS)
Lear
ningout
comes

Att
heendoft
hechapt
erst
udent
swi
llbeabl
eto:

Def
inei
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ion

Di
scusst
hepur
pose,
powerandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofI
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions

179|Page
2024
Ex
ami
net
hehi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentofI
Os

Ex
ami
net
he Or
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofRegi
onal
Char
act
er

Ex
ami
neOr
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofUni
ver
sal
Char
act
er

Anal
yzet
hechar
teroft
heuni
tednat
ions

Ex
ami
net
heUNsy
stem andt
heuseoff
orce

Def
ini
ngI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions(
IOs)

Dear Lear
ner
s, what ar
e I
nter
nat
ional
Or
gani
zat
ions?

AnI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ion(
IO)r
efer
stoanyi
nter
nat
ionalgr
ouporassoci
ati
on
oft
hest
ateswhi
chencour
agesv
olunt
arycooper
ati
onandcoor
dinat
ionamongi
ts
member
s.The I
nter
nat
ionalLaw Commi
ssi
on (
ILC)def
ines an I
nter
nat
ional
Or
gani
zat
ionasan“
…or
gani
zat
ionest
abl
i
shedbyat
reat
yorot
heri
nst
rument
gov
erned by i
nter
nat
ionall
aw and possessi
ng i
ts own i
nter
nat
ionall
egal
per
sonal
i
ty.
”One oft
he mostdi
ff
icul
ttasksi
nthi
scour
se i
sto ar
ri
ve ata
compr
ehensi
ve def
ini
ti
on of i
nter
nat
ional or
igi
nat
ions. An i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionhasbeendef
inedasaf
orum ofco-
oper
ati
onofsov
erei
gnst
atesand
compr
isi
ngar
elat
ivel
yst
abl
erangeofpar
ti
cipant
s,t
hef
undament
alf
eat
ureof
whi
ch i
sthe exi
stence ofper
manentor
gans wi
th def
ini
te compet
ences and
power
sact
ingf
ort
hecar
ryi
ngoutofcommonai
ms.

I
nthewi
destsense,i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ioncanbedef
inedasapr
ocessof
or
gani
zi
ng t
he gr
owi
ng compl
exi
ty of i
nter
nat
ional r
elat
ions;i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ionsar
ethei
nst
it
uti
onswhi
chr
epr
esentt
hephaseoft
hatpr
ocess.They
ar
ethe expr
essi
ons of and cont
ri
but
orst
othe pr
ocess of i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ion,aswel
las,t
hesi
gni
fi
cantf
act
orsi
ncont
empor
arywor
ldaf
fai
rs.
Thus,i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ioni
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chst
atesest
abl
i
shand
dev
elopf
ormatandcont
inui
ngi
nst
it
uti
onalst
ruct
uresf
ort
heconductofcer
tai
n

180|Page
2024
aspect
soft
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
pswi
theachot
her
.

Thef
oll
owi
ngsar
ethebasi
cnat
uresofani
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ion:

I
tsor
igi
nisbasedonmul
ti
lat
eral
int
ernat
ional
agr
eement
.

Thei
nst
it
uti
onhasaper
sonal
i
tyofi
tsown,whi
chi
sdi
sti
nctf
rom t
hatofi
ts
i
ndi
vi
dual
member
s

I
thasper
manentor
ganswhi
chcar
ryoutcommonai
ms.

Oneoft
hosechar
act
eri
sti
csi
sthati
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsar
eusual
l
ycr
eat
ed
bet
ween st
ates,orr
ather
,as st
ates t
hemsel
ves ar
e abst
ract
ions,by dul
y
aut
hor
izedr
epr
esent
ati
vesofst
ates. Howev
er,i
tisnotahar
dandf
astr
ulet
hat
i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions can onl
ybe cr
eat
ed byst
ates.Mor
eov
er,notal
l
or
gani
zat
ions cr
eat
ed by st
ates ar
e gener
all
y consi
der
ed as i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ions.St
atesmay
,forexampl
e,est
abl
i
shal
egalper
sonundersome
domest
icl
egal
syst
em.

Thesecondchar
act
eri
sti
cint
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions,
butnotal
l
,ist
hatt
heyar
e
est
abl
i
shedbymeansofat
reat
y,t
hei
rcr
eat
ionwasnotbr
oughtaboutbysome
l
egalactundersomedomest
icl
egalsy
stem,
butwasdonei
nthef
orm ofat
reat
y,
whi
chi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
ngener
alt
ermsdef
inesasawr
it
tenagr
eement
,gov
erned
byi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Andast
het
reat
ywi
l
lbegov
ernedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
sot
oo
wi
l
ltheor
gani
zat
ion.

Hi
stor
icalDev
elopmentofI
Os

Dear l
ear
ner
s, how hav
e I
nter
nat
ional Or
gani
zat
ions
ev
olv
ed?

Thedev
elopmentofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionshasbeen,i
nthemai
n,ar
esponse
t
othe ev
identneed ar
isi
ng f
rom i
nter
nat
ionali
nter
cour
se r
athert
han t
othe

181|Page
2024
phi
l
osophi
calori
deol
ogi
calappealoft
he not
ion ofwor
ld gov
ernment
.The
i
nst
it
uti
onoft
heconsul
,anof
fi
cialoft
heSt
atewhoseessent
ialt
askwast
owat
ch
ov
ert
hei
nter
est
soft
heci
ti
zensoft
hisSt
ateengagedi
ncommer
cei
naf
orei
gn
por
t,wasknownt
otheGr
eeksandt
heRomans.I
tsur
viv
est
othi
sdayasoneof
t
hel
essspect
acul
ar,buti
mpor
tant
,inst
it
uti
onsofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Theconsul
wasnot
,howev
er,concer
nedwi
thr
epr
esent
inghi
sst
ateassuch,andf
ort
his
pur
poseambassador
swer
eused,bei
ngdi
spat
chedf
ort
hepur
poseofaspeci
fi
c
negot
iat
ion.

Byt
hef
if
teent
hcent
uryt
hisi
nter
mit
tentdi
plomacyhadbeenr
epl
acedi
nthe
r
elat
ions ofcer
tai
n oft
he I
tal
i
an St
ates by t
he i
nst
it
uti
on ofa per
manent
di
plomat
icambassadori
nthecapi
taloft
her
ecei
vi
ngSt
ate,andt
hepr
act
iceof
exchangi
ngambassador
s,compl
etewi
thst
affandembassypr
emi
ses,i
snow a
nor
mal(
albei
tnotcompul
sor
y)f
eat
ureofr
elat
ionsbet
weenst
ates.Consul
arand
Di
plomat
ici
nst
it
uti
onscanbef
oundi
ntheor
igi
nsoft
hesubsequentandmor
e
compl
exi
nst
it
uti
ons.

Al
though embr
yoni
cfor
ms ofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions hav
e been pr
esent
t
hroughoutr
ecor
dedhi
stor
y,f
ori
nst
ance,
int
hef
orm oft
hesocal
l
edamphi
cty
oni
c
counci
l
sofanci
entGr
eece,
thel
ate-
medi
eval
Hanseat
icLeagueorsuchpr
ecur
sor
s
ast
heSwi
ssConf
eder
ati
onandt
heUni
tedPr
ovi
ncesoft
heNet
her
lands,
itwasnot
unt
ilt
heni
net
eent
hcent
uryt
hat.
int
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsasweknow t
hem
t
odaywer
efi
rstest
abl
i
shed.Mor
eov
er,i
twasnotunt
ilt
heni
net
eent
hcent
uryt
hat
t
hei
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem ofst
ates(
atl
eastwi
thi
nEur
ope)hadbecomesuf
fi
cient
ly
st
abl
etoal
l
owt
hosest
atest
oseekf
ormsofcooper
ati
on.

Si
tuat
ionssoonar
osei
nwhi
cht
heessent
ial
l
ybi
l
ater
alr
elat
ionshi
psest
abl
i
shedby
di
plomat
icembassi
esormi
ssi
onswer
einadequat
e.Forexampl
e,apr
obl
em woul
d
ar
isewhi
chconcer
nednott
wobutmanySt
ates,andwhet
herwhatwaspr
oposed
wasaser
iesofnegot
iat
ionsorev
enaf
ormalt
reat
y,t
her
ehadt
obef
ounda
meansf
orr
epr
esent
ingt
hei
nter
est
sofal
lthest
atesconcer
ned.

182|Page
2024
Themeanswast
hei
nter
nat
ionalconf
erence,agat
her
ingofr
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom
sev
eralst
ates;si
mpl
ydi
plomacywr
itl
arge.ThepeaceofWest
phal
i
ain1648
emanat
edf
rom suchaconf
erence,asdi
dtheset
tl
ementaf
tert
heNapol
eoni
c
war
sin1815 t
hrought
hecongr
essofVi
ennaand,ev
enl
ater
,thepost
-1918
set
tl
ementnegot
iat
edatt
hePar
isconf
erenceof1919andembodi
edi
ntheTr
eat
y
ofVer
sai
l
les.Af
tert
hewat
ershedWest
phal
i
anpeaceof1648,i
nter
nat
ionalso-
cal
l
edcongr
esses’
hadbecomear
egul
armodeofdi
plomacy
:whenev
erapr
obl
em
ar
ose,aconf
erencewasconv
enedt
odi
scussi
tand,i
fpossi
bleatal
l
,tookst
eps
t
owar
dsasol
uti
on.Af
tert
hedef
eatofNapol
eon,
anewdev
elopmentt
ookpl
ace.

TheCongr
essofVi
ennaof1815hadseent
hei
nit
iat
ionoft
he“
concer
tsy
stem”
whi
ch,f
ort
hepur
posesofanyst
udyofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion,const
it
uteda
si
gni
fi
cantdev
elopment
.As sponsor
ed by t
he CzarAl
exanderI
,whatwas
env
isagedwasanal
l
ianceoft
hev
ict
ori
ouspower
spl
edgedt
oconductdi
plomacy
accor
dingt
oet
hicalst
andar
ds,
whi
chwoul
dconv
eneatcongr
esseshel
datr
egul
ar
i
nter
val
s.I
nfact
,fourcongr
esseswer
ehel
dbet
ween1818and1822-atAi
x-l
a-
Chappel
l
e(1818)
,atTr
oppauandLai
bach(
1820,
1821)
,andatVer
ona(
1822)-but
t
hei
deaofr
egul
arcongr
esseswasl
aterabandonedandmeet
ingst
ookpl
aceas
occasi
on r
equi
red.The at
temptt
o secur
eregul
armeet
ings was,howev
er,a
si
gni
fi
cantr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatt
he“
Pace”ofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsdemandedsome
i
nst
it
uti
onsf
orr
egul
armul
ti
lat
eral
negot
iat
ions.

Mor
eov
er,t
heCongr
essofVi
enna(
1815)andi
tsaf
ter
mat
hlaunchedsomeot
her
nov
elt
iesaswel
l
,themostr
emar
kabl
eofwhi
chwasper
hapst
hecr
eat
ionofa
supr
anat
ional
mil
i
tar
yfor
ceundert
hecommandofWel
l
ingt
on.

Cl
ear
ly,
anygener
alpostwarset
tl
ementdemandedamor
egener
alpar
ti
cipat
ioni
n
t
henegot
iat
ionst
hancoul
deasi
l
ybeachi
evedv
iat
het
radi
ti
onalmet
hodsof
di
plomat
ici
nter
cour
se.Bi
l
ater
alnegat
ion al
so pr
oved i
nadequat
eforot
her
pr
obl
emsofagener
alnat
ure.Thecongr
essofBer
li
nof1871wasconv
enedt
o
consi
dert
heRussi
anr
epudi
ati
onoft
her
egi
mef
ort
heBl
ackSeawhi
chhadear
li
er
beenest
abl
i
shedatt
hePar
isConf
erenceof1856;conf
erencesmeti
nBer
li
nin

183|Page
2024
1884and1885t
oat
temptt
oregul
atet
he“
Scr
ambl
eforAf
ri
ca”whi
chl
edt
o
commer
cial
riv
alr
yandpol
i
tical
ant
agoni
sm bet
weent
heEur
opeanpower
s.

The Hague Conf


erences of1899 and 1907 wer
e an ef
for
tto secur
e,on a
mul
ti
lat
eralbasi
s,agr
eementon di
ff
erentaspect
s oft
he l
aw r
elat
ing t
othe
conductofwar
far
eonl
andandont
hesea,
andont
hedut
iesofneut
ral
stat
es.

Thepeaceconf
erencesofTheHaguehadgi
vent
hesmal
lst
atesat
ast
efor
i
nter
nat
ionalact
ivi
sm:i
npar
ti
cul
art
he1970conf
erenceappr
oacheduni
ver
sal
par
ti
cipat
ion,wi
thf
ort
y-f
ourst
atesbei
ngr
epr
esent
ed.Mor
eov
er,duei
npar
ttoi
ts
near
-uni
ver
salpar
ti
cipat
ion,or
gani
zat
ionalexper
iment
stookpl
ace,oneoft
hem
bei
ngt
hatr
ecommendat
ions(
so-
cal
l
ed‘
voeux’
)oft
heconf
erencewer
epassedby
amaj
ori
tyv
ote,
inst
eadofunani
mit
y.

The“
concer
tofEur
ope”r
emai
nedaquasi
-inst
it
uti
onal
i
zedsy
stem ev
enaf
tert
he
Hol
yAl
l
iancehadbr
okenup,unt
ilt
heFi
rstWor
ldWardest
roy
edt
hebal
anceof
poweronwhi
chi
trest
ed(
orr
atherconf
ir
medi
tsdemi
se)
;theLondonconf
erences
of1912-
13,att
he end oft
he Bal
kan War
s,wer
ethe l
astconf
erences or
congr
esses conv
ened wi
thi
nthe f
ramewor
k of t
he “
concer
tsy
stem.
” The
concl
usi
onofaconf
erencewoul
dnor
mal
l
ybeaccompani
edbyaf
ormalt
reat
yor
conv
ent
ion,or
,wher
enosuchbi
ndi
ngagr
eementwasdesi
redorobt
ainabl
e,bya
memor
andum ormi
nut
esoft
heconf
erence.

Howev
er,i
tmustbe r
emember
ed t
hatt
her
e exi
sted si
de by si
de wi
tht
he
conf
erencesy
stem t
het
radi
ti
onalmeansofsol
vi
ngl
egaldi
sput
es,bymedi
ati
on,
conci
l
iat
ionorar
bit
rat
ional
thought
her
ewasi
nthi
sfi
eld,
asi
nthef
iel
dofpol
i
tical
set
tl
ement
,anequalneedf
ort
hecr
eat
ionofsomeper
manentmachi
ner
y.I
tisal
so
unl
i
kel
ythatar
igi
dsepar
ati
onbet
ween”Pol
i
tical
”and“
legal
”quest
ionscanev
er
beachi
evedsoast
oal
l
ocat
ethel
att
erexcl
usi
vel
ytoj
udi
cialt
ri
bunal
s;pol
i
ticsar
e
r
arel
y“pur
e”andpol
i
ticalmat
ter
sdonotceaset
obesuchbecauset
heyi
nvol
ve
l
egalr
ight
s.Theni
net
eent
hcent
urysaw,t
her
efor
e,ani
mpassi
vedev
elopmentof
associ
ati
onsoruni
ons,i
nter
nat
ionali
n char
act
er,bet
ween gr
oupsot
hert
han
gov
ernment
s.Thi
swasf
oll
owedbysi
mil
ardev
elopment
sbet
weengov
ernment
s

184|Page
2024
t
hemsel
vesi
ntheadmi
nist
rat
iver
athert
hant
hepol
i
tical
fiel
d.

Thepr
ivat
eInt
ernat
ionaluni
onsorassoci
ati
onsspr
angf
rom t
her
eal
i
zat
ionbynon
-
gov
ernment
albodi
es,whet
herpr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
sorcor
por
ateassoci
ati
ons,t
hat
t
hei
rint
erest
shadani
nter
nat
ionalchar
act
erwhi
chdemandedt
hef
urt
her
anceof
t
hosei
nter
est
svi
aaper
manenti
nter
nat
ionalassoci
ati
onwi
thl
i
kebodi
esi
not
her
count
ri
es.I
nthose f
iel
ds wher
e co-
oper
ati
on bet
ween gov
ernment
s became
i
mper
ati
ve,t
her
edev
elopedt
hepubl
i
cint
ernat
ionaluni
ons;t
hesewer
e,i
nfact
,an
essayi
ntoi
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ioni
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ivespher
e.

Thet
ransi
ti
onf
rom pr
ivat
etopubl
i
cor
gani
zat
ionswasgr
adual
,andnogener
all
y
accept
eddef
ini
ti
onoft
hepubl
i
cint
ernat
ionaluni
onhasov eached.i
erbeenr n
gener
al. Howev
er,t
hey wer
e per
manent associ
ati
ons of gov
ernment
s or
admi
nist
rat
ionsbaseduponat
reat
yofamul
ti
lat
eralr
athert
hanabi
l
ater
alt
ype
andwi
thsomedef
ini
tecr
it
eri
onofpur
pose.

Fi
nal
l
y,t
heni
net
eent
hcent
urysaw t
hecr
eat
ionofsuchi
ntui
ti
onsast
heRhi
ne
Commi
ssi
on,
inor
dert
odealwi
thi
ssuesofnav
igat
ion,
ori
ssuesofpol
l
uti
on,
ona
r
egul
arbasi
s.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heRhi
neCommi
ssi
oni
n1915,a
numberofot
herr
ivercommi
ssi
onswer
eest
abl
i
shed-
managi
ngt
heEl
be(
1821)
,
t
heDour
o(1835)t
hePo(
1849)-and,af
tert
heendoft
heCr
imeanWar
,the
Eur
opean Commi
ssi
on f
ort
he Danube i
n 1856.Atr
oughl
ythe same t
ime,
or
gani
zat
ionsst
art
edt
obeest
abl
i
shedbypr
ivat
eci
ti
zens,i
nor
dert
odealwi
th
i
nter
nat
ionali
ssues.Thus,i
n 1840,t
he wor
ld Ant
i-
Slav
ery Conv
ent
ion was
est
abl
i
shed,andi
n1863aSwi
ssphi
l
ant
hropi
st,Henr
yDunant
,Cr
eat
edt
heRed
Cr
oss.

Ther
iseofmoder
nor
gani
zat
ions

I
tbecamecl
eart
hati
nmanyar
eas,
int
ernat
ional
cooper
ati
onwasnotonl
yrequi
red,
butal
sopossi
ble.Tr
ueenough,st
ateswer
esov
erei
gnandpower
ful
,but
,ast
he
r
ivercommi
ssi
ons showed,t
hey coul
d somet
imes sacr
if
ice some oft
hei
r
sov
erei
gnpr
erogat
ivesi
nor
dert
ofaci
l
itat
ethemanagementofcommonpr
obl
ems.

185|Page
2024
Themostobv
iousar
eai
nwhi
chi
nter
nat
ionalcooper
ati
onmayber
equi
redi
s
per
hapst
hatoft
ranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ionasi
ndi
cat
edbyt
hecr
eat
ionoft
hose
r
ivercommi
ssi
ons.Regul
ati
onofot
hermodesoft
ranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ion
qui
ckl
yfol
l
owed:i
n1865t
hei
nter
nat
ionalTel
egr
aphi
cUni
onwasest
abl
i
shed,
f
oll
owedi
n1874byt
heuni
ver
salpost
alUni
onandi
n1890byt
hei
nter
nat
ional
Uni
onofRai
l
wayFr
eightTr
anspor
tat
ion.

St
il
lot
herar
easdi
dnotl
agconsi
der
abl
ybehi
nd:i
n1903t
heI
nter
nat
ionalof
fi
ceof
Publ
i
cHeal
thwascr
eat
ed,andi
nthef
iel
dofeconomi
cst
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
he
Met
ri
cUni
on(
1875)
,theI
nter
nat
ionalCopy
rightUni
on(
1886)
,theI
nter
nat
ional
SugarUni
on(
1902)andt
heI
nter
nat
ionalI
nst
it
utef
orAgr
icul
tur
e(1905)maybe
ment
ionedasear
lyf
orer
unner
sofpr
esent
-dayi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion.I
ndeed,
someoft
hesear
est
il
linexi
stence,
albei
tunderadi
ff
erentnameandont
hebasi
s
ofadi
ff
erentconst
it
uentt
reat
y:t
her
erunsadi
rectconnect
ion,f
orexampl
e,f
rom
t
heear
lyi
nter
nat
ionali
nst
it
utef
orAgr
icul
tur
etot
oday
’sFAO.Sl
owl
ybutsur
ely
,
mor
eandmor
eint
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsbecameest
abl
i
shed,somuchsot
hat
publ
i
cint
ernat
ionall
aw gr
adual
l
ytr
ansf
ormed (
ori
s sai
dto be gr
adual
l
y
t
ransf
ormi
ng)f
rom al
awofco-
exi
stencet
oal
awofcooper
ati
on.

Manyoft
hesubst
ant
ivef
iel
dsofpubl
i
cint
ernat
ionall
aw ar
enol
ongergear
ed
mer
elyt
odel
i
mit
ingt
hespher
esofi
nfl
uenceoft
hev
ari
ousst
ates,butar
erat
her
gear
edt
owar
dsest
abl
i
shi
ngmor
eorl
essper
manentmechani
smsf
orcooper
ati
on.
Ar
ound t
he t
urn oft
he t
went
iet
h cent
uryi
tappear
ed i
ndeed t
o be common
knowl
edge t
hatt
he or
gani
zat
ion ofi
nter
stat
e cooper
ati
on had become wel
l
accept
edi
nint
ernat
ional
law.

Themaj
orbr
eakt
hroughf
ori
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionhowev
er,woul
dbet
hey
ear
1919andt
heVer
sai
l
lespeaceSet
tl
ementwhi
chf
oll
owedt
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.On8
Januar
y1918,USpr
esi
dentWoodr
ow Wi
l
sonmadehi
sfamous‘
four
teenpoi
nts’
Speech,i
nwhi
chhecal
l
edf
ort
hecr
eat
ionofa“
gener
alassoci
ati
onofnat
ions.
Underspeci
fi
ccov
enant
sfort
he pur
pose ofaf
for
ding mut
ualguar
ant
eesof
pol
i
tical
independenceandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
ytogr
eatandsmal
lst
atesal
i
ke.

186|Page
2024
Wi
l
son’
spl
eawascar
ri
edont
hewav
esofpubl
i
copi
um i
nmanyst
atesandwoul
d
l
eadt
othef
ormat
ionoft
heLeagueofNat
ions.Andnotonl
ythat
:thei
nter
nat
ional
LaborOr
gani
zat
ionwasal
soest
abl
i
shedatt
he1919peaceConf
erence.

TheLeagueofNat
ionswast
hef
ir
sti
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ionwhi
chwasdesi
gned
notj
ustt
o or
gani
zat
ion oper
ati
on bet
ween dat
esi
n ar
easwhi
ch somehav
e
r
efer
redt
oas‘
l
ow pol
i
tics’
,suchast
ranspor
tandcommuni
cat
ion,ort
hemor
e
mundaneaspect
sofeconomi
cco-
oper
ati
onasexempl
i
fiedbyt
heMet
ri
cUni
on,
butt
ohav
easi
tsspeci
fi
cai
mst
oguar
ant
eepeaceandt
heest
abl
i
shmentofa
sy
stem ofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
y,f
oll
owi
ngwhi
chanat
tackagai
nstoneoft
hemember
-
stat
esoft
heLeaguewoul
dgi
vet
her
estt
her
ightt
ocomet
otheat
tackedst
ate’
s
r
escue.

TheLeaguef
ail
edi
nit
sownov
err
idi
ngpur
pose:
prev
ent
ingwar
.Ont
her
uinsoft
he
SecondWor
ldWart
heur
get
oor
gani
zewasgi
venanew i
mpet
us.Asear
lyas
August1941,Amer
icanpr
esi
dentRoosev
eltandBr
it
ishPr
imeMi
nist
erChur
chi
l
l
hadconcededt
heAt
lant
icChar
ter
,adecl
arat
ionofpr
inci
pleswhi
chwoul
dser
ve
ast
hebasi
s,f
ir
st,f
oradecl
arat
ionoft
hewar
ti
meal
l
ies,andl
ater
,af
tert
heSt
ate
Depar
tmenthad ov
ercome Pr
esi
dentRoosev
elt
’si
nit
ialr
eluct
ance t
o commi
t
hi
msel
ftot
hecr
eat
ionofapost
-Waror
gani
zat
ion,f
ort
heChar
teroft
heUni
ted
Nat
ions.

Al
sodur
ingt
hewar
,in1944,t
hef
utur
eofeconomi
ccooper
ati
onwasmappedi
n
Br
ett
on Woods,wher
eagr
eementwasr
eached on t
heneed t
o cooper
ateon
monet
aryandt
radei
ssues,ev
ent
ual
l
yleadi
ngt
othecr
eat
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
monet
aryFundandt
heGener
alAgr
eementont
ari
ff
sandTr
ade,
amongot
her
s.

Ther
esur
rect
ionoft
hel
argestbat
tl
efi
eldoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,Eur
ope,al
so
cameaccompani
edbyt
her
iseofanumberofor
gani
zat
ions.TheCounci
lof
Eur
opewasaf
ir
stat
tempt
,bor
noutofChur
chi
l
l’
sav
oweddesi
ret
ocr
eat
ethe
Uni
ted St
ates ofEur
ope,so t
hatEur
ope coul
d become an i
mpor
tantpower
al
ongsi
det
heUSandt
heUK.

187|Page
2024
Tochannelt
heAmer
icanMar
shal
lai
d,t
heOr
gani
zat
ionf
orEur
opeanEconomi
cco
-
oper
ati
onwascr
eat
ed(
In1960t
ransf
ormedi
ntot
heOr
gani
zat
ionf
orEconomi
c
co-
oper
ati
onandDev
elopment
),andar
elat
ivel
ysmal
lnumberofEur
opeanst
ates
st
art
ed a uni
que exper
imentwhen,i
n 1951,t
hey cr
eat
ed t
he supr
anat
ional
Eur
opeanCoalandSt
eelCommuni
ty,somey
ear
slat
erf
oll
owedbyt
heEur
opean
economi
cCommuni
tyandt
heEur
opeancommuni
tyForat
omi
cEner
gy,
allt
hreeof
whi
chhav
enowbeensubsumedi
ntot
heEur
opeanUni
on.

Thenor
ther
nandwest
ernst
atest
hatr
emai
nedout
sidewoul
dlat
ercr
eat
ean
al
ter
nat
ivei
nthef
orm oft
heEur
opean Fr
eeTr
adeAr
ea,whi
l
ethest
ate-
run
economi
esoft
heeastr
epl
i
edwi
tht
hecr
eat
ionoft
hecounci
lformut
ual
Economi
c
Assi
stance(
usual
l
yref
err
edt
oasComecon)
.

Thei
nfl
uenceoft
heCol
dWaral
somadei
tfel
tthr
oughmi
l
itar
ycooper
ati
oni
n
Eur
ope.West
ernEur
opesaw t
hecr
eat
ionoft
hePactofBr
ussel
s(whi
chl
ater
becamet
heWest
ernEur
opeanUni
on)andt
heNor
thAt
lant
ict
reat
yOr
gani
zat
ion.
East
ernEur
opesaw t
hecr
eat
ionoft
heWar
saw Pact
,whi
l
eeastandwestwoul
d
meet
,fr
om t
he1970sonwar
ds,
wit
hint
hef
ramewor
koft
heconf
erenceonsecur
it
y
andcooper
ati
oni
nEur
ope(
CSCE)
,whi
chi
n1995changedi
tsnamet
oref
lecti
ts
i
ncr
easedor
gani
zat
ionst
ruct
urei
ntoor
gani
zat
ionf
orsecur
it
yandco-oper
ati
oni
n
Eur
ope(
OSCE)
.

Mor
eov
er,el
sewher
etooor
gani
zat
ionsmushr
oomed.Ont
heAmer
icancont
inent
,
t
he ear
ly Pan-Amer
ican Conf
erence was r
ecr
eat
ed so as t
o become t
he
Or
gani
zat
ion of Amer
ican St
ates. I
n addi
ti
on, t
her
e ar
e mor
e l
ocal
i
zed
or
gani
zat
ionssuchasCARI
COM andMer
cosur
.

I
nAf
ri
ca,t
hewav
eofi
ndependenceoft
he1950sandear
ly1960smadepossi
ble
t
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heor
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
tyi
n1963,wi
thl
aterr
egi
onal
or
gani
zat
ionssuchasECOCAS(
inCent
ralAf
ri
ca)andECOWAS(
west
ernAf
ri
ca)
bei
ngadded.I
nshor
t,t
her
eisnotapar
toft
hegl
obewhi
chi
snotcov
eredbyt
he
wor
kofsomei
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionorot
her
;ther
eishar
dlyahumanact
ivi
ty
whi
ch i
s not
,to some ex
tent
,gov
erned by t
he wor
k of an i
nter
nat
ional

188|Page
2024
or
gani
zat
ion.

Pur
pose,
powerandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofI
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ions

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whatki
ndofcr
it
eri
amayweempl
oyt
ocl
assi
fy
I
OS?

Wecancl
assi
fyi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsbasedondi
ff
erentcr
it
eri
a.Someof
t
hem ar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:

A.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbasedonf
unct
ions

I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsmaybe cl
assi
fi
ed i
n accor
dance wi
tht
hei
rst
ated
f
unct
ions.Thus,qui
tef
ewar
eact
ivei
ntheeconomi
cfi
eld;ot
her
sar
eengagedi
n
peaceandsecur
it
y,ormi
l
itar
yal
l
iances.Yetot
her
sdealwi
thi
ssuesofnut
ri
ti
on,
publ
i
cheal
th,
andt
elecommuni
cat
ionorf
isher
iesconser
vat
ion,
tonamej
ustaf
ew
possi
bil
i
ties.Adi
sti
nct
ionbasedonf
unct
ionsaut
omat
ical
l
ysuggest
sit
sel
f,andi
t
i
sbr
oadl
ypossi
blet
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
he“
pol
i
tical
”or
gani
zat
ions,concer
ned
pr
imar
il
y wi
tht
he pr
eser
vat
ion ofi
nter
nat
ionalpeace and secur
it
y,and t
he
admi
nist
rat
iveor
gani
zat
ionsofmor
eli
mit
edai
ms.Thedi
sti
nct
ioni
sper
hapsmor
e
accur
atel
yst
atedasonebet
weenor
gani
zat
ionsofcompr
ehensi
vecompet
ence
andor
gani
zat
ionsofl
i
mit
edcompet
ence.The“
pol
i
tical
”or
gani
zat
ion,t
heUni
ted
Nat
ions,has amongst i
ts or
gans t
he Tr
ust
eeshi
p Counci
l
,wi
th pr
imar
il
y
admi
nist
rat
ivef
unct
ions,andt
heI
.CJ,apur
elyj
udi
cialbody
.Theco-
ordi
nat
ion
achi
evedbybr
ingi
ngt
hespeci
ali
zedagenci
esi
ntor
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
heUN al
so
makesanycl
earcl
assi
fi
cat
ionbyf
unct
iondi
ff
icul
t.

B.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbasedonMember
shi
p

Thi
smet
hodofcl
assi
fi
cat
ionbasesi
tsel
font
hef
actt
hatsomeor
gani
zat
ionsar
e”
gl
obal
”wher
easot
her
sar
e“r
egi
onal
”.Thus,someor
gani
zat
ionsaspi
ret
o be
uni
ver
sal
;inv
iti
ngal
lst
atest
ojoi
n.TheUni
tedNat
ionsi
sat
ypi
calexampl
e,i
n
pr
inci
pleopent
oal
lst
atesasl
ongast
heymeetcer
tai
nrequi
rement
s.Hence,t
he
UN i
s of
ten r
efer
red t
o as an ‘
open’or
gani
zat
ion,as ar
e(al
though t
hei
r

189|Page
2024
member
shi
pdoesnotcompar
etot
hatoft
heUN)suchor
gani
zat
ionsast
heWor
ld
Heal
thOr
gani
zat
ion(
WHO)andt
heWor
ldTr
adeOr
gani
zat
ion(
WTO)
.

Ot
heror
gani
zat
ionshowev
er,maybewi
thl
i
mit
edmember
shi
p,andusual
l
ysuch
l
i
mit
ati
ons may der
ive f
rom t
hei
r ov
eral
l pur
pose. Thus,many r
egi
onal
or
gani
zat
ions,ai
mingt
oor
gani
zeact
ivi
ti
esi
nacer
tai
ngeogr
aphi
calr
egi
on,ar
e
openonl
yforst
atesf
rom t
hatr
egi
on.TheEur
opeanUni
on(
EU)i
sonl
yopenf
or
Eur
opeanst
ates.Af
ri
canUni
on(
AU)i
sforAf
ri
canst
ates…et
c.

C.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbasedont
heki
ndofcont
ract
ingpar
ti
es

Ther
eisaf
undament
aldi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenor
gani
zat
ionsf
oundedonat
reat
y
bet
weenst
atesandat
reat
ybet
weengov
ernment
s.Thei
deai
s,essent
ial
l
y,t
hat
t
hei
nter
-st
atet
reat
yembr
acest
het
otal
i
tyoft
hest
ate’
sinst
it
uti
on,i
tsl
egi
slat
ive
and j
udi
ci
almachi
ner
y as wel
las t
he admi
nist
rat
ive,wher
eas t
he i
nter
-
gov
ernment
alt
reat
yfor
m embr
acesonl
ytheexecut
ives.I
twoul
dseem,howev
er,
t
hati
npr
act
icet
hedi
sti
nct
ioni
snotr
egar
dedashav
ingt
hissi
gni
fi
cantdi
ff
erence
i
nef
fect
.TheUNChar
teri
tsel
fref
ersi
ndi
scr
imi
nat
elyt
o“peopl
es,
”“gov
ernment
s”
and“
stat
es,
”sot
hati
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoseewhot
hepar
ti
esr
eal
l
yar
e.Or
gani
zat
ions
l
i
ket
heI
MFort
henewerI
MCOar
ebasedoni
nter
-gov
ernment
alt
reat
ies,wher
eas
t
heFAOorWHOar
eint
er-
stat
e;y
ett
her
eisnoobser
vabl
edi
ff
erencei
nthev
iew
t
hatSt
atest
akeast
othei
rcommi
tment
saccor
dingt
othef
orm used.

Power
sofI
nter
nat
ional
Organi
zat
ions

I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsar
einv
est
edbyt
hest
ateswhi
chcr
eat
ethem wi
th
power
s.Suchpower
smaybeexpr
essl
ylai
ddowni
ntheconst
it
uenti
nst
rument
sor
i
mpl
i
edpower
s,bei
ngt
hosedeemednecessar
yforf
ulf
il
lmentoft
hef
unct
ionsof
t
hepar
ti
cul
aror
gani
zat
ion.

Ofgr
eati
mpor
tancei
sthequest
ionoft
hecapaci
tyofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions
t
oconcl
udei
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ies.Thi
swi
l
lpr
imar
il
ydependupont
heconst
it
uent
i
nst
rument
,si
ncet
heexi
stenceofal
egalper
sonal
i
tyoni
tsowni
spr
obabl
y
i
nsuf
fi
cientt
o gr
oundt
hecompet
encet
o ent
eri
ntoi
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
s.

190|Page
2024
Ar
ti
cle6oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLaw ofTr
eat
iesbet
weenSt
atesand
I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions(
1986)pr
ovi
dest
hatt
hecapaci
tyofani
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
iont
oconcl
udet
reat
iesi
sgov
ernedbyt
her
ulesoft
hator
gani
zat
ion.Thi
s
i
sawi
derf
ormul
ati
ont
hanr
eli
ancesol
elyupont
heconst
it
uenti
nst
rumentand
per
mit
srecour
se t
oissuesofi
mpl
i
ed power
s,i
nter
pret
ati
on and subsequent
pr
act
ice.I
twasnot
edi
nthecomment
aryoft
heI
nter
nat
ional
LawCommi
ssi
ont
hat
t
hephr
ase‘
ther
uleoft
heor
gani
zat
ion’meanti
naddi
ti
ont
otheconst
it
uent
i
nst
rument
s,r
elev
antdeci
sionsandr
esol
uti
onsandt
heest
abl
i
shedpr
act
iceoft
he
or
gani
zat
ion.Accor
dingl
y,demonst
rat
ionoft
reat
y-maki
ngcapaci
tywi
l
lrev
olv
e
ar
oundt
hecompet
encesoft
heor
gani
zat
ionasdemonst
rat
edi
neachpar
ti
cul
ar
casebyr
efer
encet
otheconst
it
uenti
nst
rument
s,ev
idencedi
mpl
i
edpower
sand
subsequentpr
act
ice.

Or
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofRegi
onal
Char
act
er

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whi
char
eOr
gani
zat
ionswi
thRegi
onalChar
act
er?Andwhydi
d
t
heycomei
ntoexi
stence?

Ev
enpr
iort
othel
eague,‘
regi
onal
i
sm,
”int
hesenseofagr
oupi
ngofSt
atesbya
commonbondofpol
i
cy,exi
sted.TheMonr
oedoct
ri
neort
heBr
it
ishEmpi
rear
e
obv
iousexampl
es.Ar
ti
cle21oft
hel
eaguecov
enantr
ecogni
zedt
hatt
henew
gl
obalor
gani
zat
ionmustco-
exi
stwi
thsuchr
egi
onalgr
oupi
ngsbypr
ovi
dingt
hat
“
Not
hingi
nthi
sconv
entshal
lbedeemedt
oaf
fectt
hev
ali
dit
yofi
nter
nat
ional
engagement
ssuchast
reat
iesofar
bit
rat
ionofr
egi
onalunder
standi
ngsl
i
ket
he
Monr
oedoct
ri
nef
orsecur
ingt
hemai
ntenanceofpeace.
”Thel
eaguet
her
efor
e
saw t
hecr
eat
ionoft
heBal
kanEnt
ent
e,t
heLocar
noAgr
eement
s,andt
heBr
iand
pr
oposalf
oraEur
opeanUni
on.When,atSanFr
anci
sco,t
hesamepr
obl
em of
r
econci
l
ingt
henew gl
obalor
gani
zat
ionwi
thr
egi
onalunder
standi
ngar
ose,t
her
e
wasal
readyi
nexi
stenceaf
air
lycompr
ehensi
vei
nter
-Amer
icansy
stem (
Pan-
Amer
icanUni
on)
,whi
chi
n1948wast
obecomet
he“
Organi
zat
ionofAmer
ican
St
ates.
”Mor
eov
er,t
henewl
y-
for
medLeagueofAr
abSt
ateswasi
naugur
atedby
t
hePactofMar
ch22,
1945,
OAU1963andASEAS1967et
c.

191|Page
2024
TheEur
opeanUni
on/
EU

TheEur
opeanUni
on(
EU)i
sapol
i
ticalandeconomi
ccommuni
tyoft
went
y-sev
en
member st
ates wi
th supr
anat
ionaland i
nter
gov
ernment
alf
eat
ures,l
ocat
ed
pr
imar
il
yin Eur
ope,est
abl
i
shedbyt
heTr
eat
yonEur
opeanUni
on(
theMaast
ri
cht
t
reat
y).TheEur
opeanUni
oni
sthemostpower
fuli
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionsof
ar
i
nhi
stor
y,i
nsomeway
sresembl
i
ngast
ate;somel
egalschol
arsbel
i
evet
hati
t
shoul
dnotbeconsi
der
edasani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionatal
l
,butr
atherasa
r
egi
onal
organi
zat
ion.

Thepol
i
ticalcl
i
mat
eaf
tert
heendofWor
ldWarI
Ifav
oreduni
tyi
nWest
ernEur
ope,
seenbymanyasanescapef
rom t
heext
remef
ormsofnat
ional
i
sm whi
chhad
dev
ast
atedt
hecont
inent
.Oneoft
hef
ir
stsuccessf
ulpr
oposal
sforEur
opean
cooper
ati
oncamei
n1951wi
tht
heEur
opeanCoalandSt
eelCommuni
ty.Thi
shad
t
heai
m ofbr
ingi
ngt
oget
hercont
roloft
hecoalandst
eeli
ndust
ri
esofi
tsmember
st
ates,pr
inci
pal
l
yFr
anceandWestGer
many
.Thi
swaswi
tht
heai
m t
hatwar
bet
weent
hem woul
dnott
henbepossi
ble,ascoalandst
eelwer
ethepr
inci
pal
r
esour
cesf
orwagi
ngwar
.TheCommuni
ty'
sfounder
sdecl
aredi
t"af
ir
stst
epi
nthe
f
eder
ati
onofEur
ope"
.Theot
herf
oundi
ngmember
swer
eIt
aly
,andt
het
hree
Benel
uxcount
ri
esBel
gium,
theNet
her
lands,
andLuxembour
g.

Two addi
ti
onalcommuni
ti
es wer
e cr
eat
ed i
n 1957:t
he Eur
opean Economi
c
Communi
ty(
EEC)est
abl
i
shi
ngacust
omsuni
on,andt
heEur
opeanAt
omi
cEner
gy
Communi
ty(
EAEC)f
orcooper
ati
oni
ndev
elopi
ngnucl
earener
gy.I
n1967t
he
Mer
gerTr
eat
ycr
eat
edasi
ngl
esetofi
nst
it
uti
onsf
ort
het
hreecommuni
ti
es,
whi
ch
wer
e col
l
ect
ivel
yref
err
ed t
o as t
he Eur
opean Communi
ti
es,al
though mor
e
commonl
yjustast
heEur
opeanCommuni
ty(
EC)
.

I
n1973t
heEur
opeanCommuni
ti
esenl
argedt
oincl
udeDenmar
k,t
heRepubl
i
cof
I
rel
andandt
heUni
tedKi
ngdom.Nor
wayhadnegot
iat
edt
ojoi
natt
hesamet
ime
butar
efer
endum r
eject
edmember
shi
pandsoi
tremai
nedout
side.Gr
eece,Spai
n
andPor
tugal
joi
nedi
nthe1980s.

192|Page
2024
I
n1985t
heSchengenAgr
eementcr
eat
edl
argel
yopenbor
der
swi
thoutpasspor
t
cont
rol
sbet
weent
hosest
atesj
oini
ngi
t.I
n1986t
heEur
opeanf
lagwasadopt
edby
t
heCommuni
ti
esandl
eader
ssi
gnedt
heSi
ngl
eEur
opeanAct
.Thi
srev
isedt
heway
communi
tydeci
si
onmaki
ngoper
atedi
nli
ghtofi
tsgr
eat
ermember
shi
p,ai
medt
o
f
urt
herr
educet
radebar
ri
ersandi
ntr
oducegr
eat
erEur
opeanPol
i
ticalCooper
ati
on.
I
n1990af
tert
hef
alloft
heI
ronCur
tai
n,t
hef
ormerEastGer
manybecamepar
tof
t
heCommuni
tyaspar
tofanewl
yreuni
tedGer
many
.Wi
thenl
argementt
owar
d
East
ernEur
opeont
heagenda,t
heCopenhagencr
it
eri
aforcandi
dat
emember
sto
j
oint
heEur
opeanUni
onwer
eagr
eed.

The Maast
ri
chtTr
eat
y came i
ntof
orce on 1 Nov
ember
,1993.Maast
ri
cht
est
abl
i
shedar
evi
sedst
ruct
ureandt
hename'
Eur
opeanCommuni
ty'of
fi
cial
l
y
r
epl
aced t
he ear
li
er'
Eur
opean Communi
ti
es'
.The Eur
opean Communi
ty now
f
ormed one oft
hree pi
l
lar
s oft
he new Eur
opean Uni
on,whi
ch i
ncl
uded co-
oper
ati
oni
nmat
ter
soff
orei
gnpol
i
cyandhomeaf
fai
rs.Thet
erm Eur
opeanUni
on
gener
all
yrepl
acedt
het
erm Eur
opeanCommuni
ty,whi
chwasabol
i
shedbyt
he
Tr
eat
yofLi
sbonal
ongwi
tht
hepi
l
larsy
stem.

I
npr
act
ice,t
heEur
opeanCommuni
tyi
ssi
mpl
ytheol
dnamef
ort
heEur
opean
Uni
on.Legal
l
y,howev
er,t
heymustbedi
sti
ngui
shed.TheEur
opeanUni
onhasno
l
egalper
sonal
i
ty;i
tisnotani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion,butamer
ebl
ocofst
ates.
TheEur
opeanCommuni
tyi
soneoft
hreei
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions.Thesest
ates
ar
emember
soft
heot
hert
woar
etheEur
opeanCoalandSt
eelCommuni
tyandt
he
Eur
opeanAt
omi
cEner
gyCommuni
ty.Theset
hreeor
gani
zat
ionsusedt
ohav
e
separ
atei
nst
it
uti
ons;buti
n1961t
heywer
emer
ged,t
houghl
egal
l
yspeaki
ngt
hey
ar
est
il
lsepar
ateor
gani
zat
ions.

Aust
ri
a,Sweden and Fi
nland j
oined i
n 1995.TheAmst
erdam Tr
eat
yin 1997
amendedt
heMaast
ri
chtt
reat
yinar
eassuchasdemocr
acyandf
orei
gnpol
i
cy.
Amst
erdam wasf
oll
owedbyt
heTr
eat
yofNi
cei
n2001,whi
chr
evi
sedt
heRome
andMaast
ri
chtt
reat
y’
stoal
l
ow t
heEUt
ocopewi
thf
urt
herenl
argementt
othe
east
.In2002eur
onot
esandcoi
nsr
epl
acednat
ionalcur
renci
esi
n12oft
he

193|Page
2024
memberst
ates.I
n2004t
ennew count
ri
es(
eightofwhi
chhadf
ormer
lybeen
East
ernBl
occount
ri
es)j
oinedt
heEU.Att
hest
artof2007Romani
aandBul
gar
ia
j
oinedt
heEUandt
heeur
owasadopt
edbySl
oveni
a.On1stJanuar
y2008,Mal
ta
andCy
prusj
oinedt
heEur
ozone.

At
reat
yest
abl
i
shi
ng aconst
it
uti
onf
ort
heEU wassi
gned i
nRomei
n2004,
i
ntendedt
orepl
aceal
lpr
evi
oust
reat
ieswi
thanew si
ngl
edocument
.Howev
er,i
t
nev
ercompl
etedr
ati
fi
cat
ionaf
terr
eject
ionbyFr
enchandDut
chv
oter
sint
he
r
efer
endum.I
n2007,i
twasagr
eedt
orepl
acet
hatpr
oposalwi
thanew Ref
orm
Tr
eat
ythatwoul
damendr
athert
hanr
epl
acet
heexi
sti
ngt
reat
ies.Thi
str
eat
ywas
si
gnedon13December
2007i
nLi
sbonandwi
l
lbeknownast
heLi
sbont
reat
y.I
t
wi
l
lcomei
ntoef
fecti
nJanuar
y2009i
frat
if
iedbyt
hatdat
e.

TheEUcr
eat
esasi
ngl
emar
ketbyasy
stem ofl
awswhi
chappl
yinal
lmember
st
ates,guar
ant
eei
ngt
hef
reedom ofmov
ementofpeopl
e,goods,ser
vicesand
capi
tal
.Itmai
ntai
nsacommont
radepol
i
cy,
agr
icul
tur
alandf
isher
iespol
i
cies,
and
ar
egi
onaldev
elopmentpol
i
cy.I
n1999t
heEUi
ntr
oducedacommoncur
rency
,the
eur
o,whi
chhasbeenadopt
edbyf
if
teen-
memberst
ates.I
thasal
sodev
elopeda
r
olei
nfor
eignpol
i
cy,andi
njust
iceandhomeaf
fai
rs.Passpor
tcont
rolbet
ween
manymemberst
ateshasbeenabol
i
shedundert
heSchengenAgr
eement
.

Whyi
stheEur
opean Uni
on bel
iev
ed t
o beasy
mbolofsuccessf
ulr
egi
onal
or
gani
zat
ion?

TheMai
nPol
ici
esofTheEur
opeanUni
onI
ncl
udet
heFol
lowi
ngs:

Fr
eet
radeofgoodsandser
vicesamongmemberst
ates.

Acommonext
ernalcust
omst
ari
ffandacommonposi
ti
oni
nint
ernat
ionalt
rade
negot
iat
ions.

Remov
alofbor
dercont
rol
sbet
weeni
tsmemberst
ates(
excl
udi
ngt
heUKand
I
rel
and,
whi
chhav
eder
ogat
ions)

194|Page
2024
Fr
eedom f
orci
ti
zensofi
tsmemberst
atest
oli
veandwor
kany
wher
ewi
thi
ntheEU,
pr
ovi
dedt
heycansuppor
tthemsel
ves

Fr
eedom f
ori
tsci
ti
zenst
ovot
einl
ocalgov
ernmentandEur
opeanPar
li
ament
el
ect
ionsi
nanymemberst
ate

Fr
eemov
ementofcapi
tal
bet
weenmemberst
ates

Har
moni
zat
ion of gov
ernmentr
egul
ati
ons,cor
por
ati
ons l
aw and t
rademar
k
r
egi
str
ati
ons

Asi
ngl
ecur
rency
,theEur
o(excl
udi
ngt
heUK,SwedenandDenmar
k,whi
chhav
e
der
ogat
ions)

Commonagr
icul
tur
alandf
isher
iespol
i
cies.

cooper
ati
oni
ncr
imi
nalmat
ter
s,i
ncl
udi
ngshar
ingofi
ntel
l
igence(
thr
oughEUROPOL
andt
heSchengenI
nfor
mat
ionSy
stem)
,agr
eementoncommondef
ini
ti
onofcr
imi
nal
of
fensesandexpedi
tedext
radi
ti
onpr
ocedur
esacommonf
orei
gnpol
i
cy.

acommonsecur
it
ypol
i
cy,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hecr
eat
ionofa60,
000-
memberRapi
dReact
ion
For
cef
orpeacekeepi
ngpur
poses,anEUmi
l
itar
yst
affandanEUsat
ell
i
tecent
re(
for
i
ntel
l
igencepur
poses)

a common pol
i
cyon asy
lum and i
mmi
grat
ion a common sy
stem ofi
ndi
rect
t
axat
ion,t
heVAT,aswel
lascommoncust
omsdut
iesandexci
sesonv
ari
ous
pr
oduct
sfundi
ngf
ort
hedev
elopmentofdi
sadv
ant
agedr
egi
ons(
str
uct
uraland
cohesi
onf
unds)f
undi
ngf
orpr
ogr
amsi
ncandi
dat
ecount
ri
esandot
herEast
ern
Eur
opeancount
ri
es,aswel
lasai
dto manydev
elopi
ng count
ri
esf
undi
ng f
or
r
esear
ch.

Gener
all
yspeaki
ng,Eur
opeanUni
onpol
i
ciesar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreemai
nar
eas,
cal
l
ed pi
l
lar
s.The f
ir
stor'
Communi
ty'pi
l
larconcer
ns economi
c,soci
aland
env
ironment
alpol
i
cies.The second or'
Common For
eign and Secur
it
yPol
i
cy'

195|Page
2024
(
CFSP)pi
l
larconcer
nsf
orei
gnpol
i
cyandmi
l
itar
ymat
ter
s.Thet
hir
dor'
Just
iceand
HomeAf
fai
rs'
(JHA)pi
l
larconcer
nsco-
oper
ati
oni
nthef
ightagai
nstcr
ime.

Wi
thi
neachpi
l
lar
,adi
ff
erentbal
ancei
sst
ruckbet
weent
hesupr
anat
ionaland
i
nter
gov
ernment
alpr
inci
ples.Supr
a-nat
ional
i
sm i
sst
rongesti
nthef
ir
stpi
l
lar
,whi
l
e
t
heot
hert
wopi
l
lar
sfunct
ional
ongmor
eint
ergov
ernment
all
i
nes.I
ntheCFSPand
JHA pi
l
lar
sthepower
soft
hePar
li
ament
,Commi
ssi
onandEur
opeanCour
tof
Just
icewi
thr
espectt
otheCounci
lar
esi
gni
fi
cant
lyl
i
mit
ed,
wit
houthowev
erbei
ng
al
toget
herel
i
minat
ed.

I
mpor
tanti
nst
it
uti
onsoft
heEUi
ncl
udet
heEur
opeanCommi
ssi
on,t
heEur
opean
Par
li
ament
,theCounci
loft
heEur
opeanUni
on,
theEur
opeanCounci
l
,theEur
opean
Cour
tofJust
iceandt
he

Eur
opeanCent
ralBank.TheEur
opeanUni
oni
scomposedof27i
ndependent
sov
erei
gncount
ri
eswhi
char
eknownasmemberst
ates:
Aust
ri
a,Bel
gium,
Bul
gar
ia,
Cy
prus,t
heCzechRepubl
i
c,Denmar
k,Est
oni
a,Fi
nland,Fr
ance,Ger
many
,Gr
eece,
Hungar
y,I
rel
and,I
tal
y,Lat
via,Li
thuani
a,Luxembour
g,Mal
ta,t
he Net
her
lands,
Pol
and,Por
tugal
,Romani
a,Sl
ovaki
a,Sl
oveni
a,Spai
n,Sweden,and t
he Uni
ted
Ki
ngdom .
FourWest
ernEur
opeancount
ri
est
hathav
echosennott
ojoi
ntheEU
hav
ebeenpar
tl
yint
egr
atedi
ntot
heEU'
seconomy
;Icel
and,Li
echt
enst
einand
Nor
wayar
eapar
toft
hesi
ngl
emar
kett
hrought
heEur
opeanEconomi
cAr
ea,and
Swi
tzer
land has si
mil
ar t
ies t
hrough bi
l
ater
al t
reat
ies. The mi
crost
ates'
r
elat
ionshi
pscani
ncl
udeuseoft
heeur
oandot
herco-
oper
ati
on.

Ther
ear
ethr
eeof
fi
cialcandi
dat
ecount
ri
es,Cr
oat
ia,Macedoni
aandTur
key
;the
west
ernBal
kancount
ri
esofAl
bani
a,Bosni
aandHer
zegov
ina,Mont
enegr
oand
Ser
biaar
eof
fi
cial
l
yrecogni
zedaspot
ent
ialcandi
dat
es.Toj
oint
heEU,acount
ry
mustmeett
heCopenhagencr
it
eri
a,def
inedatt
he1993CopenhagenEur
opean
Counci
l
.Theser
equi
reast
abl
edemocr
acywhi
chr
espect
shumanr
ight
sandt
he
r
uleofl
aw;af
unct
ioni
ngmar
keteconomycapabl
eofcompet
it
ionwi
thi
ntheEU;
andt
heaccept
anceoft
heobl
i
gat
ionsofmember
shi
p,i
ncl
udi
ngEUl
aw.Ev
aluat
ion
ofacount
ry'
sful
fi
ll
mentoft
hecr
it
eri
aist
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heEur
opeanCounci
l
.

196|Page
2024
Thei
nit
ialest
abl
i
shmentoft
heuni
tyofEur
opebyt
hesi
xfoundi
ngmember
s
(
Bel
gium,Fr
ance,TheFeder
alRepubl
i
cofGer
many
,It
aly
,Luxembour
gandt
he
Net
her
lands)hadt
hebasi
cobj
ect
ivesofpost
-wor
ldwarr
econst
ruct
ionandt
he
av
oidanceoft
her
ecur
renceofwari
nEur
opebyensur
ingt
hatnost
ateemer
ged
power
fulenought
oposeat
hreatt
oot
her
s.Howev
er,
itwast
heTr
eat
yofRomei
n
1957t
hatest
abl
i
shedt
heEur
opeanEconomi
cCommuni
ty(
EEC)
,whi
chgr
eat
ly
ext
endedt
hear
easofconv
ergencei
ntheuni
on.Thecommonpol
i
ciesi
ncl
uded
t
rade and common ext
ernalt
ari
ff
,the Common Agr
icul
tur
alPol
i
cy,t
he EEC
Ex
ter
nalpol
i
cy,t
hesi
ngl
eEur
opeancur
rencyandt
heEur
opeanMonet
aryUni
on,
amongot
her
s.

TheEURegi
onalpol
i
cyhast
hef
undament
alobj
ect
iveofbr
ingi
ngaboutsoci
aland
economi
ccohesi
onamongmemberst
atesandr
egi
ons.I
tai
msatt
heabol
i
tionof
i
nter
nalbor
der
sandt
hecr
eat
ionofasi
ngl
eEUmar
ketwhi
chi
satt
hecor
eoft
he
Uni
on'
sobj
ect
ivesofcr
eat
ingasi
ngl
emar
ketandapol
i
ticaluni
on.I
thasbeen
ev
olv
ingi
nresponset
othepol
i
tical
,economi
candsoci
aldy
nami
cspar
ti
cul
arl
y
si
ncet
heaccel
erat
edpr
ocessofenl
argementpr
ogr
essedov
ert
hepast15y
ear
s.
TheEUpur
suest
hei
ntegr
ati
onandcohesi
onpr
ocesst
hrought
hepr
omot
ionof
r
egi
onalandi
nter
regi
onalandbot
hwi
thi
nthei
nter
nalbor
der
sandi
tsadj
acent
ext
ernalf
ront
ier
saswel
lasnei
ghbor
ingcount
ri
es,t
hroughcompl
exr
egi
onaland
cr
oss-
bor
derpol
i
cies,
progr
ammes,
inst
rument
sandpr
ocedur
esofel
i
gibi
l
ity
.

I
nit
ial
l
ythe r
egi
onalpol
i
cywas appl
i
ed t
o pr
omot
e Eur
opean i
ntegr
ati
on by
assi
sti
ngmemberst
atesandr
egi
onst
hatwer
eeconomi
cal
l
ybel
owt
heEur
opean
av
erage(
Ir
eland,
Ital
y,Gr
eece,
Spai
n,Por
tugal
)thr
oughar
angeofst
ruct
uralf
unds,
mai
nlyt
heEur
opeanSoci
alFund(
ESF)andt
heEur
opeanRegi
onalDev
elopment
Fund(
ERDF)
.Themeasur
eshav
eof
tenr
esul
tedi
nposi
ti
veout
comesi
nnar
rowi
ng
t
hedev
elopmentgapamongmember
s.Themostci
ted,
int
hisr
espect
,ist
hecase
ofI
rel
and i
nachi
evi
ng r
api
d dev
elopment
.Att
hesamet
ime,t
hepol
i
cyal
so
pr
omot
edt
hegr
owt
hofwhatar
egener
all
yknownasEur
egi
onsacr
osst
hei
nter
nal
bor
der
soft
hemember
s.Thesear
eassoci
ati
onsofcommuni
ti
es,l
ocalr
egi
onal
aut
hor
it
iesonei
thersi
deoft
hebor
der
sest
abl
i
shedt
opr
omot
eorcooper
atei
n

197|Page
2024
ar
easofcommoni
nter
est
s.Thest
ruct
uresandl
egalst
atusoft
heEur
o-r
egi
ons
r
angedf
rom si
mpl
ecr
oss-
bor
derconsul
tat
ivef
orum ofcommuni
ti
est
ost
ruct
ures
est
abl
i
shedt
hroughi
nter
-gov
ernment
alagr
eement
s.Thesubsequentaccessi
onof
mor
eandmor
eEur
opeancount
ri
es,
par
ti
cul
arl
yaf
tert
heenl
argementt
hatbr
ought
t
enpoor
ermember
sin2005,hadal
sot
hei
mpactofwi
deni
ngt
heeconomi
c
di
spar
it
yamongmembercount
ri
esandext
endi
ngt
heext
ernalbor
der
soft
he
Uni
on.Thi
s dev
elopmentf
urt
herl
ed t
othe expansi
on oft
he r
egi
onalpol
i
cy
obj
ect
ivesandi
nnov
ati
onoft
hei
nst
rument
sthr
oughar
efor
m pr
ocesst
oref
lect
t
he new r
eal
i
ties.As a r
esul
t,cr
oss-
bor
deri
ntr
a-r
egi
onaland I
nter
-regi
onal
cooper
ati
on at
tai
ned gr
eat
erf
ocus i
n pr
ogr
ammes whi
ch i
ntegr
ated ear
li
er
i
nst
rument
sandpr
ocedur
esi
nresponset
othedy
nami
cs.Thepr
esentEur
opean
Regi
onalpr
ogr
amme cov
eri
ng t
he per
iod 2007-
2013 under t
he Eur
opean
Nei
ghbor
hood Pr
ogr
ammeI
nit
iat
ive(
ENPI
)isanout
comeofsuchpol
i
cyand
i
nst
rumentconsol
i
dat
ionpr
ocess.

TheEUexper
iencei
suni
quei
nthati
tisbasedont
hecor
eobj
ect
ivesoft
heUni
on,
t
heachi
evement
soft
hebasi
cpr
erequi
sit
esofasi
ngl
emar
ketandt
heexi
stence
ofpol
i
ticalwi
l
ltor
educe sov
erei
gn pr
erogat
ives i
nthe i
nter
estofcommon
obj
ect
ives.Al
thought
hesear
elar
gel
ytobey
etat
tai
nedi
nAf
ri
ca,appl
i
cabl
egood
pr
act
icescanbef
oundi
ntheEUCBCexper
iencepar
ti
cul
arl
yov
ert
hel
astf
if
teen
y
ear
s.TheEUcr
ossbor
derpr
ogr
ammehasi
nspi
redt
heECOWASt
oini
ti
atei
ts
ownCBCpr
ogr
ammeusi
ngsomeoft
heaspect
soft
heEUmodel
.Mostoft
hese
r
emai
nval
i
dasel
ement
sofbasi
cgoodpr
act
icesf
orot
herr
egi
onsaswel
l
.The
mostf
undament
aloft
hesear
ethef
oll
owi
ng.

Thebasi
cconcepti
sthatCBCi
sat
oolt
hatf
ost
erseconomi
c,soci
alandcul
tur
al
dev
elopmenti
n cr
oss bor
derar
eas t
hrough j
ointl
ocalgov
ernmentand non-
gov
ernmentst
akehol
der
s.

CBCi
sini
ti
ated,pl
annedandi
mpl
ement
edbyl
ocalent
it
iesont
hebasi
soft
hei
r
commoni
nter
est
sandpr
ior
it
ies.

198|Page
2024
Cr
ossbor
dercooper
ati
onpr
ogr
essi
vel
yel
i
minat
esbor
der
sandr
educest
hem t
o
t
hei
radmi
nist
rat
ivef
unct
ionst
her
ebyr
emov
ingt
hebar
ri
erst
hateconomi
cal
l
y,
soci
all
y and cul
tur
all
y di
vi
de peopl
ethatshar
e common i
nter
est
s,cul
tur
es,
r
eli
gions,
languagesandher
it
age.

CBCcont
ri
but
est
othedi
ff
usi
onoft
ensi
ons,
conf
li
ctsandpr
omot
ionofpeaceand
st
abi
l
ity
.

Thei
mpor
tanceofsubscr
ibi
ngt
oal
egalf
ramewor
kwi
thdueconsi
der
ati
ont
o
nat
ionall
awsandconst
it
uti
onsbyt
hecooper
ati
nggov
ernment
sinor
dert
ogi
ve
l
egi
ti
macyt
olocalent
it
iest
hatenabl
est
hem t
oexpedi
ti
ousl
ycooper
atei
ncr
oss-
bor
deract
ivi
ti
es.

Thepr
inci
plesofi
ndependentf
inanci
ngandco-
fi
nanci
ngaswel
lasequal
i
tyof
par
tner
sensur
elocalj
ointst
rat
egi
esandpr
ogr
ammesar
ebasedoncommon
i
nter
estandownedbyl
ocalpar
tner
s,i
rr
espect
iveofsi
ze,
economi
cimpor
tanceor
popul
ati
onofei
theroft
hecooper
ati
ngcount
ri
es.

I
nst
it
uti
onsar
edr
ivi
ngf
orcesofCBCi
nEur
opei
nthewi
dersense.Pr
imar
il
ythe
Uni
on'
sinst
it
uti
onsi
nthei
rrespect
ivecompet
enci
eshav
epr
ovi
dedcr
it
icalsuppor
t
t
othedev
elopmentofCBCi
ntunewi
tht
hechangi
ngci
rcumst
ances.TheCounci
l
ofEur
ope,
usi
ngi
tsl
egi
slat
ive power
,hasbeent
hepr
imef
orcebehi
ndt
heMadr
id
Conv
ent
iont
hati
sgov
erni
ngCBC.I
thasal
sopl
ayedani
mpor
tantadv
isor
yand
pr
omot
ionalr
olet
otheexpansi
onofCBCs.TheEur
opeanCommi
ssi
on'
srol
ein
pr
ovi
dingf
undst
hrought
arget
edandst
rat
egybasedf
inanci
ngofCBChasequal
l
y,
i
fnotmor
e,cont
ri
but
edt
otheaccel
erat
ionofCBC wi
thi
ntheEU andbey
ond.
Al
thoughi
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoconcei
vet
heappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hest
ruct
uresandmandat
e
oft
hesei
nst
it
uti
ons,atpr
esent
,wi
thi
ntheset
ti
ngsi
nAf
ri
ca,t
heypr
ovi
del
essons
i
nter
msoft
hei
mpor
tanceoff
inanceandl
egi
slat
ionwi
thi
nthecont
extofCBC.
Howev
er,
impor
tantandappl
i
cabl
elessonscoul
dbel
ear
ntf
rom t
heot
hert
ypesof
i
nst
it
uti
onst
hataboundi
nEur
opeanbor
derar
eascr
eat
edf
ort
hepur
poseort
o
suppor
tCBC.Thesear
ethej
ointcr
ossbor
derl
ocalent
it
iessuchast
hej
oint
communi
ty,pr
ofessi
onalassoci
ati
ons,NGOset
c.;andatr
egi
onall
evel
s,bodi
es

199|Page
2024
or
gani
zedasEur
oregi
onsi
nav
ari
etyofcr
ossbor
deri
nit
iat
ivesandact
ivi
ti
es.

NB.NowBr
it
aini
snotamemberst
ateoft
heEU.

TheAmer
icanCont
inent
/AAS

TheOr
gani
zat
ionofAmer
icanSt
atesemer
gedaf
tert
heSecondWor
ldWarand
bui
l
tupont
hewor
kal
readydonebyt
hePan-
Amer
icanUni
onandt
hev
ari
ousi
nter
-
Amer
icanConf
erencessi
nce1890.I
tconsi
stsoft
wobasi
ctr
eat
ies:
the1947I
nter
-
Amer
icanTr
eat
yofReci
procalAssi
stance(
theRi
oTr
eat
y),whi
chi
sacol
l
ect
ive
sel
f-
def
ensesy
stem,
andt
he1948PactofBogot
´a,
whi
chi
stheor
igi
nalChar
terof
t
heOASandwhi
chwasamendedi
n1967byt
heBuenosAi
resPr
otocol
,i
n1985by
t
heCar
tagenadeI
ndi
asPr
otocolandbyt
he1992Washi
ngt
onPr
otocolandt
he
1993ManaguaPr
otocol
.

Cur
rent
lywi
tht
hir
ty-
fi
ve-
memberst
ates,t
heAASi
sacol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
ysy
stem,
wi
tht
hepr
inci
pleof anat
tackononebei
ngdeemedasanat
tackonal
l
.The
or
gani
zat
ionconsi
stsofaGener
alAssembl
y,t
hesupr
emeor
gan,whi
chi
sa
pl
enar
yor
ganwi
thwi
det
ermsofr
efer
ence;meet
ingsofconsul
tat
ionofMi
nist
ers
ofFor
eign Af
fai
rswhi
ch ex
erci
se br
oad power
s;a Per
manentCounci
lwhi
ch
per
for
ms bot
h secr
etar
ialsuper
visi
on and pol
i
ticalf
unct
ions,subj
ectt
othe
aut
hor
it
yoft
heaf
orement
ionedi
nst
it
uti
onsandanumberofsubsi
diar
yor
gans.
The or
gani
zat
i ed a Human Ri
on hasadopt ght
sConvent
ion and i
sthe most
dev
elopedoft
her
egi
onalor
gani
zat
ionsout
sideEur
ope,butwi
thoutanyoft
he
supr
anat
ional
power
spossessedbyt
heEur
opeanUni
on.

TheAr
abLeague/
AL

TheBr
it
ishEmpi
rer
eal
i
zedt
heUr
geofUni
tyWi
thi
nAr
abSt
ates(
PanAr
abi
sm)i
n
t
heear
lypar
toft
het
went
iet
hcent
ury
,whi
chhel
pedt
hem secur
ethecooper
ati
on
oft
heAr
abs,l
eadi
ngt
hem t
orev
oltagai
nstt
heTur
kish-
rul
edOt
tomanEmpi
re
dur
ingWor
ldWarI
.TheBr
it
ishpr
omi
sedt
ohel
ptheAr
absest
abl
i
shauni
tedAr
ab
ki
ngdom underSher
ifHussei
nofMecca,whi
chwoul
dencompasst
heAsi
anpar
t
oft
he Ar
ab Wor
ld(
incl
udi
ng t
he moder
n-day Ar
abi
an Peni
nsul
a,I
raq,Sy
ria,

200|Page
2024
Lebanon,Pal
est
ine,I
sraelandJor
dan)
.Af
terwi
nni
ngt
hewar
,howev
er,t
heBr
it
ish
bet
ray
edShar
ifHussei
nandi
nst
eadhel
peddi
vi
det
her
egi
oni
ntomi
nist
ates,
i
mpl
ement
ingt
hei
rpol
i
cyof"
Div
ideandRul
e."

TheBr
it
ishneededAr
abcooper
ati
ononcemor
edur
ingWor
ldWarI
I,andagai
n
r
etur
nedt
opl
ayt
hePan-
Arabi
sm car
dbyencour
agi
ngt
hef
ormat
ionoft
heLeague.
ManyAr
abi
ntel
l
ect
ual
sbel
i
evet
hatt
heBr
it
ishdi
dnotwantt
heLeaguet
oactasa
st
ept
owar
dsAr
abuni
ty,butact
ual
l
yusedt
heLeaguet
opr
eventi
t.TheEgy
pti
an
gov
ernmentf
ir
stpr
oposedt
heAr
abLeaguei
n1943.Egy
ptandsomeoft
heot
her
Ar
abst
ateswant
edcl
osercooper
ati
onwi
thoutt
hel
ossofsel
f-
rul
ethatwoul
d
r
esul
tfr
om t
otal
uni
on.

Af
tert
imet
aki
ngef
for
ts,
theAr
abLeaguewasest
abl
i
shed.TheAr
abLeague,
also
cal
l
edLeagueoft
heAr
abSt
ates,i
sar
egi
onalor
gani
zat
ionofAr
abSt
atesi
nthe
Mi
ddl
eEastandNor
thAf
ri
ca.I
twasf
ormedi
nCai
roonMar
ch22,1945wi
thsi
x
member
s:Egy
pt,I
raq,Tr
ansj
ordan(
renamedJor
danaf
ter1946)
,Lebanon,Saudi
Ar
abi
a,andSy
ria.Yemenj
oinedasamemberon5May1945.I
tcur
rent
lyhas22
member
s.Count
ri
est
hatl
aterj
oinedar
e:Al
ger
ia(
1962)
,Bahr
ain(
1971)
,Comor
os
(
1993)
,Dj
i
bout
i(1977)
,Kuwai
t(1961)
,Li
bya(
1953)
,Maur
it
ani
a(1973)
,Mor
occo
(
1958)
,Oman (
1971)
,Qat
ar(
1971)
,Somal
i
a(1974)
,Sout
her
n Yemen (
1967)
,
Sudan(
1956)
,Tuni
sia(
1958)
,andt
heUni
tedAr
abEmi
rat
es(
1971)
.ThePal
est
ine
Li
ber
ati
on Or
gani
zat
ion was admi
tt
ed i
n 1976. Egy
pt'
s member
shi
p was
suspended i
n 1979 af
teri
tsi
gned a peace t
reat
y wi
thI
srael
;the l
eague'
s
headquar
ter
swasmov
edf
rom Cai
ro,
Egy
pt,
toTuni
s,Tuni
sia.I
n1987Ar
abl
eader
s
deci
dedt
orenewdi
plomat
ict
ieswi
thEgy
pt.Egy
ptwasr
e-admi
tt
edt
othel
eague
i
n1989andt
hel
eague'
sheadquar
ter
swasmov
edbackt
oCai
ro.

The or
igi
nalchar
teroft
he Ar
ab League cr
eat
ed a r
egi
onalor
gani
zat
ion of
sov
erei
gnst
atest
hatwasnei
therauni
onnoraf
eder
ati
on.Amongt
hegoal
sthe
l
eaguesetf
ori
tsel
fwer
ewi
nni
ngi
ndependencef
oral
lAr
absst
il
lunderal
i
enr
ule,
andt
opr
eventt
heJewi
shmi
nor
it
yinPal
est
ine(
thengov
ernedbyt
heBr
it
ish)f
rom
cr
eat
ingaJewi
shst
ate.Themember
sev
ent
ual
l
yfor
medaj
ointdef
ensecounci
l
,

201|Page
2024
aneconomi
ccounci
l
,andaper
manentmi
l
itar
ycommand.Themai
ngoaloft
he
Leaguewast
o:dr
awcl
osert
her
elat
ionsbet
weenmemberSt
atesandco-
ordi
nat
e
col
l
abor
ati
onbet
weent
hem,
tosaf
eguar
dthei
rindependenceandsov
erei
gnt
y,and
t
oconsi
deri
nagener
alwayt
heaf
fai
rsandi
nter
est
soft
heAr
abcount
ri
es.

TheAr
abLeaguei
sinv
olv
edi
npol
i
tical
,economi
c,cul
tur
al,andsoci
alpr
ogr
ams
desi
gnedt
opr
omot
ethei
nter
est
sofmemberst
ates.TheAr
abLeaguehasser
ved
asaf
orum f
ormemberst
atest
ocoor
dinat
ethei
rpol
i
cyposi
ti
onsanddel
i
ber
ate
onmat
ter
sofcommonconcer
n,set
tl
ingsomeAr
abdi
sput
esandl
i
mit
ingconf
li
cts
suchast
heLebaneseci
vi
lwar
sof1958.TheAr
abLeaguehasser
vedasa
pl
atf
orm f
ort
he dr
aft
ing and concl
usi
on ofal
mostal
llandmar
k document
s
pr
omot
ingeconomi
cint
egr
ati
onamongmemberst
ates,suchast
hecr
eat
ionof
t
heJoi
ntAr
abEconomi
cAct
ionChar
ter
,whi
chsetoutt
hepr
inci
plesf
oreconomi
c
act
ivi
ti
esoft
heLeague.I
thaspl
ayedani
mpor
tantr
olei
nshapi
ngschool
cur
ri
cul
a,
andpr
eser
vingmanuscr
ipt
sandAr
abcul
tur
alher
it
age.TheAr
abLeaguehas
l
aunchedl
i
ter
acycampai
gns,andr
epr
oducedi
ntel
l
ect
ualwor
ks,andt
ransl
ated
moder
ntechni
calt
ermi
nol
ogyf
ort
he use ofmemberst
ates.I
tencour
ages
measur
esagai
nstcr
imeanddr
ugabuseanddeal
swi
thl
abori
ssues(
par
ti
cul
arl
y
amongt
hei
mmi
grantAr
abwor
kfor
ce)
.TheAr
abLeaguehasal
sof
ost
eredcul
tur
al
exchanges bet
ween memberst
ates,encour
aged y
out
h and spor
ts pr
ogr
ams,
hel
pedt
oadv
ancet
her
oleofwomeni
nAr
absoci
eti
es,
andpr
omot
edchi
l
dwel
far
e
act
ivi
ti
es.

Eachmemberhasonev
oteont
heLeagueCounci
l
,deci
sionsbei
ngbi
ndi
ngonl
yon
t
hosest
atest
hathav
evot
edf
ort
hem.Theai
msoft
heLeaguei
n1945wer
eto
st
rengt
henandcoor
dinat
ethepol
i
tical
,cul
tur
al,
economi
c,andsoci
alpr
ogr
amsof
i
tsmember
s,andt
omedi
atedi
sput
esamongt
hem orbet
weent
hem andt
hir
d
par
ti
es.Thesi
gni
ngonApr
il13,1950,ofanagr
eementonJoi
ntDef
enseand
Economi
cCooper
ati
onal
socommi
tt
edt
hesi
gnat
ori
est
ocoor
dinat
ionofmi
l
itar
y
def
ensemeasur
es.

202|Page
2024
TheAf
ri
canUni
on/
AU

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whywasOAU changedi
nto
AU?

I
n2000,t
heOAUunder
wentat
ransf
ormat
iont
obecomet
heAf
ri
canUni
on(
AU)
.
TheAUwasest
abl
i
shedbyt
heConst
it
uti
veActoft
heAf
ri
canUni
on,adopt
edat
he36th or
t dinar
ysessi
onoft
heAssembl
yofHeadsofSt
ateandGov
ernmentof
t
heOAUon11Jul
y2000,i
nLome,Togo.TheAUwasf
ormal
l
yinaugur
atedi
n
Dur
ban,Sout
hAf
ri
ca,on9Jul
y2002,andt
heSecr
etar
iatoft
heAUi
sbasedi
n
Addi
sAbaba,Et
hiopi
a.Byt
het
imet
heAUwasi
naugur
atedi
nDur
ban,al
lthe53
f
ormerOAU memberst
ates,exceptt
he Democr
ati
c Republ
i
c ofCongo and
Madagascar
,had r
ati
fi
ed t
he Const
it
uti
ve Actand deposi
ted i
nst
rument
s of
r
ati
fi
cat
ionwi
tht
heSecr
etar
yGener
aloft
heOAU.TheDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
cof
Congodeposi
tedi
tsi
nst
rumentofr
ati
fi
cat
ionont
hedayofi
naugur
ati
oni
tsel
f,and
Madagascarf
oll
owedsui
tal
mostay
earl
ater
,on10June2003.Todat
e,Mor
occo
i
snotamember
.

Whywast
het
ransf
ormat
ionf
rom OAUt
oAU?

Anumberofr
easonsmi
ghtbei
dent
if
ied.Byt
heendoft
he1980s,t
her
ewasa
wi
despr
eadper
cept
iont
hatt
heOAUwasi
naser
iousneedofr
efor
m.Foronet
hing,
t
he or
igi
nalmot
ivat
ions f
ort
he OAU’
s cr
eat
ion-t
he Pan-
Afr
cani
sti
deal
s of
secur
ing i
ndependence f
or Af
ri
can peopl
es and ut
il
izi
ng agai
nst col
oni
al
subj
ugat
ion-no l
ongersust
ained t
he or
gani
zat
ion f
oll
owi
ng t
he per
iod of
decol
oni
zat
iont
hatAf
ri
cawi
tnessedi
nthe1960s,
19070s,
andi
ntot
he1980s.One
goalwoul
d hav
e been t
ofocus on secur
ing peace among Af
ri
ca’
s newl
y
i
ndependentst
ates-a goalt
hatwoul
d hav
e been consi
stentwi
tht
he OAU’
s
f
unct
ionasaPan-
Afr
icanbodyconst
it
utedt
oimpr
ovet
hel
i
vesofAf
ri
canpeopl
es.

Howev
er,i
ncr
easi
ngl
ytheOAUcamet
obecr
it
ici
zedf
ori
tsf
ail
uret
orespondt
o
ser
iousconf
li
ctsbet
weenmemberst
ates.I
naddi
ti
on,
sev
eralofAf
ri
ca’
sleader
sin
t
hef
ightf
ori
ndependencel
edt
hei
rnewl
yli
ber
atednat
ionsi
ntot
otal
i
tar
iani
sm,

203|Page
2024
wi
thani
nef
fect
ualOAU,
doi
ngl
i
ttl
etoputanendt
othi
sAf
ri
canmal
aise.I
tdi
dnot
hel
pthatOAUf
oundi
tsel
fcaughtbet
weensuper
powerr
ival
ri
esdur
ingt
heCol
d
War
,thati
deol
ogi
calcl
ashesl
edt
odebi
l
itat
ionoft
heOAUasi
tfai
l
edadequat
ely
t
orespondt
oci
vi
lwar
sthatwer
efuel
edbyEast
/Westi
nter
est
s(suchasi
nAngol
a
andMozambi
que)
,andt
hatdev
elopmentandr
efor
m pr
ogr
ammesi
nit
iat
edbyt
he
OAUbecamesy
mbol
i
zedbyl
oft
ywor
dsandpr
omi
sesast
heOAUsuf
fer
edf
rom
under
-fundi
ngbymemberst
ates,andanunwi
eldyAssembl
yst
ruct
ure,i
nwhi
ch
t
he53member
sincl
i
nedt
owar
dspr
eser
vingnat
ionali
nter
est
sandsov
erei
gnt
yat
t
heexpenseofat
ruecommi
tmentt
oregi
onalcooper
ati
onandf
indi
ng‘
Afr
ican
sol
uti
onsf
orAf
ri
canpr
obl
ems’
.

Obj
ect
ivesoft
heAf
ri
canUni
on

Duet
othepr
obl
emst
hatbesetOAU,
att he20thcent
heendoft uryAf
ri
canl
eader
s
choset
o st
artaf
reshwi
tht
heAU.Thecor
eobj
ect
ivesoft
heAU ev
idencea
commi
tmentbyAf
ri
canl
eader
snotonl
ytot
ackl
ethekeyeconomi
candsoci
al
i
ssuesf
aci
ngt
hecont
inent
,butal
sot
oimpr
ovet
heAUr
elat
ivet
otheweaknesses
t
hathadcomet
ocr
ippl
etheOAU.Theobj
ect
ivesoft
heAUassetouti
nar
ti
cle3of
t
heAU’
sConst
it
uti
veActar
erepl
i
cat
edasf
oll
ows:

Achi
evegr
eat
eruni
tyandsol
i
dar
it
ybet
weent
heAf
ri
cancount
ri
esandt
hepeopl
es
ofAf
ri
ca,

Def
endt
hesov
erei
gnt
y,t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandi
ndependenceofi
tsMemberSt
ates;

Accel
erat
ethepol
i
ticalandsoci
oeconomi
cint
egr
ati
onoft
hecont
inent
;pr
omot
e
anddef
endAf
ri
cancommonposi
ti
onsoni
ssuesofi
nter
estt
othecont
inentand
i
tspeopl
es;

d)Encour
agei
nter
nat
ionalcooper
ati
on,t
aki
ngdueaccountoft
heChar
teroft
he
Uni
tedNat
ionsandt
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s;

Pr
omot
epeace,
secur
it
y,andst
abi
l
ityont
hecont
inent
;

204|Page
2024
 Pr
omot
edemocr
ati
cpr
inci
plesandi
nst
it
uti
ons,popul
arpar
ti
cipat
ionand
goodgov
ernance;
 Pr
omot
eandpr
otecthumanandpeopl
es'r
ight
sinaccor
dancewi
tht
he
Af
ri
canChar
teronHumanandPeopl
es'Ri
ght
sandot
herr
elev
anthuman
r
ight
sinst
rument
s;
 Est
abl
i
sht
henecessar
ycondi
ti
onswhi
chenabl
ethecont
inentt
opl
ayi
ts
r
ight
ful
rol
eint
hegl
obal
economyandi
nint
ernat
ional
negot
iat
ions
 pr
omot
e sust
ainabl
e dev
elopmentatt
he economi
c,soci
aland cul
tur
al
l
evel
saswel
last
hei
ntegr
ati
onofAf
ri
caneconomi
es;
 Pr
omot
e cooper
ati
on i
n al
lfi
eldsofhuman act
ivi
tyt
orai
se t
he l
i
ving
st
andar
dsofAf
ri
canpeopl
es;
 Coor
dinat
eandhar
moni
zet
hepol
i
ciesbet
weent
heexi
sti
ngandf
utur
e
Regi
onalEconomi
c Communi
ti
es f
or t
he gr
adualat
tai
nment of t
he
obj
ect
ivesoft
heUni
on;
 Adv
ancet
hedev
elopmentoft
hecont
inentbypr
omot
ingr
esear
chi
nal
l
f
iel
ds,
inpar
ti
cul
ari
nsci
enceandt
echnol
ogy
;
 Wor
kwi
thr
elev
anti
nter
nat
ionalpar
tner
sint
heer
adi
cat
ionofpr
event
abl
e
di
seasesandt
hepr
omot
ionofgoodheal
thont
hecont
inent
.

The af
orement
ioned f
our
teen obj
ect
ives ar
e desi
gned t
o enhance pol
i
tical
cooper
ati
onandeconomi
cint
egr
ati
onamongstAf
ri
canst
ates,andi
ncl
udet
he
pr
omot
ion of sust
ainabl
e dev
elopment
, democr
ati
c pr
inci
ples and good
gov
ernance,
soci
alj
ust
ice,
genderequal
i
ty,
andgoodheal
th.Whi
l
etheseobj
ect
ives
f
ocusoni
nter
-Af
ri
cancooper
ati
on,t
oget
hert
heypoi
ntt
oagener
alt
hemeof
upgr
adi
ngAf
ri
ca’
sposi
ti
onont
hei
nter
nat
ionalpl
anesot
hatAf
ri
canst
atesmi
ght
pl
ay an i
ncr
eased r
olei
nthe wor
ld economy and i
n gl
obalnegot
iat
ions.
Basi
cPr
inci
plesofAf
ri
canUni
on

Aspr
ovi
dedunderAr
ti
cle4oft
heConst
it
uti
veActoft
heAU,
ther
ear
epr
inci
plesi
n
accor
dancewi
thwhi
cht
heAUi
ssupposedt
ofunct
ion.Compar
ingwi
thAr
ti
cle2of
t
he UN Char
tert
hatenumer
ates t
he pr
inci
ples oft
he UN,ar
ti
cle 4 oft
he
Const
it
uti
veActoft
heAUcl
ear
lyl
aysdownt
hepr
inci
plesoft
heUni
on.Besi
des,

205|Page
2024
t
hispr
ovi
si
oni
ncor
por
atesnewpr
inci
pleswhi
char
enoti
ncl
udedi
ntheUNChar
ter
.
Ar
ti
cle4oft
heConst
it
uti
veActoft
heAf
ri
canUni
oni
sreadas:

The Af
ri
can Uni
on t
ri
es t
ofunct
ion i
n accor
dance wi
tht
he f
oll
owi
ng cor
e
pr
inci
ples:

 Sov
erei
gnequal
i
tyandi
nter
dependenceamongMemberSt
atesoft
heUni
on;
 Respectofbor
der
sexi
sti
ngonachi
evementofi
ndependence;
 Par
ti
ci
pat
ionoft
heAf
ri
canpeopl
esi
ntheact
ivi
ti
esoft
heUni
on;
 Est
abl
i
shmentofacommondef
ensepol
i
cyf
ort
heAf
ri
canCont
inent
;
 Peacef
ulr
esol
uti
onofconf
li
ctsamongMemberSt
atesoft
heUni
ont
hrough
suchappr
opr
iat
emeansasmaybedeci
deduponbyt
heAssembl
y;
 Pr
ohi
bit
ionoft
heuseoff
orceort
het
hreatt
ousef
orceamongMember
St
atesoft
heUni
on;

Non-
int
erf
erencebyanyMemberSt
atei
nthei
nter
nal
aff
air
sofanot
her
;

 Ther
ightoft
heUni
ont
oint
erv
enei
naMemberSt
atepur
suantt
oa
deci
si
onoft
heAssembl
yinr
espectofgr
aveci
rcumst
ances,
namel
y:war
cr
imes,
genoci
deandcr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty;
 Peacef
ulcoexi
stenceofMemberSt
atesandt
hei
rri
ghtt
oli
vei
npeace
andsecur
it
y;
 Ther
ightofMemberSt
atest
orequesti
nter
vent
ionf
rom t
heUni
oni
n
or
dert
orest
orepeaceandsecur
it
y;
 Pr
omot
ionofsel
f-
rel
i
ancewi
thi
nthef
ramewor
koft
heUni
on;
 Pr
omot
ionofgenderequal
i
ty;
 Respectf
ordemocr
ati
cpr
inci
ples,
humanr
ight
s,t
her
uleofl
awandgood
gov
ernance;
 Pr
omot
ionofsoci
alj
ust
icet
oensur
ebal
ancedeconomi
cdev
elopment
;
 Respectf
ort
hesanct
it
yofhumanl
i
fe,condemnat
ionandr
eject
ionof
i
mpuni
tyandpol
i
ticalassassi
nat
ion,act
soft
err
ori
sm andsubv
ersi
ve
act
ivi
ti
es;

206|Page
2024
Basi
cSt
ruct
ureoft
heAU

Undert
heAU’
sConst
it
uti
veAct
,var
iousnew bodi
esar
eest
abl
i
shed and t
he
supr
emebodyoft
heOAU-t
heAssembl
yofHeadsofSt
ateandGov
ernment
-has
been r
emodel
ed t
o become t
he AU Assembl
y.The AU Assembl
yret
ains
supr
emacywi
thi
ntheov
eral
lst
ruct
uresoft
heAUandr
emai
nscomposedofheads
ofst
ateandgov
ernmentort
hei
rdul
yaccr
edi
tedr
epr
esent
ati
ves.TheAssembl
y
meet
satl
eastonceay
eari
nor
dinar
ysessi
on,andmaymeetmor
ethant
hati
n
ext
raor
dinar
ysessi
on.I
tsf
unct
ionsi
ncl
udedet
ermi
ningt
hecommonpol
i
ciesof
t
heUni
on,consi
der
ingr
equest
sformember
shi
poft
heUni
on,moni
tor
ingt
he
i
mpl
ement
ati
onofpol
i
ciesanddeci
sionsoft
heUni
onandensur
ingcompl
i
ance
t
her
ewi
thbyal
lmemberst
ates,
andadopt
ingt
hebudgetoft
heUni
on.

TheExecut
iveCounci
l
,whi
chi
sint
urnsubv
ersi
ont
otheAssembl
y,i
scomposed
ofMi
nist
ersofFor
eignAf
fai
rsorot
hergov
ernmentdesi
gnat
es,
andi
sexpect
edt
o
engagei
npol
i
cy-
maki
ngi
nar
easofcommoni
nter
estt
othememberst
atesacr
oss
abr
oadr
angeofdi
sci
pli
nessuchasf
orei
gnt
rade,ener
gy,i
ndust
ryandmi
ner
al
r
esour
ces,wat
er r
esour
ces and i
rr
igat
ion,t
ranspor
t and communi
cat
ions,
educat
ionandsoci
alsecur
it
y.

I
nor
dert
opr
ovi
det
echni
calassi
stancet
otheExecut
iveCounci
lini
tspol
i
cy-
deci
sionmaki
ng,anumberofSpeci
ali
zedTechni
calCommi
tt
eesar
eest
abl
i
shed
byt
heAct
,suchasCommi
tt
eesonr
uraleconomyandagr
icul
tur
e,monet
aryand
f
inanci
alaf
fai
rs,t
rade,cust
oms and i
mmi
grat
ion mat
ter
s,i
ndust
ry,sci
ence,
t
echnol
ogy
,ener
gy,nat
uralr
esour
cesandenv
ironment
,andonheal
th,l
aborand
soci
alaf
fai
rs.

Ot
herbodi
esi
ncl
udeaPan-
Afr
icanPar
li
amentwhi
ch,byar
ti
cle17,i
sint
endedt
o
ensur
ethef
ullpar
ti
cipat
ionofAf
ri
canpeopl
esi
nthedev
elopmentandeconomi
c
i
ntegr
ati
onoft
hecont
inent
.On18Mar
ch2004,t
hePan-
Afr
icanPar
li
amentwas
i
naugur
ated.I
tsi
tsatGal
l
agherEst
ate,Mi
drand,i
ntheGaut
engpr
ovi
nceofSout
h
Af
ri
ca.ThePar
li
ament
’spower
sar
elai
douti
naPr
otocolt
otheAct
,andi
tis
model
ed on t
he Eur
opean Uni
on’
s Par
li
ament
,whi
ch pl
ays a cent
ralr
olei
n

207|Page
2024
ensur
ingt
hedemocr
ati
cnat
ureoft
heEU.Li
kei
tsEur
opeancount
erpar
t,t
hePan-
Af
ri
canhasasoneofi
tsobj
ect
ivest
hepr
omot
ionoft
hepr
inci
plesofhuman
r
ight
s and democr
acy
, and i
s r
equi
red t
o encour
age good gov
ernance,
t
ranspar
encyandaccount
abi
l
ityi
nmemberst
ates.Thepar
li
amenti
scomposed
off
iver
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom eachst
atewhi
chshoul
dincl
udeatl
eastonewoman
i
nthei
rdel
egat
ionsandmustr
efl
ectt
hedi
ver
sit
yofpol
i
ticalopi
nionsi
neach
Nat
ionalPar
li
amentorot
herdel
i
ber
ati
ve or
gan.I
nthe f
ir
stf
ivey
ear
s,t
he
par
li
amenthasconsul
tat
iveandadv
isor
ypower
sonl
y,butt
her
eaf
teri
twi
l
lhav
e
l
egi
slat
ivepower
s.

Whi
l
ethePan-
Afr
icanPar
li
amenti
senv
isagedassomet
hingaki
ntoal
egi
slat
ure
f
orAf
ri
ca,t
heAf
ri
canCour
tofJust
icewi
l
lactast
her
egi
onaladj
udi
cat
or,st
aff
ed
byj
udgeswhosechar
geunderar
ti
cle26i
sthatt
heybesei
zedwi
thmat
ter
sof
i
nter
pret
ati
onar
isi
ngf
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ionori
mpl
ement
ati
onof[
theConst
it
uti
ve
Actoft
heUni
on]
.TheCour
tisy
ett
obecr
eat
ed,notl
eastbecauseofpr
obl
ems
wi
thf
undi
ng;andt
her
eremai
nssomedebat
eaboutt
her
elat
ionshi
poft
heAf
ri
can
Cour
tofJust
icewi
tht
heAf
ri
canCour
tonHumanandPeopl
es’
Right
s.

Anot
hernot
abl
ebodyoft
henew AUi
sit
speaceandSecur
it
yCounci
l
,whi
chi
s
model
edont
heUNSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Ithasbeent
askedwi
tht
aki
ngdeci
sionson
conf
li
ctpr
event
ion,managementandr
esol
uti
on,andi
sdescr
ibedasacol
l
ect
ive
secur
it
yandear
lywar
ningar
rangementt
ofaci
l
itat
eti
mel
yandef
fi
cientr
esponse
t
oconf
li
ctandcr
isi
ssi
tuat
ionsi
nAf
ri
ca.Tot
hisend,t
heCounci
lmayaut
hor
ize
peacemi
ssi
ons,andr
ecommendt
otheAssembl
ythatt
heAUi
nter
venei
ncer
tai
n
si
tuat
ionswher
egr
avecr
imes(
suchascr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty,warcr
imesand
genoci
de)ar
ebei
ngper
pet
rat
ed.Theest
abl
i
shmentoft
hepeaceandSecur
it
y
Counci
loft
heAU t
huspr
ovi
deacl
ear
lydef
ined mechani
sm f
ordet
ermi
ning
si
tuat
ions r
epr
esent
ing a ser
ious t
hreatt
olegi
ti
mat
e or
derand t
he st
eps
necessar
ytor
est
orepeaceandst
abi
l
ityt
omemberst
ates,i
ncl
osecooper
ati
on
wi
tht
heUNSecur
it
yCounci
l
.

Sot
hati
tsai
msmi
ghtbeachi
eved,
anAf
ri
canSt
andbyFor
cehasbeencr
eat
edf
or

208|Page
2024
depl
oymentont
hei
nst
ruct
ionsoft
hePeaceandSecur
it
yCounci
l
,aCont
inent
al
Ear
lyWar
ningSy
stem hasbeenseti
npl
acei
nor
dert
ofaci
l
itat
etheant
ici
pat
ion
andpr
event
ionofconf
li
cts,andaPaneloft
heWi
se(
madeupoff
ivehi
ghl
y
r
espect
edAf
ri
canper
sonal
i
tiesf
rom v
ari
oussegment
soft
hesoci
etywhohav
e
madeout
standi
ngcont
ri
but
iont
othecauseofpeace,
secur
it
yanddev
elopmenton
t
hecont
inent
)hasbeenconst
it
utedt
oadv
iset
hePeaceandSecur
it
yCounci
lonal
l
i
ssues per
tai
ning t
othe pr
omot
ion,and mai
ntenance ofpeace,secur
it
yand
st
abi
l
ityi
nAf
ri
ca.Asi
def
rom i
tsemer
gencypower
s,t
heCounci
lhasagener
al
mandat
eto dev
elop a common def
ense pol
i
cyand pr
omot
e and encour
age
democr
ati
cpr
act
ices,goodgov
ernanceandt
her
uleofl
aw,pr
otecthumanr
ight
s
andf
undament
alf
reedoms,
respectf
ort
hesanct
it
yofhumanl
i
feandi
nter
nat
ional
humani
tar
ianl
aw,aspar
toft
heef
for
tsf
orpr
event
ingconf
li
cts.TheCounci
lis
composedof15st
atesr
efl
ect
ingt
hegeogr
aphi
calr
egi
onsoft
hecont
inentand
whi
ch,not
abl
y,ar
ecommi
tt
edt
opr
inci
plesofdemocr
ati
cgov
ernance,t
her
uleof
l
aw and humanr
ight
sasar
equi
rementf
ormember
shi
p oft
heCounci
l
.The
Counci
lgener
all
ytakesi
tsdeci
sionsbyconsensus,butwher
etheconsensus
cannotber
eached,t
hen,onmat
ter
sofsubst
ance,t
heCounci
ladopt
sit
sdeci
sion
byat
wo-
thi
rdsmaj
ori
tyv
ote.

I
naddi
ti
ont
othecr
eat
ion,byar
ti
cle19,oft
hreePan-
Afr
icanf
inanci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons-
t
heAf
ri
canCent
ralBank-t
hel
astbodywor
thment
ioni
ngi
stheEconomi
c,Soci
al
andCul
tur
alCounci
l
.Iti
sdescr
ibedasbei
nganadv
isor
yor
gancomposedof
di
ff
erentsoci
alandpr
ofessi
onalgr
oupsoft
heMemberSt
atesoft
heUni
on,
andi
s
composedof150ci
vi
lsoci
etyor
gani
zat
ionscov
eri
ngsuchdi
ver
sei
nter
est
sas
t
hoseofwomen,chi
l
dren,t
heel
der
ly,t
hedi
sabl
ed,pr
ofessi
onalgr
oups,NGOs,
wor
ker
s,empl
oyees,t
radi
ti
onall
eader
s,academi
cs,and r
eli
giousand cul
tur
al
or
gani
zat
ions.

Associ
ati
onofSout
hEastAsi
anSt
ates/
ASEAS

OnAugust8,1967,i
ntheDepar
tmentofFor
eignAf
fai
rsi
nBangkok,Thai
l
and,
f
orei
gnmi
nist
ersoff
ivecount
ri
es—I
ndonesi
a,Mal
aysi
a,t
hePhi
l
ippi
nes,
Singapor
e,

209|Page
2024
andThai
l
and—si
gnedt
heagr
eementknownast
heASEANDecl
arat
ionorBangkok
Decl
arat
ion,whi
ch cr
eat
ed ASEAN.Thesef
ivef
orei
gn mi
nist
ers,al
lhi
gh-
lev
el
gov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sinchar
geoft
hei
rcount
ri
es’
pol
i
cies,
areconsi
der
edASEAN’
s
f
oundi
ngf
ather
s.Twoy
ear
sbef
oret
heest
abl
i
shmentofASEAN,Sout
heastAsi
an
nat
ionswer
egoi
ngt
hrought
urbul
entt
imes.ASEANwascr
eat
edasani
nit
iat
ivet
o
av
oidout
sidei
nvol
vement
,vi
olentconf
li
ct,
anddi
vi
sioni
nther
egi
on.

Obj
ect
ives:

TheASEANDecl
arat
ionst
atest
hatt
heai
msandpur
posesoft
heassoci
ati
onar
e:

(
1)t
oaccel
erat
etheeconomi
cgr
owt
h,soci
alpr
ogr
essandcul
tur
aldev
elopment
i
nther
egi
ont
hroughj
ointendeav
orsi
nthespi
ri
tofequal
i
tyandpar
tner
shi
pin
or
dert
ost
rengt
hent
hef
oundat
ionf
orapr
osper
ousandpeacef
ulcommuni
tyof
Sout
heastAsi
annat
ions,and(
2)t
opr
omot
eregi
onalpeaceandst
abi
l
ityt
hrough
abi
dingr
espectf
orj
ust
iceandt
her
uleofl
awi
nther
elat
ionshi
pamongcount
ri
es
i
nther
egi
onandadher
encet
othepr
inci
plesoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter
.In1995,
t
heASEANHeadsofSt
ateandGov
ernmentr
e-af
fi
rmedt
hat“
Cooper
ati
vepeace
andshar
edpr
osper
it
yshal
lbet
hef
undament
algoal
sofASEAN.
”

Fundament
alPr
inci
ples:

TheTr
eat
yofAmi
tyandCooper
ati
on(
TAC)i
nSout
heastAsi
a,si
gnedatt
heFi
rst
ASEAN Summi
ton24Febr
uar
y1976,decl
aredt
hati
nthei
rrel
ati
onswi
thone
anot
her
,the Hi
gh Cont
ract
ing Par
ti
es shoul
d be gui
ded by t
he f
oll
owi
ng
f
undament
alpr
inci
ples:

 Mut
ualr
espectf
ort
he i
ndependence,sov
erei
gnt
y,equal
i
ty,t
err
it
ori
al
i
ntegr
it
y,andnat
ional
ident
it
yofal
lnat
ions;
 Ther
ightofev
erySt
atet
oleadi
tsnat
ionalexi
stencef
reef
rom ext
ernal
i
nter
fer
ence,
subv
ersi
on,
orcoer
cion;
 Non-
int
erf
erencei
nthei
nter
nal
aff
air
sofoneanot
her
;
 Set
tl
ementofdi
ff
erencesordi
sput
esbypeacef
ulmanner
;
 Renunci
ati
onoft
het
hreatoruseoff
orce;
and

210|Page
2024
 Ef
fect
ivecooper
ati
onamongt
hemsel
ves.

Pol
it
icalCooper
ati
on:TheTACst
atedt
hatASEANpol
i
ticalandsecur
it
ydi
alogue
andcooper
ati
onshoul
dai
mtopr
omot
eregi
onalpeaceandst
abi
l
itybyenhanci
ng
r
egi
onal
resi
l
ience.Regi
onal
resi
l
ienceshal
lbeachi
evedbycooper
ati
ngi
nal
lfi
elds
based on t
he pr
inci
ples of sel
f-conf
idence,sel
f-
rel
i
ance,mut
ualr
espect
,
cooper
ati
on,andsol
i
dar
it
y,whi
chshal
lconst
it
utet
hef
oundat
ionf
orast
rongand
v
iabl
ecommuni
tyofnat
ionsi
nSout
heastAsi
a.

Someoft
hemaj
orpol
i
tical
accor
dsofASEANar
easf
oll
ows:

 ASEANDecl
arat
ion,
Bangkok,
8August1967;
 Zone ofPeace,Fr
eedom and Neut
ral
i
tyDecl
arat
ion,Kual
a Lumpur
,27
Nov
ember1971;
 Decl
arat
ionofASEANConcor
d,Bal
i
,24Febr
uar
y1976;
 Tr
eat
yofAmi
tyandCooper
ati
oni
nSout
heastAsi
a,Bal
i
,24Febr
uar
y1976;
 ASEANDecl
arat
ionont
heSout
hChi
naSea,
Mani
l
a,22Jul
y1992;
 Tr
eat
yon t
he Sout
heastAsi
a Nucl
ear
-Weapon-
Free Zone,Bangkok,15
December1997;
 ASEANVi
si
on2020,
Kual
aLumpur
,15December1997;
 Decl
arat
iononJoi
ntAct
iont
oCount
erTer
ror
ism,
5Nov
ember2001;
 Decl
arat
ionofASEANConcor
dII
,Bal
i
,7Oct
ober2003;
 ASEANConv
ent
iononCount
erTer
ror
ism (
ACCT)
,11Januar
y2007;
and
 CebuDecl
arat
ionont
heAccel
erat
ionoft
heEst
abl
i
shmentofanASEAN
Communi
tyby2015,
11Januar
y2007.

Al
thoughASEAN St
atescooper
atemai
nlyoneconomi
candsoci
ali
ssues,t
he
or
gani
zat
ionhasasecur
it
yfunct
ion,
wit
hal
ong-
discussedpr
ogr
am f
orconf
idence
-
bui
l
dingmeasur
esandf
orest
abl
i
shi
nganu-
ASEAN cl
ear
-weapon-
fr
eezonei
n
Sout
heastAsi
a,wi
tht
heobj
ect
iveofi
mpl
ement
ingASEAN’
s1971Decl
arat
ionona
ZoneofPeace,Fr
eedom andNeut
ral
i
ty(
ZOPFAN)
,andaSout
heastAsi
aNucl
ear
Weapon-
FreeZone(
SEANWFZ)
,whi
chwoul
dbeacomponentofZOPFAN.

211|Page
2024
Ver
if
icat
ionandCompl
iance:

TheASEANRegi
onalFor
um (
ARF)i
sani
mpor
tantmul
ti
lat
eralf
orum f
orpol
i
tical
and secur
it
yconsul
tat
ions and cooper
ati
on.The ARF has begun t
o ex
plor
e
act
ivi
ti
es wher
ether
eis ov
erl
ap bet
ween conf
idence-
bui
l
ding measur
es and
pr
event
ivedi
plomacy
.ASEANMemberSt
atesar
eur
gedt
oset
tl
edi
sput
est
hrough
f
ri
endl
y negot
iat
ions appl
yi
ng t
he pr
ocedur
es oft
he Tr
eat
y ofAmi
ty and
Cooper
ati
on(
TAC)of1976.Howev
er,t
heMemberSt
atesar
enotobl
i
gedt
ouse
t
heTr
eat
yst
ipul
ati
onsf
ort
hepeacef
ulset
tl
ementofdi
sput
es.I
ncaseaSt
ate
r
esor
tst
otheuseoff
orce,
nosy
stem ofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
yisf
oreseen.

Or
gani
zat
ions/I
nst
it
uti
onsofUni
ver
salChar
act
er

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whati
stheessenceofor
gani
zat
ionofUni
ver
salChar
act
er?And,
whi
chOr
gani
zat
ioncanbeagoodexampl
eofi
t?

Ani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ioni
sal
egalst
ruct
urewhi
chowesi
tsexi
stencet
osome
deci
sion(
gener
all
ybyst
ates,
thoughpossi
blybyot
heri
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions)
t
ocr
eat
eit
,toanagr
eementest
abl
i
shi
ngt
het
ermsonwhi
chi
tisconst
it
utedand
t
othei
mpl
ement
ati
onofsuchdeci
sionandconst
it
uti
on.

 Thel
egalper
sonal
i
tyofani
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionhast
hef
oll
owi
ng
char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Exi
stenceofanent
it
ydi
sti
nctf
rom i
tscr
eat
ors;
 Theent
it
yhast
hecapaci
tyandpowert
oactunderandber
egul
atedby
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw;

Theor
gani
zat
ionr
athert
hani
tsmember
sact
sonmat
ter
swi
thi
nit
sar
eaof
compet
ence.Ther
ear
e,howev
er,noi
nter
nat
ionall
aw def
ini
ti
ons,noranysetof
r
ules,gov
erni
ng t
he per
sonal
i
ty of i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
zat
ions. Cust
omar
y
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,t
heconsensusofst
atesi
ntr
eat
iesandpr
act
ice,deci
sionof
i
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
sandt
osomeext
entanal
ogi
eswi
thdomest
icl
aw,ar
eal
l
r
egar
dedassour
cesf
orext
ract
ionandel
abor
ati
onoft
her
elev
antpr
inci
ples.

212|Page
2024
TheLeagueofNat
ions

Dearl
ear
ner
s,why was League ofNat
ions came i
nto
exi
stence?

The League ofNat


ions i
s one pr
imar
yint
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion whi
ch was
dev
elopedaf
tert
heendofWor
ldWarI
.TheLeagueofNat
ion’
swassi
mpl
y-t
o
ensur
ethatwarnev
erbr
okeout
.Af
tert
het
urmoi
lcausedbyt
heVer
sai
l
lesTr
eat
y,
manyl
ookedt
otheLeaguet
obr
ingst
abi
l
ityt
othewor
ld.Amer
icaent
eredWor
ld
WarIi
n1917.Thecount
ryasawhol
eandt
hepr
esi
dent-Woodr
ow Wi
l
soni
n
par
ti
cul
ar-washor
ri
fi
edbyt
hesl
aught
ert
hathadt
akenpl
acei
nwhatwasmeant
t
obeaci
vi
li
zedpar
toft
hewor
ld.

Theonl
ywayt
oav
oidar
epet
it
ionofsuchadi
sast
erwast
ocr
eat
eani
nter
nat
ional
bodywhosesol
epur
posewast
omai
ntai
nwor
ldpeaceandwhi
chwoul
dsor
tout
i
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
esasandwhent
heyoccur
red.Thi
swoul
dbet
het
askoft
he
LeagueofNat
ions.Af
tert
hedev
ast
ati
onoft
hewar
,suppor
tforsuchagoodi
dea
wasgr
eat(
excepti
nAmer
icawher
eisol
ati
oni
sm wast
aki
ngr
oot
).Whendi
sput
es
wer
ehappenedt
heLeagueofNat
ionswasput
ssanct
ionst
hrought
hreeway
s-
t
hesewer
eknownassanct
ionsLeagueofNat
ions:

1.I
tcoul
dbecal
l
ingt
hest
atesi
ndi
sput
etosi
tdownanddi
scusst
hepr
obl
em i
n
anor
der
lyandpeacef
ulmanner
.Thi
swoul
dbedonei
ntheLeague’
sAssembl
y-
whi
chwasessent
ial
l
ytheLeague’
spar
li
ament
,whi
chwoul
dli
stent
odi
sput
esand
comet
oadeci
si
ononhowt
opr
oceed.I
fonenat
ionwasseent
obet
heof
fender
,
t
heLeaguecoul
dint
roducev
erbalsanct
ions-war
ninganaggr
essornat
iont
hat
shewoul
dneedt
oleav
eanot
hernat
ion'
ster
ri
tor
yorf
acet
heconsequences.

2.I
fthest
atesi
ndi
sput
efai
l
edt
oli
stent
otheAssembl
y’
sdeci
sion,t
heLeague
coul
dint
roduceeconomi
csanct
ions.TheLeague’
sCounci
lwoul
dar
ranget
his.
Thepur
poseoft
hissanct
ionwast
ofi
nanci
all
yhi
ttheaggr
essornat
ionsot
hatshe
woul
dhav
etodoast
heLeaguer
equi
red.Thel
ogi
cbehi
ndi
twast
opushan

213|Page
2024
aggr
essornat
iont
owar
dsbankr
upt
cy,sot
hatt
hepeopl
eint
hatst
atewoul
dtake
outt
hei
rangeront
hei
rgov
ernmentf
orci
ngt
hem t
oacceptt
heLeague’
sdeci
sion.

3.I
fthi
sfai
l
ed,t
heLeaguecoul
dint
roducephy
sicalsanct
ions.Thi
smeantt
hat
mi
l
itar
yfor
cewoul
dbeusedt
oputi
ntopl
acet
heLeague’
sdeci
sion.

Howev
er,t
heLeaguedi
dnothav
eami
l
itar
yfor
ceati
tsdi
sposalandnomember
oft
heLeaguehadt
opr
ovi
deoneundert
het
ermsofj
oini
ng-unl
i
ket
hecur
rent
Uni
tedNat
ions.Ther
efor
e,i
tcoul
dnotcar
ryoutanyt
hreat
sandanycount
ry
def
yingi
tsaut
hor
it
ywoul
dhav
ebeenv
eryawar
eoft
hisweakness.Theonl
ytwo
count
ri
esi
ntheLeaguet
hatcoul
dhav
epr
ovi
dedanymi
l
itar
ymi
ghtwer
eBr
it
ain
andFr
anceandbot
hhadbeensev
erel
ydepl
etedst
rengt
h-wi
sei
nWor
ldWarOne
andcoul
dnotpr
ovi
det
heLeaguewi
tht
hebacki
ngi
tneeded.Al
so,bot
hBr
it
ain
andFr
ancewer
enoti
naposi
ti
ont
ouset
hei
rfi
nancest
opayf
oranexpanded
ar
myasbot
hwer
efi
nanci
all
yhi
tver
yhar
dbyWWI
.

Reasonsf
ort
heFai
lur
eofLeagueofnat
ions

Ther
ewer
ecer
tai
nweaknessesoft
heLeagueasar
esul
tofwhi
chi
tfai
l
edt
o
achi
evei
tsdesi
redgoal
s.Fi
rst
,theUS,t
hecount
ry,whosePr
esi
dent
,Woodr
ow
Wi
l
son,hadadv
ocat
edf
ort
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heLeaguef
ail
edt
obei
tst
he
member
.Thi
swasser
iousbl
owt
othepr
est
igeoft
heLeagueasUSatt
hatt
ime
hademer
gedasmostpower
fulnat
ionoft
hewor
ld.Second,si
nceGer
manyhad
st
art
edt
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
,asapuni
shment
,in1919undert
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
les
Ger
manywasnotconsi
der
edandal
l
owedt
obeamemberoft
heLeague.Asa
r
esul
tofwhi
ch,t
heLeaguecoul
dnotut
il
izeser
vicesofGer
manyt
osuppor
tit
s
campai
gnagai
nstaggr
essornat
ions.TheAxi
spower
s–Ger
many
,It
alyandJapan
–l
eftt
heLeagueast
heywer
enoti
nter
est
edi
ndi
sar
mamentandt
err
it
ori
alnon-
aggr
andi
zement
.Rat
hert
heyst
ressedonmi
l
itar
izat
ionandt
err
it
ori
alexpansi
on.
Thi
rd,
Russi
awasal
sonotal
l
owedt
obei
tsmembert
il
l1933asaf
tert
heBol
shev
ik
Rev
olut
ionof1917,i
thadacommuni
stgov
ernmentandal
sot
hatt
heRussi
an
r
oyalf
ami
l
y– t
heRomanov
s– wasassassi
nat
edi
n1918.Four
th,Br
it
ainand

214|Page
2024
Fr
ance wer
etwo most power
fulmember
s.These count
ri
es had suf
fer
ed
f
inanci
all
yandmi
l
itar
il
ydur
ingt
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.Hence,t
heydi
dnotshowany
keennesst
oresol
vet
hedi
sput
eswhi
chhadnoi
mpactont
heWest
ernEur
ope.
Mor
eov
er,
theyadopt
edt
heappeasementpol
i
cyt
owar
dsGer
man,
Ital
yandJapan.
Asar
esul
toft
his,
theLeaguewasonl
ytoi
ssuet
hev
erbalwar
ningsori
mposet
he
economi
csanct
ionsagai
nstt
heaggr
essor
sbuti
thadnocapabi
l
ityorcapaci
tyt
o
enf
orcei
tsdeci
si
onsbyt
heusi
ngmi
l
itar
ymi
ght
.

I
nanut
shel
l
,theLeaguesucceededt
oresol
vesomeoft
hei
nter
-st
atedi
sput
es
peacef
ull
y.Butasi
tlackedami
l
itar
yfor
ce,i
tcoul
dnotenf
orcet
heTr
eat
yof
Ver
sai
l
les.I
tal
sof
ail
edt
ogetdi
sar
mament
.It
sfai
l
uresr
esul
tedi
ntheSecond
Wor
ldWar
.TheLeagueofNat
ionswasr
epl
acedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsi
n1945.

TheUni
tedNat
ionsSy
stem

Dearl
ear
ner
s,why di
dthe League ofNat
ions f
ail
,and t
he UN i
s
est
abl
ished?

TheUni
tedNat
ions(
UN)i
sthei
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionofcount
ri
escr
eat
edt
o
pr
omot
ewor
ldpeaceandcooper
ati
on.TheUN wasf
oundedaf
terWor
ldWarI
I
endedi
n1945.I
tsmi
ssi
oni
stomai
ntai
nwor
ldpeace,dev
elopgoodr
elat
ions
bet
weencount
ri
es,pr
omot
ecooper
ati
oni
nsol
vi
ng t
hewor
ld’
spr
obl
ems,and
encour
ager
espectf
orhumanr
ight
s

TheUNi
sanor
gani
zat
ionofcount
ri
est
hatagr
eet
ocooper
atewi
thoneanot
her
.It
br
ingst
oget
hercount
ri
est
hatar
eri
chandpoor
,lar
geandsmal
l
,andhav
edi
ff
erent
soci
aland pol
i
ticalsy
stems.Membernat
ionspl
edge t
o set
tl
ethei
rdi
sput
es
peacef
ull
y,t
oref
rai
nfr
om usi
ngf
orceort
het
hreatoff
orceagai
nstot
hercount
ri
es,
andt
oref
usehel
ptoanycount
ryt
hatopposesUNact
ions.

UNmember
shi
pisopent
oanycount
rywi
l
li
ngt
ofur
thert
heUNmi
ssi
onandabi
de
byi
tsr
ules.Eachcount
ry,nomat
terhow l
argeorsmal
l
,hasanequalv
oiceand
v
ote.Eachcount
ryi
sal
soexpect
edt
opayduest
osuppor
ttheUN.Asof2007t
he

215|Page
2024
UNhad192member
s,i
ncl
udi
ngnear
lyev
erycount
ryi
nthewor
ld.

The UN’
sinf
luence i
n wor
ld af
fai
rs has f
luct
uat
ed ov
ert
he y
ear
s,butt
he
or
gani
zat
iongai
nednew pr
omi
nencebegi
nni
ngi
nthe1990s.I
twasawar
dedt
he
NobelPeace Pr
ize i
n 2001.St
il
l,t
he UN f
acesconst
antchal
l
enges.I
tmust
cont
inual
l
y secur
e t
he cooper
ati
on of i
ts member nat
ions because t
he
or
gani
zat
ionhasl
i
ttl
eindependentpoweroraut
hor
it
y.Butget
ti
ngt
hatsuppor
tis
notal
way
seasy
.Manynat
ionsar
erel
uct
antt
odef
ert
hei
rownaut
hor
it
yandf
oll
ow
t
hedi
ctat
esoft
heUN.

The UN i
sthe r
esul
tofa l
ong hi
stor
y ofef
for
tst
o pr
omot
eint
ernat
ional
cooper
ati
on.I
nthe l
ate 18t
h cent
ury
,Ger
man phi
l
osopherI
mmanuelKant
pr
oposedaf
eder
ati
onor“
league”oft
hewor
ld’
snat
ions.Kantbel
i
evedt
hatsucha
f
eder
ati
onwoul
dal
l
owcount
ri
est
ouni
teandpuni
shanynat
iont
hatcommi
tt
edan
actofaggr
essi
on.Thi
sty
peofuni
onbynat
ionst
opr
otecteachot
heragai
nstan
aggr
essori
ssomet
imesr
efer
redt
oascol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
y.Kantal
sof
eltt
hatt
he
f
eder
ati
onwoul
dpr
otectt
her
ight
sofsmal
lnat
ionst
hatof
tenbecomepawnsi
n
powerst
ruggl
esbet
weenl
argercount
ri
es.Kant
’si
deacamet
oli
feaf
terWor
ldWar
I(
1914-
1918)
.Hor
ri
fi
edbyt
hedev
ast
ati
onoft
hewar
,count
ri
eswer
einspi
redt
o
comet
oget
herandwor
ktowar
dpeace.Theyf
ormedanew or
gani
zat
ion,t
he
LeagueofNat
ions,
toachi
evet
hatgoal
.

TheLeaguewoul
dlastf
rom 1920t
o1946andhav
eat
otalof63membernat
ions
t
hroughi
tshi
stor
y,i
ncl
udi
ngsomeoft
hewor
ld’
sgr
eat
estpower
s:Fr
ance,t
he
Uni
tedKi
ngdom,
Ital
y,Japan,
Ger
many
,andt
heUni
onofSov
ietSoci
ali
stRepubl
i
cs
(
USSR)
.Butt
heLeaguehadt
womaj
orf
laws.Fi
rst
,sev
eraloft
hewor
ld’
smost
power
fulcount
ri
eswer
enotmember
s,mostnot
abl
y,t
heUni
tedSt
ates.Second,
t
he League r
equi
red consensus among i
ts member
sto oppose aggr
essi
on.
Di
ssentbyanyonemembercoul
dpr
eventconsensusandr
endert
heLeague
i
mpot
ent
.

WhenJapan,I
tal
y,andGer
manyunder
tookmi
l
itar
yaggr
essi
oni
nthe1930s,t
hey
woul
dnotagr
eet
ocensort
hemsel
ves,t
huspr
event
ingt
heconsensusnecessar
y

216|Page
2024
f
orLeagueact
ion.Thi
saggr
essi
onul
ti
mat
elyl
edt
oWor
ldWarI
I(1939-
1945)
.In
t
heend,
theLeaguef
ail
edi
nit
smostbasi
cmi
ssi
on,
topr
eventanot
herwor
ldwar
.

Anot
hermaj
orst
rengt
hoft
heUN,unl
i
ket
heear
li
erLeagueofNat
ions,i
sthat
v
irt
ual
l
yev
eryt
err
it
oryi
nthewor
ldi
samember
,orapr
ovi
nce,oracol
onyofa
member
.Somenonmemberpol
i
ticalent
it
ies,suchast
heVat
icanCi
tyandt
he
Pal
est
ineLi
ber
ati
onOr
gani
zat
ion(
PLO)
,al
sohav
eper
manentobser
vermi
ssi
on
st
atusatt
heUN.

Member
shi
pinUN

DearSt
udent
s,whi
chcount
ri
esdoy
out
hinkar
ethef
ounder
soft
heUni
ted
Nat
ions?

TheUNst
art
edi
n1945wi
th51f
oundi
ngmember
sincl
udi
ngt
he50count
ri
est
hat
hadat
tendedt
heSanFr
anci
scoconf
erence,andPol
and,whi
chwasnotatt
he
conf
erencebutsi
gnedt
hechar
terl
ater
.Newmember
sar
eadmi
tt
edt
otheUNon
t
her
ecommendat
ionoft
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
,ifappr
ovedbyat
wo-
thi
rdsv
oteoft
he
Gener
alAssembl
y.Member
shi
pisopent
oanycount
ryt
hatsuppor
tst
heUN’
s
mi
ssi
onandi
swi
l
li
ngt
ofol
l
ow t
her
ulesandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesspeci
fi
edi
nthe
char
ter
.

I
nit
sear
lyy
ear
s,West
erncount
ri
esdomi
nat
edt
heUNandt
heGener
alAssembl
y
r
egul
arl
ysi
dedwi
tht
heUni
tedSt
ates.TheSov
ietUni
onpr
ovi
dedabal
ancet
o
West
erni
nfl
uencebyusi
ngi
tsv
etopoweri
ntheSecur
it
yCounci
l
.

Funct
ionsoft
heUN

Dearst
udent
s,whatki
nd off
unct
ionsdo y
ou t
hinkt
heUN may
per
for
m?

217|Page
2024
TheUN t
odayhast
hesamebasi
cpur
poseandst
ruct
ureasi
tdi
dwheni
twas
f
oundedi
n1945.I
tspr
imar
ypur
pose-
andgr
eat
estbenef
itt
oit
smember
s—i
sto
mai
ntai
n wor
ld peace.That
,int
urn,hel
pscount
ri
est
o dev
elop and pr
osper
,
t
her
ebyi
mpr
ovi
ngt
hel
i
vesoft
hei
rci
ti
zens.I
naddi
ti
ont
othatpr
imar
ymi
ssi
on,
the
UN ser
vesi
tsmembercount
ri
esi
nav
ari
etyofot
herway
s.TheUN pr
ovi
desa
f
orum f
orcount
ri
est
opr
omot
ethei
rvi
ewsandset
tl
econf
li
ctswi
thoutv
iol
ence.

I
tal
l
owscount
ri
est
ocooper
atet
osol
vewor
ldpr
obl
ems,
suchaspov
ert
y,di
sease,
andt
hreat
stot
heenv
ironment
.Itser
vesasasy
mbolofi
nter
nat
ionalor
derand
gl
obali
dent
it
y.I
twor
kst
oaddr
esseconomi
candsoci
alpr
obl
emsi
ndev
elopi
ng
count
ri
es,
wit
hthei
deat
hatsuchpr
obl
emscr
eat
esour
cesofconf
li
ctt
hatcanl
ead
t
owar
.TheUNhel
pscoor
dinat
ethewor
kofhundr
edsofagenci
esandpr
ogr
ams,
bot
hwi
thi
nit
sownor
gani
zat
ionandout
sidei
t.I
tal
socol
l
ect
sandpubl
i
shes
gl
obal
stat
ist
ics.

Mai
ntenanceofpeaceandsecur
it
y

TheUNhast
hreepr
imar
yway
stomai
ntai
nint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y.Al
l
di
rect
lyi
nvol
vet
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Underchapt
er6oft
heUNchar
ter
,theUNcan
assi
sti
nthepeacef
ulr
esol
uti
on ofi
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
es.Thi
saut
hor
it
yhas
ev
olv
edi
ntot
heuseofUNaut
hor
izedpeacekeepi
ngf
orces.Underchapt
er7oft
he
UNchar
ter
,theUNcanaut
hor
izemi
l
itar
yact
iont
oenf
orcei
tsr
esol
uti
ons.Fi
nal
l
y,
t
heUNcanser
veasaf
orum f
ori
nter
nat
ionaldel
i
ber
ati
onsonl
ong-
ter
m sol
uti
ons
t
opr
essi
ngsecur
it
yissues,
suchasar
mscont
rol
andt
err
ori
sm.

Peacekeepi
ng

Peacekeepi
ngi
sthenon-
aggr
essi
veuseofmi
l
itar
yfor
cet
ohel
pnat
ionsi
nconf
li
ct
r
each a set
tl
ement
.The UN char
terdoes notment
ion peacekeepi
ng f
orces,
al
thoughchapt
er6oft
hechar
terdoesest
abl
i
shgui
del
i
nesf
orpeacef
ulr
esol
uti
on
ofi
nter
nat
ional
conf
li
cts.

218|Page
2024
TheUN’
sfi
rstpeacekeepi
ngef
for
ttookpl
acei
ntheMi
ddl
eEasti
n1948.TheUN
sentunar
medobser
ver
stohel
pmai
ntai
nthet
rucenegot
iat
edaf
terf
iveAr
ab
count
ri
esat
tackedI
sraelear
li
eri
nthey
ear
.TheUNf
ir
stusedar
medpeacekeeper
s
dur
ingt
heSuezCr
isi
sof1956,whenEngl
and,Fr
ance,andI
sraelf
oughtEgy
ptf
or
cont
roloft
heSuezCanal
.Thepeacekeeper
sov
ersaw t
hewi
thdr
awalofFr
ench,
Br
it
ish,
andI
srael
itr
oopsandact
edasabuf
ferbet
weent
hewar
ri
ngpar
ti
es.

Today
,theUN’
speacekeepi
ngf
orcespl
ayaneut
ralr
ole,wor
kingt
ocal
mregi
onal
conf
li
ctsi
nsev
eral
way
s.Theycangoi
ntoanar
eaofconf
li
ctasobser
ver
s,maki
ng
sur
eagr
eement
sreachedbet
weenopposi
ngsi
desar
ebei
ngf
oll
owed.Theycan
pr
ovi
deabuf
ferbet
weenwar
ri
ngpar
ti
esbyphy
sical
l
yint
erposi
ngt
hemsel
vesi
n
t
hemi
ddl
e.Theycannegot
iat
ewi
thmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cer
sonbot
hsi
des,pr
ovi
dinga
channelofcommuni
cat
ion.Theycanal
somoni
torceasef
ir
es,
super
viseel
ect
ions,
andpr
ovi
dehumani
tar
ianai
d.

Peacekeeper
sar
eli
ght
lyar
med.Theyt
rav
eli
nar
mor
edv
ehi
cleswi
thaut
omat
ic
r
if
les,butl
ack ar
ti
ll
ery
,tanks,orot
herheav
y weapons.Thei
rwor
k can be
hazar
dous,especi
all
yifoneoft
hewar
ri
ngsi
desdoubt
sthei
rneut
ral
i
ty.Theyar
e
of
tencaughti
nthemi
ddl
ewhenceasef
ir
escol
l
apseandt
heysomet
imeshav
e
beendel
i
ber
atel
yat
tacked.By2007mor
ethan2,
300peacekeeper
shaddi
edi
nthe
l
i
neofdut
y.

The Secur
it
yCounci
lgr
ant
s aut
hor
it
yforpeacekeepi
ng mi
ssi
ons,usual
l
yfor
sev
eralmont
hs,al
thought
heCounci
lcanr
eaut
hor
izemi
ssi
onsf
ormanyy
ear
s.
TheUNdoesnothav
eit
sownar
my,sot
heSecur
it
yCounci
lbor
rowsf
orcesf
or
eachmi
ssi
onf
rom t
hemi
l
itar
yandpol
i
ceper
sonnelofmembercount
ri
es.The
Secur
it
yCounci
lal
sochoosesasi
ngl
ecommander
,andt
hef
orcesoper
ateunder
UN command.Thef
orcesoper
ateonl
yift
hepar
ti
esi
nconf
li
ctagr
eet
othei
r
pr
esence.Thus,t
he success ofa peacekeepi
ng mi
ssi
on depends upon t
he
cooper
ati
onoft
heopposi
ngpar
ti
es.

Peacekeepi
ngf
orcesar
efundedbyspeci
alf
eespai
dbyUNmember
s.TheGener
al
Assembl
ymustappr
ovet
hef
unds.Today
,lackoff
undsi
sthesi
ngl
egr
eat
est

219|Page
2024
const
rai
nti
ntheuseofpeacekeepi
ngf
orces.Aspeacekeepi
ngoper
ati
onshav
e
expanded,
theyhav
erequi
redmor
eandmor
emoney
.

UN peacekeeper
swont
heNobelPeacePr
izei
n1988 i
nrecogni
ti
onoft
hei
r
successes.I
ntheear
ly21stcent
uryt
heUN hadnear
ly90,
000t
roopsf
rom 112
count
ri
esi
nal
most20separ
atepeacekeepi
ngmi
ssi
onsi
nregi
onsoft
hewor
ld
i
ncl
udi
ngSout
hAsi
a,t
heMi
ddl
eEast
,East
ernEur
ope,
andAf
ri
ca.I
nJul
y2007t
he
UN Secur
it
yCounci
laut
hor
izedapeacekeepi
ngf
orceof26,
000f
ort
heDar
fur
r
egi
onofSudan.I
tbecamet
heUN’
slar
gestpeacekeepi
ngf
orce.

Peaceenf
orcement

I
n addi
ti
on t
o peacekeepi
ng mi
ssi
ons,t
he UN can al
so aut
hor
ize peace
enf
orcementoper
ati
ons.Unl
i
kepeacekeepi
ngmi
ssi
ons,whohel
pwi
l
li
ngpar
ti
es
mai
ntai
nanexi
sti
ngpeaceagr
eement
,peaceenf
orcementoper
ati
onsseekt
o
r
epeli
nter
nat
ionalaggr
essi
on,
usi
ngmi
l
itar
yfor
cei
fnecessar
y.Underchapt
er7of
t
heUN char
ter
,theSecur
it
yCounci
lmayaut
hor
izemembercount
ri
est
otake
mi
l
itar
yact
ion i
nresponset
oint
ernat
ionalbr
eachesoft
hepeace.TheUN’
s
f
ounder
sini
ti
all
yenv
isi
onedchapt
er7ast
het
eet
hint
heUNchar
ter
.

Anear
lyexampl
eoft
heUN’
srol
einpeaceenf
orcementcamei
n1950,
whenNor
th
Kor
eai
nvadedSout
hKor
ea,st
art
ingt
heKor
eanWar
.TheUN Secur
it
yCounci
l
condemnedt
hei
nvasi
onandaut
hor
izedamul
ti
nat
ionalf
orce,l
edbyt
heUni
ted
St
ates,t
orepelt
heat
tack.Thi
sresol
uti
onwasonl
ypossi
blebecauset
heUSSR
boy
cot
tedt
heSecur
it
yCounci
lmeet
ingt
opr
otestt
heUN’
sref
usal
tor
ecogni
zet
he
communi
stgov
ernmentofChi
na.Whent
heUSSRr
etur
nedt
otheSecur
it
yCounci
l
,
i
tusedi
tsv
etot
opr
otecti
tsal
l
y,Nor
thKor
ea.Af
tert
heKor
eanWar
,theCol
dWar
pr
event
edf
urt
herUNpeaceenf
orcementoper
ati
ons.

TheUNagai
naut
hor
izedapeaceenf
orcementmi
ssi
oni
n1990,
whenI
raqi
nvaded
Kuwai
t.Af
terI
raq r
efused t
o compl
ywi
th UN demandst
o wi
thdr
aw,t
heUN
l
aunchedami
l
itar
yoper
ati
ont
oexpelI
raqf
rom Kuwai
t.Thi
soper
ati
onwasagai
n
l
edbyt
heUni
tedSt
ates,andi
tincl
udedav
astcoal
i
tionoff
orcesf
rom manyUN

220|Page
2024
membercount
ri
es.UN-
sponsor
ed peace enf
orcementoper
ati
ons r
emai
nrar
e,
howev
er,becauseoft
hedi
ff
icul
tyofget
ti
ngal
lfi
veoft
hev
eto-
wiel
dinggr
eat
power
stoagr
eet
omi
l
itar
yact
ion.

Ar
msCont
rol

Ar
msCont
rol
,at
tempt
sthr
ough t
reat
ies,pr
ocl
amat
ions,conv
ent
ion,and t
aci
t
agr
eementt
oli
mitt
hedest
ruct
ivenessofwarbycont
rol
l
ingt
heacqui
sit
ionand
useofweaponsandmi
l
itar
ytechnol
ogy
.

Hi
stor
ical
l
y,war
far
eappear
stobeani
ntegr
alpar
tofhumanaf
fai
rs.I
n3,
000y
ear
s
ofr
ecor
dedhi
stor
y,mosthi
stor
iansbel
i
evet
hatnotasi
ngl
eyearhasbeenf
reeof
ar
medconf
li
ct.Yetpeopl
ehav
eal
way
srecogni
zedt
hef
oll
y,wast
e,andi
nhumani
ty
ofwar
far
eandhav
econt
inual
l
yat
tempt
edt
oli
miti
tsdev
ast
ati
onandt
hespr
ead
ofi
ncr
easi
ngl
ydest
ruct
iveweapons.

TheUNchar
teraut
hor
izest
heSecur
it
yCounci
ltopl
anf
orwor
ldwi
dedi
sar
mament
andar
mscont
rol
.Tohel
pachi
evet
hosegoal
s,t
heUNhassponsor
edar
mscont
rol
negot
iat
ionsi
nGenev
a,Swi
tzer
land,f
ordecades.TheGener
alAssembl
yal
sohel
d
aspeci
alsessi
onondi
sar
mamenti
nJune1982.Noneoft
heseUNact
ivi
ti
eshav
e
hadmuchdi
rectef
fectonact
ual
arsenal
s.

I
nst
ead,dur
ingt
heCol
dWar
,themosti
mpor
tantar
mscont
rolagr
eement
swer
e
r
eachedbycount
ri
esnegot
iat
ingdi
rect
lywi
theachot
her
,par
ti
cul
arl
ybyt
heUni
ted
St
atesandSov
ietUni
on.Att
hatt
ime,ar
mscont
rolwasdomi
nat
edbyt
henucl
ear
ar
msr
acebet
weent
hesuper
power
s.TheUni
tedSt
atesandt
heSov
ietUni
on
r
eached sev
erali
mpor
tantagr
eement
s,and t
hen ot
hercount
ri
es si
gned on.
Ex
ampl
esi
ncl
udet
he1963Li
mit
edTestBanTr
eat
y,t
he1967Out
erSpaceTr
eat
y,
t
he1968Nonpr
oli
fer
ati
onTr
eat
y,andt
he1990Conv
ent
ionalFor
cesi
nEur
ope
Tr
eat
y.I
nsomei
nst
ancest
heGener
alAssembl
yrat
if
iedt
heseagr
eement
s.Buti
n
noneoft
hesecasesdi
dtheUNpl
ayamaj
orr
ole.

Af
tert
he1991Per
sianGul
fWar
,UNagenci
esassumedal
eadr
olei
nenf
orci
nga
Secur
it
yCounci
lresol
uti
on t
o di
sar
m I
raq ofweapons ofmass dest
ruct
ion.

221|Page
2024
I
nter
nat
ionalAt
omi
cEner
gyAgency(
IAEA)i
nspect
orsuncov
eredanddi
smant
led
I
raq’
s secr
etnucl
earweapons pr
ogr
am and ot
herUN weapons i
nspect
ors
moni
tor
ed t
hedest
ruct
ion ofst
ockpi
l
esofchemi
caland bi
ologi
calweapons.
Howev
er,i
n1998I
raqannouncedi
twoul
dnol
ongercooper
atewi
tht
heUN.I
n
2002,i
nresponset
orenewed U.
S.ef
for
tst
o enf
orceI
raqidi
sar
mament
,the
Secur
it
yCounci
lappr
ovedar
esol
uti
onwar
ningof“
ser
iousconsequences”i
fIr
aq
di
dnotdi
sar
m.

Weaponsi
nspect
ionsr
esumed,butU.
S.aut
hor
it
ieschar
gedt
hatI
raqwasnot
cooper
ati
ngf
ull
yandwashi
dingbannedweapons.I
nMar
ch2003,
aft
erdi
plomat
ic
t
alksbr
okedown,t
heUni
tedSt
atesl
edami
l
itar
yassaul
tonI
raq.Howev
er,U.
S.
f
orcesf
ail
edt
ofi
ndanyev
idencet
hatI
raqhadweaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion,and
subsequenti
nvest
igat
ionsr
eveal
edt
hatmuchoft
hepr
ewari
ntel
l
igenceabout
I
raq'
sweaponspr
ogr
amswasf
lawed.

Pr
omot
ionofHumanRi
ght
s:

Pr
omot
ionofhumanr
ight
sandf
undament
alf
reedomsf
oral
lpeopl
ewi
thoutany
di
scr
imi
nat
ionont
hebasi
sofr
ace,sex,l
anguage,orr
eli
gioni
sal
soani
mpor
tant
pur
poseoft
heUni
tedNat
ions.I
tpl
edgest
hememberst
atest
ounder
takej
ointand
i
ndi
vi
dualact
iont
opr
otectt
heser
ight
s.TheUN Gener
alAssembl
yadopt
eda
Uni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
sin1948.TheDecl
arat
ionser
vesasa
“
commonst
andar
dofachi
evementf
oral
lpeopl
esandal
lnat
ions”r
athert
hana
l
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngdocument
.Ithasbecomet
hebasi
soft
wobi
ndi
ngt
reat
ies–t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
ticalRi
ght
s(1966)andt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cov
enantonEconomi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
alRi
ght
s.

Soci
al,
Economi
candCul
tur
alDev
elopment
:

TheUni
tedNat
ionsal
sowor
kst
oachi
evei
nter
nat
ionalco-
oper
ati
oni
nsol
vi
ng
i
nter
nat
ionalpr
obl
emsofaneconomi
c,soci
al,cul
tur
al,orhumani
tar
ianchar
act
er.
TheUN bodi
esf
orexampl
etheGener
alAssembl
yand Economi
cand Soci
al
Counci
l(ECOSOC)hav
ebeencr
eat
edt
oachi
evesuchobj
ect
ives.

222|Page
2024
Humani
tar
ianAssi
stance

TheWor
ldHeal
thOr
gani
zat
ion(
WHO)i
sthel
argestagencyoft
heUN,whi
ch
f
ocusesoni
nter
nat
ional
heal
thi
ssuesander
adi
cat
ionofdi
seases.

Decol
oni
zat
ion

Si
ncet
heemer
genceoft
heUN,atl
east80col
oni
alcount
ri
eshav
eat
tai
ned
i
ndependence.TheGener
alAssembl
yadopt
edt
heDecl
arat
ionont
heGr
ant
ingof
I
ndependencet
oCol
oni
alCount
ri
esandPeopl
esi
n1960wi
thnov
otesagai
nstbut
abst
ent
ionsf
rom al
lmaj
orcol
oni
alpower
s.TheUNwor
kst
owar
ddecol
oni
zat
ion
t
hrough gr
oups i
ncl
udi
ng t
he UN Commi
tt
ee on Decol
oni
zat
ion whi
ch was
est
abl
i
shedi
n1962.

Pr
otect
ionofEnv
ironment

TheUN i
sal
sowor
kingt
opr
otectt
hegl
obalenv
ironment
.Si
nce1972,wi
tht
he
f
ormat
ion of t
he UN Env
ironment
alPr
ogr
amme (
UNEP)
,the UN has put
env
ironment
ali
ssueshi
ghoni
tsgl
obal
agenda.

TheChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions

TheChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ionswassi
gnedon26June1945,i
nSanFr
anci
sco,
att
heconcl
usi
onoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsConf
erenceonI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ion,
andcamei
ntof
orceon24Oct
ober1945.TheSt
atut
eoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tof
Just
icei
sani
ntegr
alpar
toft
heChar
ter
.Amendment
stoAr
ti
cles23,
27and61of
t
heChar
terwer
eadopt
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yon17December1963and
camei
ntof
orceon31August1965.A f
urt
heramendmentt
oAr
ti
cle61was
adopt
edbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yon20December1971,andcamei
ntof
orceon
24 Sept
ember1973.An amendmentt
o Ar
ti
cle 109,adopt
ed byt
he Gener
al
Assembl
y on 20 December1965,came i
ntof
orce on 12 June 1968.
The
amendmentt
oAr
ti
cle23enl
argest
hemember
shi
poft
heSecur
it
yCounci
lfr
om
el
event
ofi
ft
een.

223|Page
2024
The amended Ar
ti
cle 27 pr
ovi
des t
hatdeci
sions oft
he Secur
it
yCounci
lon
pr
ocedur
almat
ter
s shal
lbe made byan af
fi
rmat
ivev
ote ofni
ne member
s
(
for
mer
lysev
en)andonal
lot
hermat
ter
sbyanaf
fi
rmat
ivev
oteofni
nemember
s
(
for
mer
lysev
en)
,incl
udi
ngt
heconcur
ri
ngv
otesoft
hef
iveper
manentmember
sof
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Theamendmentt
oAr
ti
cle61,
whi
chent
eredi
ntof
orceon31
August1965,enl
argedt
hemember
shi
poft
heEconomi
candSoci
alCounci
lfr
om
ei
ght
een t
otwent
y-sev
en.The subsequentamendmentt
othatAr
ti
cle,whi
ch
ent
eredi
ntof
orceon24Sept
ember1973,
fur
theri
ncr
easedt
hemember
shi
poft
he
Counci
lfr
om t
went
y-sev
ent
ofi
ft
y-f
our
.

Theamendmentt
oAr
ti
cle109,whi
chr
elat
est
othef
ir
stpar
agr
aphoft
hatAr
ti
cle,
pr
ovi
dest
hataGener
alConf
erenceofMemberSt
atesf
ort
hepur
poseofr
evi
ewi
ng
t
heChar
termaybehel
datadat
eandpl
acet
obef
ixedbyat
wo-
thi
rdsv
oteoft
he
member
soft
heGener
alAssembl
yandbyav
oteofanyni
nemember
s(f
ormer
ly
sev
en)oft
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Par
agr
aph3ofAr
ti
cle109,whi
chdeal
swi
tht
he
consi
der
ati
onofapossi
bler
evi
ewconf
erencedur
ingt
het
ent
hregul
arsessi
onof
t
heGener
alAssembl
y,hasbeenr
etai
nedi
nit
sor
igi
nalf
ormi
nit
sref
erencet
oa
"
vot
e,ofanysev
enmember
soft
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
",t
hepar
agr
aphhav
ingbeen
act
eduponi
n1955byt
heGener
alAssembl
y,ati
tst
ent
hregul
arsessi
on,andby
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
.

TheUni
tedNat
ionalSy
stem andt
heUseofFor
ce:Theor
yandPr
act
ice

Thesy
stem est
abl
i
shedbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsf
ort
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ional
peace and secur
it
ywasi
ntended t
o be compr
ehensi
vei
nit
spr
ovi
sionsand
uni
ver
sali
nit
sappl
i
cat
ion.I
thasof
tenbeent
ermedacol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
ysy
stem,
si
nceawr
ongedst
atewast
obepr
otect
edbyal
l
,andawr
ongdoerpuni
shedbyal
l
.
Thehi
stor
yofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
ysi
nce1945demonst
rat
eshow f
lexi
bil
i
tyand
t
ext
uali
nter
pret
ati
onhav
epr
event
ed t
hesy
stem f
rom f
ail
i
ng compl
etel
y.The
or
igi
nalschemebywhi
cht
hiswasachi
evedl
aidgr
eatst
ressupont
her
oleoft
he
Secur
it
yCounci
l
,al
thought
hishasbeenmodi
fi
edt
osomeext
enti
npr
act
ice.By
ar
ti
cle 24 oft
he Uni
ted Nat
ions Char
ter
,the Counci
lwas gr
ant
ed pr
imar
y

224|Page
2024
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y,andi
ts
deci
sions ar
e underar
ti
cle 25 bi
ndi
ng upon al
lmemberst
ates.I
twas t
hus
i
ntendedt
oful
fi
llady
nami
c,execut
ivef
unct
ion.Bef
oret
heCounci
lcanadopt
measur
esr
elat
ingt
otheenf
orcementofwor
ldpeace,ar
ti
cle39oft
heChar
ter
r
equi
rest
hati
tmustf
ir
st‘
det
ermi
net
heexi
stenceofanyt
hreatt
othepeace,
br
eachoft
hepeaceoractofaggr
essi
on’
.Thi
sist
hekeyt
othecol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
y
sy
stem.

Oncesuchadet
ermi
nat
ionhasbeenmade,whi
chmaybedonei
mpl
i
cit
lybyt
he
useoft
hel
anguagecont
ainedi
nar
ti
cle39oft
heChar
ter
,thewayi
scl
earf
ort
he
adopt
ionofr
ecommendat
ionsordeci
sionst
odealwi
tht
hesi
tuat
ion.Thequest
ion
i
sthusr
aisedatt
hisj
unct
ureast
othedef
ini
ti
onofat
hreatt
o,orbr
eachof
,the
peaceoractofaggr
essi
on.

The answer t
hat has emer
ged i
n pr
act
ice i
sthat i
t depends upon t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecaseandi
tal
sodependsupont
her
elat
ionshi
poft
hef
ive
per
manentmember
soft
heCounci
l(Uni
tedKi
ngdom,Uni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica,
Russi
a,Chi
naandFr
ance)t
othei
ssueunderconsi
der
ati
on,f
oranegat
ivev
oteby
anyoft
heper
manentmember
sissuf
fi
cientt
obl
ockal
lbutpr
ocedur
alr
esol
uti
ons
oft
heCounci
l
.

TheUni
tedNat
ionspr
act
icalUseofFor
cet
hroughdecl
arat
ionofwarasf
inal
deci
sionf
ornotr
espect
ingl
awsoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsandi
ssuesofhumanr
ight
v
iol
ati
on.Decl
arat
ionofwari
saf
ormalactbywhi
chonest
ategoest
owaragai
nst
anot
her
.Thedecl
arat
ionappr
oachesper
for
mat
ivi
tyand act
sas t
hesi
gni
ng
documentbyanaut
hor
izedpar
tyofaUni
tedNat
ions,
inor
dert
opr
otectt
her
ight
s
ofci
vi
li
ansbet
weent
woormor
est
ates.Thel
egal
i
tyofwhoi
scompet
entt
o
decl
arewarv
ari
esbet
weennat
ionsandf
ormsofgov
ernmentundert
heUni
ted
Nat
ionst
hatpoweri
sgi
vent
otheSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Si
nce1945,dev
elopment
sin
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw suchast
heUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter
,whi
chpr
ohi
bit
sbot
hthe
t
hreatandt
heuseoff
orcei
nint
ernat
ionalconf
li
cts,hav
emadedecl
arat
ionsof
warl
argel
yobsol
etei
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ions.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,non-
stat
eor

225|Page
2024
t
err
ori
stor
gani
zat
ionsmaycl
aim t
oorbedescr
ibedas"
decl
ari
ngwar
"when
engagi
ng i
nvi
olentact
s.These decl
arat
ions mayhav
e no l
egalst
andi
ng i
n
t
hemsel
ves,butt
heymayst
il
lactasacal
lto ar
msf
orsuppor
ter
soft
hese
or
gani
zat
ions.

Somet
reat
ies,not
abl
ytheUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter(
1945)Ar
ti
cle2,andot
her
ar
ti
clesi
ntheChar
ter
,seekt
ocur
tai
lther
ightofmemberst
atest
odecl
arewar
;as
doest
heol
derKel
l
ogg– Br
iand Pactof1928 f
ort
hosenat
ionswho r
ati
fi
ed.
Moder
nlawsofwarr
egar
dingconductdur
i j
ngwar(usi
nbel
l
o),suchast
he1949
Genev
aConv
ent
ions,pr
ovi
det
hati
tisunl
awf
ulf
orbel
l
iger
ent
sto engagei
n
combatwi
thoutmeet
ingcer
tai
nrequi
rement
s,suchaswear
ingdi
sti
nct
iveuni
for
m
orot
herdi
sti
nct
ivesi
gnsv
isi
bleatadi
stance,car
ryi
ng weaponsopenl
y,and
conduct
ingoper
ati
onsi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hel
awsandcust
omsofwar
.

TheLawofSel
f-
Def
ense

Dearl
ear
ner
s,how do y
ouexami
net
hel
aw ofsel
f-
def
ense?

Thet
erm ofSel
f-
def
ensel
awr
efer
stoacount
ermeasur
ethati
nvol
vesdef
endi
ng
one'
sownheal
thandwel
l
-bei
ngofonesel
ffr
om har
m.Theuseoft
her
ightofsel
f-
def
enseasal
egalj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
heuseoff
orcei
nti
mesofdangeri
sav
ail
abl
e
i
nmanyj
uri
sdi
cti
ons,butt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onv
ari
eswi
del
y.Phy
sicalsel
f-
def
ensei
s
t
heuseofphy
sicalf
orcet
ocount
erani
mmedi
atet
hreatofv
iol
ence.Suchf
orce
canbeei
therar
medorunar
med.I
nei
thercase,
thechancesofsuccessdependon
al
argenumberofpar
amet
ers,
rel
atedt
othesev
eri
tyoft
het
hreatononehand,
but
al
soont
hement
alandphy
sicalpr
epar
ednessoft
hedef
ender
.Awi
dev
ari
etyof
weaponscanbeusedf
orsel
f-
def
ensei
nst
atel
aw.Themostsui
tabl
edependson
t
het
hreatpr
esent
ed,t
hev
ict
im orv
ict
ims,andt
heexper
ienceoft
hedef
ender
.
Legal
rest
ri
cti
onsal
sogr
eat
lyi
nfl
uencesel
f-
def
enseopt
ions.

I
n manycases t
her
e ar
e al
so l
egalr
est
ri
cti
ons.Whi
l
ein some j
uri
sdi
cti
ons
f
ir
ear
msmaybecar
ri
edopenl
yorconceal
edexpr
essl
yfort
hispur
pose,t
her
ear
e

226|Page
2024
al
soj
uri
sdi
cti
onswi
tht
ightr
est
ri
cti
onsonwhocanownf
ir
ear
ms,andwhatt
ypes
t
heycanown.Kni
ves,especi
all
ythosecat
egor
izedasswi
tchbl
adesmayal
sobe
cont
rol
l
ed,asmaybat
ons,pepperspr
ayandper
sonalst
ungunsandTaser
s-
al
thoughsomemaybel
egal
tocar
rywi
thal
i
censeorf
orcer
tai
npr
ofessi
ons.

I
nthe moder
n cent
ury Ev
ery
day obj
ect
s,such as f
lashl
i
ght
s,basebal
lbat
s,
newspaper
s,key
ringwi
thkey
s,ki
tchenut
ensi
l
sandot
hert
ool
s,andhai
rspr
ay
aer
osolcansi
n combi
nat
ion wi
thal
i
ght
er,can al
so beused asi
mpr
ovi
sed
weaponsf
orsel
f-
def
ense.Ti
e-wr
apsdoubl
easanef
fect
iver
est
rai
nt.Weapons
such ast
heKubot
a(pocketst
ick)hav
ebeen bui
l
tforeaseofcar
ryand t
o
r
esembl
eev
ery
dayobj
ect
s.Bal
l
poi
ntpen kni
ves,swor
dst
icks,canegunsand
modi
fi
edumbr
ell
asnucl
earweaponsar
esi
mil
arcat
egor
iesofconceal
edsel
f-
def
ense weapons t
hatser
ve a dualpur
pose.Bei
ng awar
e ofand av
oidi
ng
pot
ent
ial
l
ydanger
oussi
tuat
ionsi
soneusef
ult
echni
queofsel
f-
def
ense.

At
tacker
swi
l
lty
pical
l
ysel
ectv
ict
imst
heyf
eelt
heyhav
eanadv
ant
ageagai
nst
,
suchasgr
eat
erphy
sical
size,
numer
ical
super
ior
it
yorsobr
iet
yver
susi
ntoxi
cat
ion.
Addi
ti
onal
l
y,anyambushsi
tuat
ioni
nher
ent
lyput
sthedef
enderatal
argei
nit
iat
ive
di
sadv
ant
age.These f
act
ors make f
ight
ing t
o def
eatan at
tackerunl
i
kel
yto
succeed.Whenav
oidancei
simpossi
ble,oneof
tenhasabet
terchanceatf
ight
ing
t
o escape;such met
hodshav
e been r
efer
red t
o as'
breakaway
'techni
ques.
Under
standi
ngt
he'
mindset
'ofapot
ent
ialat
tackeri
sessent
iali
fwear
etoav
oidor
escapeapot
ent
ial
l
yli
fe-
thr
eat
eni
ngsi
tuat
ion.

Thesel
f-
def
ensel
awsofmoder
nlegi
slat
ionbui
l
dont
heRomanl
aw pr
inci
pleof
domi
nium wher
eanyat
tackont
hemember
soft
hef
ami
l
yort
hepr
oper
tyi
towned
wasaper
sonalat
t hepat
ackont erf
ami
l
iasandal
soonbi
bli
calsour
ces,namel
y
Ex nLev
odus.I iat
han(
1651)
,Hobbesar
guest
hatal
thoughsomemaybest
ronger
ormor
eint
ell
i
gentt
hanot
her
sint
hei
rnat
uralst
ate,nonear
esost
rongast
obe
bey
ond a f
earofv
iol
entdeat
h,whi
ch j
ust
if
ies sel
f-
def
ense as t
he hi
ghest
necessi
ty.

227|Page
2024
I
n1918as t
hespeechofMaxWeber‘
’
Pol
i
ticsasaVocat
ion’
’
,hedef
inedt
hel
aw
ofsel
f-
def
enseasanaut
hor
it
ycl
aimi
ngt
hemonopol
yont
hel
egi
ti
mat
euseof
f
orcewi
thi
ndef
inedt
err
it
ori
alboundar
ies.Moder
nli
ber
tar
iani
sm char
act
eri
zest
he
maj
ori
tyofl
awsasi
ntr
usi
vet
oper
sonalaut
onomyand,i
npar
ti
cul
ar,ar
guest
hat
t
her
ightofsel
f-
def
ensef
rom coer
cion (
incl
udi
ng v
iol
ence)i
sa f
undament
al
humanr
ight
.Int
hiscont
ext
,not
ethatAr
ti
cle12Uni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHuman
Ri
ght
sst
ates:Nooneshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
oar
bit
rar
yint
erf
erencewi
thhi
spr
ivacy
,
f
ami
l
y,homeorcor
respondence,
sov
erei
gnst
ate,
ort
oat
tacksuponhi
shonorand
r
eput
ati
on Ev
ery
one has t
he r
ightt
othe pr
otect
ion oft
he l
aw agai
nstsuch
i
nter
fer
enceorat
tackssel
f-
def
ense.

Combi
nedwi
tht
hepr
inci
pleoft
hest
ate'
smonopol
yofl
egi
ti
mat
efor
cet
osel
f-
def
ense,t
hismeanst
hatt
hoseaut
hor
izedbyt
hest
atet
odef
endt
hel
aw (
in
pr
act
ice,t
hepol
i
ce)ar
echar
gedwi
tht
heuseofnecessar
yfor
cet
opr
otectsuch
r
ight
s.Ther
ightt
osel
f-
def
ensei
sli
mit
edt
osi
tuat
ionswher
ethei
mmedi
atet
hreat
ofv
iol
encecannotbepr
event
edbyt
hoseaut
hor
izedt
odoso(
inpr
act
ice,
because
nopol
i
cef
orcei
spr
esentatt
hemomentoft
het
hreat
).Ther
ightt
osel
fdef
ense
gr
ant
edbyl
awt
othepr
ivat
eci
ti
zenaswel
lasst
atel
i
mit
s.Useoff
orcet
hatgoes
bey
ondwhati
snecessar
ytodi
spelt
hei
mmedi
atet
hreatofv
iol
encei
sknownas
excessi
vesel
fdef
ense(
alsosel
f-
def
ensewi
thexcessi
vef
orce)
.

Forexampl
eEt
hiopi
asel
f-
def
ensef
ormali
nOn13May1998,at t
heEr
it
rean
gov
ernmentaggr on onEr
essi it
rean–Et
hiopi
anWar
,Et
hiopi
a,descr
ibedasa"
tot
al
war
"pol
i
cy,mobi
l
izedi
tsf
orcesf
oraf
ullassaul
tagai
nstEr
it
reanaggr
essi
onI
n
December2005,
thegov
ernmentofChaddecl
aredt
hatast
ateofwarexi
stedwi
th
Sudan,af
terSudanhost
edChadi
anr
ebelgr
oupst
hatwer
ebehi
ndf
atalcr
oss
bor
derr
aidsf
orsel
f-
def
ense.

Par
ti
cul
arl
yfordef
ensi
vepur
posest
heUNbecameacombat
anti
tsel
faf
terNor
th
Kor
eai
nvaded

Sout
hKor
eaon25June1950dur
ingt
heKor
eanWar
.TheUN Secur
it
yCounci
l
condemnedt
heNor
thKor
eanact
ionbyr
esol
uti
on(
wit
htheSov
ietUni
onabsent
)

228|Page
2024
andcal
l
eduponi
tsmembernat
ionst
ocomet
otheai
dofSout
hKor
ea.TheUni
ted
St
atesand15ot
hernat
ionsf
ormeda"
UNf
orce"t
opur
suet
hisact
ionwarofsel
f-
def
enseofSout
hKor
ea.

TheUni
tedNat
ionshasi
ssuedSecur
it
yCounci
lResol
uti
onst
hatdecl
aredsome
war
sto be l
egalact
ions underi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,mostnot
abl
y Resol
uti
on
aut
hor
izi
ngt
he1991Gul
fWarwhi
chwast
ri edbyI
gger raq'
sinv onofKuwai
asi t.UN
Resol
uti
onsaut
hor
izet
heuseof"
for
ce"or"
allnecessar
ymeansup"onI
raqt
o
suppor
tthesel
f-
def
enceofKuwai
t.

TheLawofAnt
ici
pat
ion,
Pre-
empt
ionandPr
event
ion

I
npat
entl ant
aw, ici
pat
ionr
efer
stot
hepr
iori
nvent
ionordi
scl
osur
eoft
hecl
aimed
i
nvent
ionbyanot
her
,ort
hei
nvent
or'
sowndi
scl
osur
eoft
hecl
aimedi
nvent
ionby
publ
i
cat
ion,sal
e,orof
fert
osel
lpr
iort
othei
nvent
or'
sappl
i
cat
ionf
orapat
ent
.In
ot
herwor
ds,i
fsomeoneel
sehasknownaboutorusedt
hei
nvent
ionbef
oret
he
pat
entappl
i
cantappl
i
esf
orapat
ent
,thatpat
entappl
i
cantwi
l
lnotbeent
it
ledt
oa
pat
ent
.Ant
ici
pat
ioni
sagr
oundf
ori
nval
i
dat
ingorr
eject
ingapat
entbecausei
t
meanst
hatt
hecl
aimedi
nvent
ionl
acksnov
elt
y.Pat
enti
nval
i
dit
ybasedonl
ackof
nov
elt
y,orant
ici
pat
ion,r
equi
rest
hatt
hei
nvent
ionwasknownorusedbyot
her
s
bef
orei
twasi
nvent
edbyt
hepat
ent
ee.Apr
e-empt
ionr
ight
,orr
ightofpr
e-empt
ion,
r
efer
stocont
ract
ualr
ightt
oacqui
recer
tai
npr
oper
tynewl
ycomi
ngi
ntoexi
stence
bef
orei
tcanbeof
fer
edt
oanyot
herper
sonorent
it
y.

I
npr
act
ice,t
hemostcommonf
orm ofpr
e-empt
ionr
ighti
sther
ightofexi
sti
ng
shar
ehol
der
stoacqui
renew shar
esi
ssuedbyacompanyi
nar
ight
sissue,a
usual
l
ybutnotal
way
spubl
i
cof
fer
ing.I
nthi
scont
ext
,thepr
e-empt
iver
ighti
sal
so
cal
l
edsubscr
ipt
ionr
ightorsubscr
ipt
ionpr
ivi
l
ege.Thi
sist
her
ight
,butnott
he
obl
i
gat
ion,ofexi
sti
ngshar
ehol
der
stobuyt
henewshar
esbef
oret
heyar
eof
fer
ed
t
othepubl
i
c.I
nthi
sway
,exi
sti
ngshar
ehol
der
scanmai
ntai
nthei
rpr
opor
ti
onal
owner
shi
poft
hecompany
,pr
event
ingst
ockdi
l
uti
on.

I
nmanyj
uri
sdi
cti
ons,
subscr
ipt
ionr
ight
sar
eaut
omat
ical
l
ypr
ovi
dedf
orbyst
atut
e,

229|Page
2024
f
orexampl
etheUK,
buti
not
herj
uri
sdi
cti
onsi
tonl
yar
isesi
fpr
ovi
dedf
orundert
he
const
it
uti
onaldocument
soft
her
elev
antcompany
,forexampl
etheUS.I
nsuch
count
ri
esshar
ehol
derr
ight
sar
eof
tenv
iol
atedl
eadi
ngt
opr
oceedi
ngsatt
heCour
t
ofJust
iceoft
heEur
opeanUni
on.Ot
hersi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chpr
e-empt
ionr
ight
sar
e
seent
oar
isear
einpr
oper
tydev
elopment
s;par
ti
escl
oset
othei
nvest
orsar
eof
ten
gi
venar
ightofpr
e-empt
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
onew f
lat
sorcondomi
niumswi
thi
na
dev
elopment
.So,
pre-
empt
ionsr
ighti
sonei
mpor
tanti
ssueofst
atei
nint
ernat
ional
or
gani
zat
ion.

WeaponsofMassDest
ruct
ionandPr
event
iveWar

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whi
chki
ndofweaponsar
eref
err
edt
oasmassdest
ruct
ion
weapons?

Aweaponofmassdest
ruct
ionar
eanucl
earweapon,r
adi
ologi
calbombs and
chemi
calbombsorot
herweaponst
hatcanki
l
landbr
ingsi
gni
fi
canthar
mtoa
l
argenumberofhumansorcausef
orgr
eatdamaget
ohuman-
madest
ruct
ures
(
e.g.
,bui
l
dings)
,nat
uralst
ruct
ures(
e.g.
,mount
ains)
,andt
hebi
ospher
e.Thescope
andusageoft
het
erm hasev
olv
edandbeendi
sput
ed,of
tensi
gni
fyi
ngmor
e
pol
i
tical
l
ythant
echni
cal
l
y.Or
igi
nal
l
ycoi
nedi
nref
erencet
oaer
ialbombi
ngwi
th
chemi
calexpl
osi
ves,si
nce Wor
ld WarI
Iithas come t
oref
ert
olar
ge-
scal
e
weaponr
yofot
hert
echnol
ogi
es,such aschemi
cal
,bi
ologi
cal
,radi
ologi
cal
,or
nucl
ear
.Att
het
ime,nucl
earweaponshadnotbeendev
eloped.Japanconduct
ed
r
esear
chonbi
ologi
calweapons andchemi
calweaponshadseenwi
debat
tl
efi
eld
usei
nWor
ldWarI
.Theywer
eout
lawedbyt
heGenev
aPr
otocolof1925I
tal
yused
must
ardagentagai
nstci
vi
li
ansandsol
dier
sinEt
hiopi
ain1935–36.Fol
l
owi
ngt
he
at
omi
cbombi
ngsofHi
roshi
maandNagasakit
hatendedWor
ldWarI
Ianddur
ing
t
heCol
dWar
,thet
erm camet
oref
ermor
etonon-
conv
ent
ional
weapons.

Theappl
i
cat
ionoft
het
ermt
ospeci
fi
cal
l
ynucl
earandr
adi
ologi
calweaponsi
s
t
racedbyWi
l
li
am Saf
ir
etot
heRussi
anphr
ase.Thephr
asef
oundi
tswayi
ntot
he
v
eryf
ir
str
esol
uti
ont
heUni
tedNat
ionsGener
alassembl
yadopt
edi
nJanuar
y1946
i
nLondon,whi
chusedt
hewor
ding"
theel
i
minat
ionf
rom nat
ionalar
mament
sof

230|Page
2024
at
omi
cweaponsandofal
lot
herweaponsadapt
abl
etomassdest
ruct
ion.The
r
esol
uti
on al
so cr
eat
ed t
he At
omi
c Ener
gyCommi
ssi
on (
predecessoroft
he
I
nter
nat
ional
Atomi
cEner
gyAgency
.

Themostwi
del
yuseddef
ini
ti
onof"
weaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion"i
sthatof
nucl
ear
,bi
ologi
cal
,orchemi
calweapons(
NBC)al
thought
her
eisnot
reat
yor
cust
omar
yint
ernat
ional
lawt
hatcont
ainsanaut
hor
it
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on.Whi
l
enucl
ear
,
chemi
calandbi
ologi
calweaponsar
eregar
dedashi
ghl
ydest
ruct
iveweapons.So,
i
n gener
al,someanal
yst
shav
ear
gued t
hatr
adi
ologi
calmat
eri
alsaswel
las
mi
ssi
l
etechnol
ogyanddel
i
ver
ysy
stemssuchasai
rcr
aftandbal
l
ist
icmi
ssi
l
es
coul
dbel
abel
edasweaponsofmassdest
ruct
ion(
WMDs)aswel
l
.

Theabbr
evi
ati
onsNBC(
fornucl
ear
,bi
ologi
calandchemi
cal
)orCBR(
chemi
cal
,
bi
ologi
cal
,radi
ologi
cal
)ar
eusedwi
thr
egar
dst
obat
tl
efi
eldpr
otect
ionsy
stemsf
or
ar
mor
edv
ehi
cl
es,becauseal
lthr
eei
nvol
vei
nsi
dioust
oxi
nst
hatcanbecar
ri
ed
t
hrought
heai
randcanbepr
otect
edagai
nstwi
thv
ehi
cleai
rfi
l
trat
ionsy
stems.
Howev
er,t
her
eisanar
gumentt
hatnucl
earandbi
ologi
calweaponsdonotbel
ong
i
nthesamecat
egor
yaschemi
caland"
dir
tybomb"r
adi
ologi
calweapons,whi
ch
hav
eli
mit
ed dest
ruct
ive pot
ent
ial(
and cl
ose t
o none,as f
aras pr
oper
tyi
s
concer
ned)
,wher
easnucl
earandbi
ologi
calweaponshav
etheuni
queabi
l
ityt
oki
l
l
l
argenumber
sofpeopl
ewi
thv
erysmal
lamount
sofmat
eri
al,andt
huscoul
dbe
sai
dtobel
ongi
nacl
assbyt
hemsel
ves.Theonl
ycount
ryt
ohav
eusedanucl
ear
weaponi
nwari
stheUni
tedSt
ates,whi
chdr
oppedt
woat
omi
cbombsont
he
Japaneseci
ti
esofHi
roshi
maandNagasakidur
ingWor
ldWarI
I.Ther
ear
eei
ght
count
ri
est
hathav
edecl
aredt
heypossessnucl
earweaponsandar
eknownt
o
hav
etest
edanucl
earweapon,onl
yfi
veofwhi
char
emember
soft
heNPT.The
ei
ghtcount
ri eChi
esar na,Fr
ance,I
ndi
a,Nor
thKor
ea,Paki
stan,Russi
a,t
heUni
ted
Ki
ngdom,
andt
heUni
tedSt
ates.

I
sraeli
sconsi
der
edbymostanal
yst
stohav
enucl
earweaponsnumber
ingi
nthe
l
owhundr
edsaswel
l
,butmai
ntai
nsanof
fi
ci
alpol
i
cyofnucl
earambi
gui
ty,
nei
ther
deny
ingnorconf
ir
mingi
tsnucl
earst
atus.Sout
hAf
ri
cadev
elopedasmal
lnucl
ear

231|Page
2024
ar
senali
nthe1980sbutdi
sassembl
edt
hem i
ntheear
ly1990s,
maki
ngi
ttheonl
y
count
ryt
o hav
eful
l
ygi
ven up an i
ndependent
lydev
eloped nucl
earweapons
ar
senal
.Bel
arus,Kazakhst
an,andUkr
ainei
nher
it
edst
ockpi
l
esofnucl
earar
ms
f
oll
owi
ngt
hebr
eak-
upoft
heSov
ietUni
on,butr
eli
nqui
shedt
hem t
otheRussi
an
Feder
ati
on.Count
ri
eswi
thaccesst
onucl
earweaponst
hroughnucl
earshar
ing
agr
eement
sincl
udeBel
gium,
Ger
many
,It
aly
,theNet
her
lands,
andTur
key
.

Humani
tar
ianI
nter
vent
ion

Dearl
ear
ner
s,whyhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
sneeded,andwhenandwhoshal
l
i
nter
vene?

Humani
tar
ianI
nter
vent
ionhasbeendef
inedasast
ate'
suseof"
mil
i
tar
yfor
ce
(
publ
i
clyst
atedt
hati
tsusei
sforendi
ngt
hev
iol
ati
onofhumanr
ight
s)agai
nst
anot
herst
ate.Thi
sdef
ini
ti
onmaybet
oonar
rowasi
tpr
ecl
udesnon-
mil
i
tar
yfor
ms
ofi
nter
vent
ionsuchas humani
tar
ianai
d and i
nter
nat
ionalsanct
ions.Ont
his
br
oaderunder
standi
ng,"
Humani
tar
ian i
nter
vent
ion shoul
d be under
stood t
o
encompassnon-
for
cibl
emet
hods,
namel
yint
erv
ent
ionunder
takenwi
thoutmi
l
itar
y
f
orcet
oal
l
evi
atemasshumansuf
fer
ingwi
thi
nsov
erei
gnbor
der
s.

Ther
eisnotonest
andar
dorl
egaldef
ini
ti
onofhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ion;t
hef
iel
d
ofanal
ysi
s(suchasl
aw,et
hicsorpol
i
tics)of
teni
nfl
uencest
hedef
ini
ti
ont
hati
s
chosen.Di
ff
erences i
n def
ini
ti
on i
ncl
ude v
ari
ati
ons i
n whet
herhumani
tar
ian
i
nter
vent
ioni
sli
mit
edt
oinst
anceswher
ether
eisanabsenceofconsentf
rom t
he
hostst
ate;
whet
herhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
sli
mit
edt
opuni
shmentact
ions;
and
whet
herhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
sli
mit
edt
ocaseswher
ether
ehasbeenexpl
i
cit
UN Secur
it
y Counci
laut
hor
izat
ion f
oract
ion.Ther
eis,howev
er,a gener
al
consensusonsomeofi
tsessent
ial
char
act
eri
sti
cs.

Humani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
nvol
vest
het
hreatand useofmi
l
itar
yfor
cesasa
cent
ral
feat
ure.

232|Page
2024
I
tisani
nter
vent
ioni
nthesenset
hati
tent
ail
sint
erf
eri
ngi
nthei
nter
nalaf
fai
rsofa
st
atebysendi
ngmi
l
itar
yfor
cesi
ntot
het
err
it
oryorai
rspaceofasov
erei
gnst
ate
t
hathasnotcommi
tt
edanactofaggr
essi
onagai
nstanot
herst
ate.

Thei
nter
vent
ioni
sinr
esponset
osi
tuat
ionst
hatdonotnecessar
il
yposedi
rect
t
hreat
stost
ates'st
rat
egi
cint
erest
s,buti
nst
eadi
smot
ivat
edbyhumani
tar
ian
obj
ect
ives.

Thecust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
awconceptofhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
iondat
esback
t
o Hugo Gr
oti
us and Eur
opean pol
i
tics i
nthe 17t
h cent
ury
. The subj
ectof
humani
tar
ian i
nter
vent
ion has r
emai
ned a compel
l
ing f
orei
gn pol
i
cy i
ssue,
especi
all
ysi
nceNATO'
sint
erv
ent
ioni
nKosov
oin1999,asi
thi
ghl
i
ght
sthet
ensi
on
bet
weent
hepr
inci
pleofst
atesov
erei
gnt
yanddef
ini
ngpi
l
lar
soft
heUNsy
stem
andi
nter
nat
ionall
awandev
olv
ingi
nter
nat
ionalnor
msr
elat
edt
ohumanr
ight
sand
t
heuseoff
orce.Mor
eov
er,i
thasspar
kednor
mat
iveandempi
ri
caldebat
esov
er
i
tsl
egal
i
ty,
theet
hicsofusi
ngmi
l
itar
yfor
cet
orespondt
ohumanr
ight
svi
olat
ions,
wheni
tshoul
doccur
,whoshoul
dint
erv
eneandwhet
heri
tisef
fect
ive.

Toi
tspr
oponent
s,i
tmar
ksi
mper
ati
veact
ioni
nthef
aceofhumanr
ight
sabuses,
ov
ert
her
ight
sofst
atesov
erei
gnt
y,whi
l
etoi
tsdet
ract
orsi
tisof
tenv
iewedasa
pr
etextf
ormi
l
itar
yint
erv
ent
ionof
tendev
oidofl
egalsanct
ion,
sel
ect
ivel
ydepl
oyed
andachi
evi
ngonl
yambi
guousends.I
tsf
requentusef
oll
owi
ngt
heendoft
heCol
d
Warsuggest
edt
omanyt
hatanewnor
m ofmi
l
itar
yhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ionwas
emer
gingi
nint
ernat
ionalpol
i
tics,
alt
houghsomenowar
guet
hatt 11t
he9/ err
ori
st
at
tacks and t
he US "
waron t
err
or"hav
e br
oughtt
he er
a ofhumani
tar
ian
i
nter
vent
iont
oanend.JamesPat
ti
son,howev
er,ar
guedi
n2011t
hatt
heNATO
i
nter
vent
ioni
nLi
byabr
eakst
hist
rend."
Hav
enor
ight
sasanat
ion,
exceptar
ightt
o
sucht
reat
mentasmay
,att
heear
li
estpossi
bleper
iod,f
itt
hem f
orbecomi
ngone.
The onl
y mor
all
aws f
ort
he r
elat
ion bet
ween a ci
vi
li
zed and a bar
bar
ous
gov
ernmentar
etheuni
ver
sal
rul
esofmor
ali
tybet
weenmanandman.
"

233|Page
2024
Summar
y
AnI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ion(
IO)r
efer
stoanyi
nter
nat
ionalgr
ouporassoci
ati
on
oft
hest
ateswhi
chencour
agesv
olunt
arycooper
ati
onandcoor
dinat
ionamongi
ts
member
s.The dev
elopment
s ofi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions among t
he st
ates ar
e
consi
der
ed t
he f
oundat
ion ofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions and hav
e gr
owi
ng
i
mpor
tancei
nwor
ldpol
i
tics.I
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ioni
sthepr
ocessbywhi
ch
st
atesest
abl
i
shanddev
elopf
ormatandcont
inui
ngi
nst
it
uti
onalst
ruct
uresf
ort
he
conductofcer
tai
naspect
soft
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
pswi
theachot
her
.TheLeagueof
Nat
ionswast
hef
ir
sti
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionest
abl
i
shedaf
tert
heendoft
he
Fi
rstWor
ld Wari
n 1919. The Uni
ted Nat
ionsEmer
ged i
n 1945 asa gl
obal
or
gani
zat
ionaf
tert
heendoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
.Int
ernat
ionalor
gani
zat
ions
canbev
ary
ingi
nter
msofscope,
pur
poseandFunct
ion.Thus,
ther
ecanbeGl
obal
,
cont
inent
al,
regi
onal
andsubr
egi
onal
int
ernat
ional
organi
zat
ionsi
nter
msofscope
wi
tht
hei
rrespect
ivepur
posesandf
unct
ions.

Sel
f-CheckExer
cise
 Concept
ual
i
zeI
Os
 Di
scusst
heev
olut
ionofI
Os
 Cl
ari
fyt
hepur
pose,
funct
ionandpower
sofI
Os.
 Di
scussOr
gani
zat
ionsofr
egi
onal
char
act
ers,
andment
ionsomeoft
hem.
 Di
scussOr
gani
zat
ionsofUni
ver
sal
char
act
erswi
tht
ypi
cal
exampl
es.
 El
abor
atewhyOAUwaschangedt
oAU.
 Ment
ionsomeoft
her
easonst
hatwer
ethecausesf
ort
hef
ail
ureoft
he
LeagueofNat
ions.
 Di
scussUNsy
stem andi
tsf
unct
ions
 Doy
out
hinkhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
srel
evant
,andwhenandwhoshal
l
i
nter
vene?
 Di
scussi
tbyconsi
der
ingbot
hthecl
aimsofi
tsopponent
sandsuppor
ter
s.

234|Page
2024
Ref
erences

Akehr
ust
,M.
(1962)
.Int
ernat
ional
LawCasesandMat
eri
al 2ndEd.
s( )

Amr
eiMül
l
er( ,Rel
2010) ati
onshi
pbet
weennat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionall
aw:Publ
i
c
I
nter
nat
ional

Law,
Uni
ver
sit
yofOsl
o

Ant
hea Rober
ts( ,Compar
2011) ati
ve I
nter
nat
ionalLaw:The Rol
e OfNat
ional
Cour
tsI
n

Cr
eat
ingAndEnf
orci
ngI
nter
nat
ionalLawDepar
tmentofLaw,LondonSchool
of

Economi
csandPol
i
tical
Sci
ence.

,The Ev
Amos Yoder olut
ion oft
he Uni
ted Nat
ions Syst
em,Washi
ngt
on,DC:
Rout
ledge,
1993.

r
d
Ar
cher
,Cl
i
ve(
2001)
.Int
ernat
ional
Organi
zat
ions(
3 ed.
).London:
Rout
ledge

Ar
mst
rong,
Dav
id(
ed.
)(2009)
.Rout
ledgeHandbookofI
nter
nat
ionalLaw.London:
Rout
ledge

Bar
kin,SamuelJ.
(206)
.Int
ernat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions:Theor
ies and I
nst
it
uti
ons.
New

Yor
k:Pal
grav
e

Bay
li
s,J.andSmi
thS.
,( ,TheGl
2001) obal
i
zat
ionofwor
ldpol
i
tics:AnI
ntr
oduct
ion

235|Page
2024
t
o

I
nter
nat
ionalRel
ati
ons,
secondedi
ti
on, Uni
ver
sit
yPr
ess;
NewYor
k.

Beder
man, Dav
id J. (
2004)
.Int
ernat
ional Law i
n Ant
iqui
ty. Cambr
idge:
Cambr
idge

Uni
ver
sit
y.

Br
owl
i
e,I
an(
2003)
.Pr
inci
plesofPubl
i
cInt
ernat
i 6th ed.
onalLaw.( ).New Yor
k:
Oxf
ord

Uni
ver
sit
y.

Bor
ger
son,S.( ,TheNat
2009) ionalI
nter
estandt
heLaw oft
heSea.New Yor
k:
Counci
lonFor
eign

Rel
ati
ons.

Har
t,H.( .TheConceptofLaw.London:
1961) Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

Hender
son,W.
C,( ,I
1998) nt
ernat
ionall
aw:conf
li
ctandCooper
ati
onAtt
heTur
nof
The21st

cent
ury,
McGr
awHi
l
l:Bost
on.

Joachi
m,Jut
ta etal(
2001)
.Int
ernat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions and I
mpl
ement
ati
on:
Enf
orcer
s,

Manager
s,Aut
hor
it
ies?London:
Rout
ledge

Kr
aska,J.(
2008)
,“TheLawoft
heseaconv
ent
ion:ANat
ionalSecur
it
ySuccess–
Gl
obal

St
rat
egi
c mobi
l
ityt
hrough t
he Rul
e of Law” The Geor
ge Washi
ngt
on
I
nter
nat
ional
law

Rev
iewVol
.39.No.2,
pp.543-
572.

236|Page
2024
Loui
sB.Sohn,“
TheDev
elopmentofI
nter
nat
i ,Amer
onalLaw” icanBarAssoci
ati
on
Jour
nal
,Vol
.35,
No.4,
Apr
il1949,
pp.339-
342.

Mal
col ShawI
m N. nter
nat
ionall
aw:Si
xthedi
ti
on,
Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
y.

Oppenhi
em,
L(1955)
.Int
ernat
ional
Law;
ATr
eat
i .IPeace8thed.
seVol

Pet
erMal
anczuk ( ,Moder
2002) nInt
roduct
ion t
oInt
ernat
ionalLaw:Sevent
h
Rev
isedEdi
ti
on,

Tay
lor&Fr
anci
s

Schabas,Wi
l
li
am A.(
2007)AnI
ntr
oduct
iont
otheI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalCour
t(3rd
edi
ti
on),

Cambr
idgeuni
ver
sit
ypr
ess:
UK.

St
arke,
J.( .I
1977) nt
roduct
iont
oInt
ernat
ionalLaw.London:But
ter
wor
ths.

Uni
tedNat
ions.(
2005)
,“Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
i nTr
es1969”i eat
y
Ser
ies,
Vol
.

1155,
p.331.

Vi
ennaConvent
iononSuccessi
onofSt
atesi
nrespectofTr
eat
ies,1978,Uni
ted
Nat
ions,
2005.

Wol
fgangFr
iedmann,“
Hal
faCent
uryofI
nter
nat
i ,Vi
onalLaw” rgi
niaLaw Revi
ew,
Vol
.50,
No.

8,
December1964)
,pp.1333-
1358.

237|Page
2024

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy