AP BIOLOGY

Scientific Principles
Learn the nature of science and scientific methods, such as observing, studying, and experimenting.
See how a hypothesis helps scientists understand the world.

What Is Science?
Science is a branch of knowledge and the systematic study of the universe and all it encompasses -
one that is based upon facts, observation, and experimentation.
Some people love science and others less so. Maybe you are one of the individuals who thinks it's
hard. Quite frankly, it should be hard. I'm sure you know that anything worthwhile in life is a difficult
endeavor but always worth fighting for.
And, of course, you reap what you sow. And if you work hard at it, you gain far more than grains of
knowledge and the gift of persistence that comes from toiling in the field of science. You gain a
specific kind of mindset for the rest of your life - a mindset that allows you to logically observe and
learn the truths of the world that are based on evidence and objective understanding.
Such a mindset can open new and exciting worlds for you. Maybe you'd like to find out why Mentos
makes pop fizz. Or perhaps you want to learn how fossils allow us to look back in time. Further still,
you may want to find a cure for a disease. Science allows you to do all of this and more.

Science vs. Dogma vs. Pseudoscience

From all of that, you should've understood that the nature of science is one that is based upon
reason, experimentation, facts, and truths. Science aims for logic, ration, and objectivity, even in the
face of a lot of unknowns, wild emotions, and the subjective whims of the mind trying to steer our
fallible minds into traps of surreality. Science is not dogma, a set of principles laid out as being
unquestionably true.
Scientists have shown that as we search for the real answers in this world, truths can change all
based on newer and better information. This is very disturbing to some, especially those that prefer a
stable world and mind. It may help explain why some people prefer other avenues of 'truths' to
answer life's questions as these dogmatic answers are much simpler to understand, unchangeable,
and less stressful to deal with.
Imagine if we still believed in the historical dogma of the sun revolving around the earth. If that was
still the case, your GPS wouldn't work, your TV wouldn't be able to entertain you, and you may even
have trouble using your beloved smartphone! And that's just the tip of it all.
But scientists love new information; that is their nature and that of science itself. New information
yields better ideas, advances technology, and saves lives.
Speaking of simple explanations for our world, science is also not the same thing
as pseudoscience, something that astrology is the perfect embodiment of. Pseudoscience is a false
or fake science; a system of beliefs that looks like it is based on scientific ideas but actually doesn't
employ or obey the rules of science.
Something can be considered pseudoscience but still be a popular practice or belief. For example,
acupuncture, an ancient Chinese healing method, is not supported by scientific facts, but it has
helped many people with a variety of problems and is a popular healing method. Many people love
looking up their daily horoscopes, but the belief in astrology and the alignment of stars and planets
being linked to personalities and daily events is not scientifically backed. Therefore, astrology is a
pseudoscience.
In short, real science has very specific testable claims that are laid out and verified. If they're not
verified, they are rejected. A sure sign of a pseudoscience is the disregard of contradictory evidence
and alternative explanations.

Hypothesis, Theory, & Law

Scientists study the world by coming up with new hypotheses, testing them, and then developing
successful ideas into theories and laws. These theories and laws tell us how the world really works.
A hypothesis is a single assertion, a proposed explanation of something based on available
knowledge for something yet to be explained and that is subject to further experimentation.
A theory is a system of assumptions that generalize results of well-confirmed hypotheses in order to
apply them to a wide range of circumstances.
Let me differentiate the two for you in an example. Louis Pasteur, a French chemist and
microbiologist, hypothesized and later proved that microorganisms were carried around through the
air and as a result, contaminated objects. While many others thought that this was the case, none
were able to prove it until Pasteur did so. Once his hypothesis was confirmed, a theory came to
fruition. It was the theory that some diseases develop when microorganisms are transmitted through
the air, or otherwise, from one sick person to another.
There is a misconception that a theory is only a tentative guess. Yet, theory is a word used by
scientists to denote an idea that is very much well confirmed by plenty of evidence. It's anything but
a guess. I'm sure you are well aware of the fact that germs can be passed from one person to
another to cause disease. It's an accepted fact. Yet this thought is still called the germ theory of
disease.
A theory shouldn't be confused with scientific law, however. A Scientific Law is a description of
observable natural phenomena, often through equations. To use a well-known example, the law of
universal gravitation does not explain why gravity exists, it just mathematically describes gravity.

Lesson Summary
Science is a branch of knowledge and the systematic study of the universe and all it encompasses
that is based upon facts, observation, and experimentation. Science is not dogma, a set of
principles laid out as being unquestionably true.
And science should not be mistaken for pseudoscience, which is a false or fake science or system
of beliefs that looks like it's based on scientific ideas but actually doesn't employ or obey the rules of
science. Scientists use hypotheses, theories, and laws to explain our world.
A hypothesis is a single assertion, a proposed explanation of something based on available
knowledge, for something yet to be explained that is subject to further experimentation. A theory is a
system of assumptions that generalizes results of well-confirmed hypotheses in order to apply them
to a wide range of circumstances. A Scientific Law is a description of observable natural
phenomena.

Learning Outcomes
Once you have finished this lesson, you should be prepared to:

 Describe science and differentiate it from dogma and pseudoscience

 Define hypothesis, theory, and natural law and understand the differences between them

What is a Scientist?
A scientist is a person who has expertise or performs research in a specific field of science. In order
to understand what a scientist is, it is important to define science. Science is the practice of studying
and attempting to understand the world and how it works, through observations and experiments.
Fields like Herpetology, the study of reptiles, or Biology, the study of life, or Anthropology, the study
of humans, are all fields of science.
The people who are experts in and study these fields, scientists, are attempting to understand and
explain the world. They do this through observation and experiments in a very specific method,
known as the scientific method. The scientific method is a step-by-step process that scientists
follow to understand how or why something works; ask a question, form a hypothesis, test the
hypothesis, analyze data, and draw conclusions. This process usually leads scientists to ask more
questions and repeat the scientific method over and over again, with different topics. When a
hypothesis is supported by experiments, other scientists analyze the data, make their own
observations, replicate the experiments, and test the hypothesis themselves in a process called peer
review.

Scientists follow these steps of the scientific method to perform research.

All scientists have a few things in common: they all possess similar qualities, characteristics, and
values that make them a good fit for science. What are the qualities of a scientist?

Qualities Needed to Work in the Science Field

There are so many different types of scientists, and their jobs vary. Some scientists spend all day
working in a lab with chemicals and microscopes. Other scientists work outside, maybe digging for
sea turtle eggs on the beach. There are scientists that specialize in the ocean and work on the
water.
 The work environments of scientists differ greatly depending on the discipline; some may work in a lab, others in the field, a
both.

While the job may vary, the general qualities of a scientist remain the same. Scientists
possess analytical skills, are detail-oriented, and are very organized. These qualities ensure the
research they do is careful and does not contain errors. Scientists are also open-
minded and unbiased, which allows them to be accepting of results that disprove their hypothesis
and able to change their hypothesis when needed. Lastly, scientists are adaptable. Adaptability
helps scientists to keep experiments on track when they do not go as planned. Along with these
general qualities, scientists also possess specific traits that make them successful.

What are the Characteristics of a Scientist?

What are the characteristics of a scientist? The characteristics or traits of a scientist that make them
successful are: observation, curiosity, logic, creativity, skepticism, objectivity, and peer review.
These traits are important for all scientists, regardless of their field.

Observation
Observation is something noticed through careful use of the senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, or
touch. Observation is the very beginning of the scientific method because scientists are constantly
observing things about the natural world, and then asking questions such as how or why?
Observation is such a key trait of a scientist as it drives the process of asking questions.
Curiosity
Curiosity is the desire to learn more about something. As part of the scientific method, curiosity goes
along with asking a question and wanting to answer it. Curiosity is what drives scientists to try to
understand and explain the world.

Logic
Logic is a reasonable way of thinking about something, usually systematically. Scientists use logic
when forming a hypothesis, or an if, then statement. If thing A happens, then thing B will be the
outcome. The "if, then" process of thinking is very logical, and allows for something to be tested and
either proven or disproven. Logic is very important when scientists come up with a potential
explanation for how or why something happens.

Creativity
Creativity is the ability to make something or come up with ideas, alternatives, and possibilities.
Scientists must be creative when designing experiments or solving complex issues. In science,
things do not always go as planned, and creativity is extremely important to be able to keep
experiments on track or to design a new science tool.

Skepticism
Skepticism is the practice of doubting or challenging the truth of something. Scientists must be
skeptical because questioning their own hypothesis, methods, and results, can help them always
provide sufficient evidence to back up their claims. Skepticism also leads scientists to question other
scientists' work and replicate the experiments.

Objectivity
Scientists must be objective because it helps them avoid bias. Bias is the tendency to deviate from
the truth in the scientific method. For example, if a scientist left out data from their report that did not
support their hypothesis, this would be biased research. If a scientist is always objective, even with
respect to their own hypothesis and methods, they can avoid things that would stray them away from
the truth
Peer Review
Peer review is the process where proposed explanations, claims, or publications are evaluated
and/or tested by experts in that particular field. For example, if a scientist published their research
study about exercise and happiness, other scientists in the field would evaluate the publication,
analyze the data, and replicate the experiment to get their own results. These other scientists would
then come up with their own conclusions, either supporting or disproving the results of the original
work. Peer review is an important trait of scientists because it will shed light on any bias and drive
fellow scientists further toward the truth.

Values of a Good Scientist

Not only do scientists share general qualities and specific traits, but good scientists also share
similar values. Throughout their pursuit of the truth, scientists will have to make complex decisions
and navigate very challenging situations. Honesty, always being truthful, and integrity, upholding
principles, are two of the values that good scientists share that help them navigate those difficult
decisions and situations.
Scientists often have to work with one another. Whether it be a group of researchers working on an
experiment, or colleagues peer-reviewing work in the field, scientists
value teamwork and collaboration to help them in the pursuit of truth. Scientists must be capable
of and willing to work with others and value other scientists' expertise and results.
Research, experiments, publishing work, and science, in general, can be very difficult. Sometimes
an experiment will need to be done many times over again or take years to complete. For these
reasons, good scientists share the values of hard work and determination to keep them working
toward their goals.
Lastly, good scientists value humility, especially humility to evidence. As a scientist, the goal is
not to be right, but to find the truth. If the data does not support the scientist's hypothesis, they must
have enough humility to accept the data, admit they were wrong, and change their hypothesis
moving forward.

Examples of the Characteristics of a Scientist

Throughout history and every day, men and women of science have displayed the characteristics of
a scientist in their work.
Jane Goodall, a primatologist, famously used her keen observation skills to learn that chimpanzees
ate meat. Without the trait of observation, Jane wouldn't have noticed chimpanzees eating a
bushpig, dispelling the previous theory that chimpanzees were vegetarians. Additionally, Jane
Goodall was one of the first to observe primates up close, a new creative approach to primatology.
Without her creativity, Goodall would not have come up with this new way to learn about primate
behavior.
A very well-known experiment, Pavlov's dogs, led to the discovery of classical conditioning, on
accident. Pavlov had originally been studying digestion in dogs when he noticed the dogs' responses
to the stimulus associated with the food. Had Pavlov not possessed the characteristics
of curiosity and skepticism about the change in response and wanted to know the truth, he would
not have designed the bell experiment that led to the discovery of classical conditioning.
Lesson Summary
Scientists, or those who have expertise in or perform research in various fields of science, possess
very specific qualities, characteristics, and values that make them successful. Among the qualities of
a scientist are analytical skills, being detail-oriented, and being organized. In addition, scientists
are open minded and adaptable. Not only do scientists share these broad qualities, but successful
scientists share specific characteristics or traits that bolster their success. The characteristics of a
scientist are:

 Observation
 Curiosity
 Logic
 Creativity
 Skepticism
 Objectivity
 Peer review

In addition to the traits of a scientist, good scientists share common values. Some values of
scientists include honesty and integrity, keeping them truthful, along with hard
work and determination to stay the course when the pursuit of truth gets tough. Lastly, good
scientists share the value of humility to evidence, changing their hypothesis when evidence shows
it is appropriate. These qualities, characteristics, and values of good scientists have led to many
breakthroughs and discoveries in various fields, such as the creativity and observation used by Jane
Goodall in primate research, or the curiosity and skepticism used by Pavlov in discovering the
concept of classical conditioning.

Why Science Terminology is Difficult

Science is a subject that generally becomes more difficult for people to understand, especially as
one studies scientific topics in greater detail. Many science vocabulary terms become increasingly
more difficult to pronounce, let alone understand. This is because it becomes more difficult for brain
neurons to make new connections, as many scientific terms are rooted in different languages. This
includes the use of Greek and Latin words, as these languages are used universally in science. For
example, all living organisms on earth are classified by their genus species epithet, which is in Latin,
such as the average house cat has the scientific name of Felis catus, and the bacteria that causes
syphilis is known formally as "Treponema pallidum". An example of Greek used in science would be
gamma, such as gamma rays which are described in the subjects of chemistry and physics, or the
subject of biology, a Greek scientific term meaning the study of living organisms. Additionally,
scientific terminology can become difficult to understand if one is not familiar with the root, prefix, or
suffixes, of words and their meanings, as each of these word parts is also in Greek or Latin origins
which may require additional study.
 The Greek Alphabet

Taxonomy Chart (Latin) Depicting Certain Species of Birds and Mammals

Dissecting Science Vocabulary

Many scientific terms are formed by using different word parts, which are typical of Greek or Latin
origin. The Greek language is used because so many of the pioneering scientists and researchers
were Greek, and this influenced scientific terminology more than English. Likewise, English is not
used because the discoveries and philosophies of science and the origins of the western science
community to which terms date back to, were not in English-speaking parts of the world. Latin was
an international language at the time of scientific discovery within Europe and the extending western
world. Thus, scientific terms have been preserved in Greek and Latin until today. Some examples of
Greek and Latin are observed in science vocabulary such as apoptosis, biology, and centrifugal.
To demonstrate the origins of science vocabulary the word apoptosis can be dissected to
understand its meaning. The word "apoptosis" is used when describing cellular death, which comes
from Greek and translates to "falling off". This word can be broken down into prefixes and roots
since this word lacks a suffix. The prefix "apo-" translates to separating, while the root of the word, "-
ptosis", translates as "falling off". When cell death occurs, the cell breaks apart, or separates, into
smaller fragments. So, when considering the Greek origin and the meanings of the root and prefix in
the term apoptosis, it does make sense because the cell fragments when it dies.

Common Science Terms

Some common science terms, or words to describe science, include:

 Centrifugal- The term centrifugal means the tendency to move away from the center of an
object, or entity.
 Biology- The term "biology" means the study of life or living organisms.
 Hydrocephalus - This scientific term is used to describe a medical condition where fluid is
found in the brain.
 Photosynthesis - The process by which plants use sunlight and water to produce their own
nutrients.
 Hydrogenation - The addition of hydrogen in a chemical reaction.
 Ornithology - The study of birds.
 Hypothesis - An educated explanation for a certain phenomenon.
 Ecology - The study of the ecosystem, or environment.
 Heterotroph - An organism that relies on external sources of nutrients.
 Autotroph - An organism that makes its own nutrients via chemical processes.

Morphemes of Common Science Terms

Morphemes are parts of words that are broken down and are unable to be broken down further and
their sound is representative of a certain entity. The common science terms discussed in this lesson
included centrifugal, biology, and hydrocephalus. The term "centrifugal" is rooted in Latin origin and
comes from the term centrum, which gives us the root word, "centri-" which means "center". The
suffix, "-fugal", comes from "fugere" which translates "to flee". So, centrifugal means that something
is trying to flee the center of an entity.
The term "biology" is a combination of the root word, "bios", which is Greek and translates to "life"
and the suffix, "-ology", which translates to "the study of". So, when the suffix of "-ology" and the root
word "bios" are combined to form the science term, "biology", it is understood that this means the
study of life. This term is rooted in both languages of Greek and medical Latin.
The prefix "hydro-" refers to water and the term "-cephalus" comes from the word kephal, or
"cephalo-", meaning 'head'. This term essentially translates to "water on the head" refers to the
medical anomaly where fluid is found on the brain.
What are Word Parts?
There are three main word parts which include the roots, prefixes, and suffixes of words. The root
of a word refers to a word lacking a suffix or prefix and is the base word for a new word. An example
of the root of a word would be "sleep" in the word "sleeping". Prefixes are found at the beginning of a
word, with an example of a prefix would be "un-" in the word "unhappy". Suffixes are found at the
end, and an example of a suffix could be "-ful" at the end of the word "helpful".

Science: Root, Prefixes, and Suffixes

The term "phagocytosis" consists of all word parts which includes, the prefix, root, and suffix, and is
Greek in origin. It can be helpful to dissect the parts of a new science word to better understand the
definition overall. The root word is "-cyt-" which refers to a cell and the prefix "phago-" translates to
"to eat". Lastly, the suffix "-osis" refers to an abnormal condition. Essentially, this combination
translates to "to eat a cell in abnormal condition", and the definition of phagocytosis is "the
destruction of microbes".

Unique Study Styles

It is important to remember that everyone has both unique study and learning styles. The three
primary unique study styles are:

 Auditory or Verbal- One who learns best via hearing new information is considered an
auditory or verbal learner. A person who learns this way may prefer learning listening to
lectures on certain topics or discussing new information out loud rather than learning by
reading or writing information.
 Visual- An individual who is in need to see something to help with the understanding of a
new concept is considered a visual learner. A visual learner may prefer looking at pictures or
charts to understand new material or may benefit by watching videos.
 Hands-on- A person who needs to learn by performing a task themselves or to physically
touch an object to gain an understanding of it is a hands-on learner. These individuals
typically benefit from laboratory components of classes, like performing chemical reactions or
other types of experiments, as well as learning through movement.

Some individuals even learn best using a combination of the study styles. Approaches to learning
and studying can be holistic or analytical. Holistic learning tends to group new concepts or ideas
with those that have already been learned by the individual. For example, a person would first need
to know the basic anatomy of an animal cell before being able to learn about cellular respiration.
Analytical learning divides concepts or material into small subsections. This works well for studying
concepts that include classifying certain organisms or entities. For example, when learning about the
taxonomy of living things, organisms are categorized into three separate domains, which are the
largest groups. These groups are broken down into kingdoms, which are broken down into phyla,
and so on.

Lesson Summary
To summarize and refresh, this lesson focused on science terms. Greek and Latin languages
contribute to most scientific vocabulary. Greek is used because most of the first scientists and
researchers were Greek, and Latin is used often in the naming of organisms since it is universal.
Word parts (such as prefixes, roots of words, and suffixes) and morphemes were discussed in this
lesson, and how it is helpful to break down scientific terminology into smaller parts to gain a better
understanding of the material. The primary unit of a word is called the root, the word part before
the root is the prefix, and the word part appearing only after the root is the suffix.
Learning styles can be auditory, where students learn by hearing, visual, where learning occurs
via sight through pictures and charts, hands-on, where new information is best understood in
practice or a combination of two or all three. Holistic learning uses old information that was already
learned to better understand new ideas. The analytic learning approach breaks concepts into
smaller sections, or subdivided parts for the individual to process new information.

What is the Scientific Method?

The scientific method is a procedure used to provide scientific explanations for questions about the
world. It outlines the way a scientist can perform an experiment to collect empirical data which can
be used to answer a question. The scientist plans their experiment based on background research
that allows them to form a hypothesis predicting what may happen. When the experiment is
complete, they will use their data to form a conclusion.

 Question: a problem the scientist is looking to solve

 Background: information that is already available from other experiments that can help
inform the scientist about the topic
 Hypothesis: a proposed explanation that can be empirically tested
 Experiment: a scientific test that provides empirical data for a specific hypothesis
 Empirical Data: information that is verifiable by observation and/or experience
 Conclusion: an answer to the research question as suggested by the data which may
support or reject the hypothesis

Who Invented It?

The scientific method has evolved and changed in many ways over the years. It was used more or
less unofficially since ancient times, but most sources credit its first documentation to Sir Francis
Bacon in 1620.

 Some say Aristotle or Galileo first utilized the scientific method, but while they certainly used
empirical science, they did not outline a procedure like this
 Muslim scholar Ibn al-Haytham first made an outline for a series of steps long before Bacon
in the early 1000s, and even recommended replication to help ensure good data
 Issac Newton helped refine the process after Bacon in the later 1600s and emphasized the
importance of inductive and deductive reasoning
 Every scientist that modifies the process to fit their experiments and discover new knowledge
is a part of the evolution of this method even today
 Each scientist must use the scientific method as a guide to design their own experiment

Variations in Different Disciplines

The scientific method steps follow the same general pattern, but there is some variation between the
methods that psychologists use compared to physicists or geologists, etc. There will even be
variation within each discipline depending upon what they are studying.

 Psychologists studying human behavior may be able to use a survey as part of their
experimental design, while ecologists studying bee behavior will need to employ different
methods
 Scientists studying extinct species will need to use very different tools than those studying
extant species
 Philosophers will not be collecting quantitative data like geneticists, but will focus on
qualitative data instead

What Are the Six Steps of the Scientific Method?

The parts of the scientific method are as follows:

1. Ask a Question
2. Conduct Background Research
3. Formulate a Hypothesis
4. Design and Conduct an Experiment
5. Analyze the Data
6. Draw a Conclusion
Scientific Method Steps in Order
 The scientific method has an order, but it often gets shaken up and parts get re-worked and re-tested alon

What is the first step of the scientific method?

1. Question
The question always comes first. This step involves making an observation about something in the
world and asking a question about it. That question may be about why the phenomenon happens,
how it occurs, what it is, how it relates to other things, etc.

 Why do some people develop dementia?

 How do geese know to fly south for the winter?

After the first step, there is sometimes variation. Sometimes a hypothesis comes quickly, before the
background research is done; sometimes the experimental setup is determined during the
background research, before the hypothesis. Here the steps are listed in the standard order, but
realize that this may vary.

2. Background
The background should come next. This is where the scientist will research the existing knowledge
about the topic of the investigation. A scientist should always use credible sources. Preferably, they
should look at other experiments that have been conducted in the field of study and analyze these
results in relation to the question from the first step. For example a researcher could be:

 Looking up background information on the plant/animal/environment they are studying

 Researching experimental setups that may be helpful for testing their question

3. Hypothesis
Once the scientist has gathered sufficient background information, they can form a hypothesis. This
is an educated prediction to answer the question. It must be specific and testable. Often they can be
worded in the form of an "If, then" statement. For example:

 If a plant has 8 hours of sunlight exposure, then it will grow taller than plants with less
exposure to sunlight.
 If a child experiences trauma, then they are more likely to develop depression than a child
who does not experience trauma.

4. Experiment
Designing an experiment that accurately tests the hypothesis is vital for credible conclusions. If the
hypothesis is about plant height, then the experiment cannot measure how many leaves the plant
grows.
Experiments must be controlled in all ways except for the Independent Variable (IV), or the change
that is being tested. The Dependent Variable (DV) is the thing that will be measured in the
experiment. Its correlation to the independent variable will be what the scientist is looking for.

 To test if exposure to a chemical will cause higher rates of cancer, an experimental setup
could be: IV = exposure to chemical, DV = prevalence of cancer. Two groups of mice that
are all the same age and gender are fed the same amount of food and water and kept in the
same kind of cages. The only difference is that one group is exposed to the chemical and the
 other is not. The experimenter can then look at how many mice develop cancer in each
group and compare the numbers.
 When looking at the impacts of exercise on diabetes, the experiment could look like this: IV =
1 hour of walking every day for a month, DV = resting blood sugar levels. Two groups of
adults with type 2 diabetes, sedentary lifestyles, and no other comorbid disorders have their
resting blood sugar levels measured. For the next month, one group walks for one hour at a
moderate pace every day, and the other group does not change their habits (there can be no
changes in diet or anything else in either group except the addition of the walking). At the
end of the month, both groups have their resting blood sugar tested again and changes are
measured.

5. Analysis
After the data has been collected, it must be analyzed to determine if any differences
are significant. Significance is very important in science; it is determined through statistical testing
and it tells the scientist whether the differences they observe are truly due to the independent
variable, or if they may be due to chance.

 If a difference is very small, or if there is large variation in each experimental group, then
statistics may determine the difference insignificant.
 It is also possible that a difference will not look like much, but will still be significantly due to
the IV.

6. Conclusion
Once the data has been analyzed, the scientist can determine whether it supports or rejects the
proposed hypothesis.
If the data supports the hypothesis, then it should be retested for accuracy. If the data rejects the
hypothesis, then the experimenter can test alternative explanations for the question. Regardless, the
scientific method never really ends, it always cycles back around.

 There was no significant difference in the aggressive behaviors of dogs with brown hair
versus those with black hair. The hypothesis was supported.
 Students with ADHD showed significantly higher rates of frustration in the classroom
compared to students without ADHD. The hypothesis was rejected.

Scientific Method Examples

While the scientific method is standard for any kind of scholarly or professional experiment, it is used
very often in every day life as well. Here are a couple of examples of this method being used in
different situations:

Dwayne's internet is not working.

1. Question: Why won't his computer access the internet?

2. Background: He asks his coworkers if their internet is working. He runs a scan on his
computer to troubleshoot.
3. Hypothesis: If the internet is not working, then the router needs to be reset.
4. Experiment: Dwayne resets the router, and does not reset or change any setting on his
computer.
5. Analysis: The internet begins to function properly again.
 6. Conclusion: The hypothesis was supported, the router may have been the problem.

Many people suffer from Alzheimer's Disease.

1. Question: Is Alzheimer's Disease caused by daily coffee consumption?

2. Background: The scientist reads previous research on Alzheimer's Disease and the
potential causes for it, look at studies done on the impacts of caffeine, etc.
3. Hypothesis: If a person drinks coffee every day, then they are more likely to develop
Alzheimer's disease than a person who does not.
4. Experiment: A survey was conducted with one group of patients with Alzheimer's disease
and one group of adults in the same age/socioeconomic/general health conditions without
dementia. They compared the rates of daily coffee consumption between groups.
5. Analysis: Statistical analysis was conducted on the difference between the groups to see if
there were statistically significantly more daily coffee drinkers in the Alzheimer's group than
in the non-dementia group.
6. Conclusion: The hypothesis was rejected, there was not a statistically significant difference
in the rates of coffee drinking between groups.

The Formation of a Scientific Theory

Hypotheses are rarely proven in science. Thus, it is important for scientists to always keep their
minds open to other possibilities. At one point, all the best scientists thought that the sun revolved
around the earth and that flies could appear from thin air, but those ideas were proven wrong
through similar scientific method testing.
Scientists may come to a consensus on an explanation for something, but they must leave room for
error and the possibility that future discoveries will prove them wrong. For this reason, experiments
are conducted to support or reject hypotheses rather than proving or disproving them.
Once a hypotheses has been supported by a significant amount of peer reviewed experiments, the
hypothesis can be promoted to become a theory.

 Peer review occurs when scientists that work in the same field as the proposed publication
evaluate the work and can either agree that it seems credible, or raise questions and
propose changes to attain validity of the experiment. Once a hypothesis has been peer-
reviewed extensively, it can become a scientific theory, or an explanation for the natural
world that brings together facts and hypotheses and is strongly supported by empirical
research.

A scientific theory is much more serious than some people think. A theory in colloquial usage may
describe any kind of idea about why or what something is, but a scientific theory is strongly
supported and widely believed to be true. It would take large discoveries and likely new technologies
to reject a theory.
To emphasize the significance, here are some common scientific "theories":

 Einstein's Theory of Gravity

 Theory of Evolution
 Big Bang Theory
Scientific Method: Beliefs and Biases

Bias becomes a problem when scientists allow their beliefs to filter their data

The scientific method is designed to try to avoid bias due to personal beliefs, but it is not
perfect. Biases are prejudices towards an outcome that may impact the way data is interpreted.

 If someone uses bias when forming their hypothesis, that may not have a huge affect on
their experiment's validity, but if they use bias in how they collect their data and form their
conclusions? That could lead to serious problems in how accurate and trustworthy their
claims will be.

Here is an example of how bias can damage the credibility of an experiment's results:
Christina is studying the correlation between smoking cigarettes and the development of lung
cancer.

 Christina likes smoking cigarettes, and does not believe that it causes cancer.
 When she collected data from her experiment, the numbers were close.
 The first statistical test she ran showed a significant correlation between smoking cigarettes
and cancer, but when she ran a second test it showed no significant correlation. She chose
to use the test that showed no difference in her paper, because it aligned with her beliefs.

To avoid this error, scientists use peer review and repeat testing to flag these kinds of errors and
correct them before the experiment's data is published or accepted as valid.

Lesson Summary
This lesson covered the following key terms:
  Scientific Method: a series of steps used by scientists to answer questions about the world
 Question: the problem that an experiment is looking to answer
 Background: data available in books/journals/the internet from previous tests that can
provide information about the experiment's subject
 Hypothesis: a potential answer for the research question that can be tested
 Experiment: a test that provides data that directly answers a question
 Empirical Data: information obtained through experience or observation
 Conclusion: support or rejection of the experiment's hypothesis produced from the
experiment's data
 Independent Variable: the thing being tested in an experiment, it should be the only
variable changed
 Dependent Variable: the thing being measured in an experiment
 Significance: statistical determination of whether change observed is due to chance
 Peer review: scientist from the field evaluate the work and determine validity
 Scientific Theory: a hypothesis that is widely supported by empirical research
 Biases: cause for prejudice towards a certain outcome

These main ideas are important takeaways from this lesson:

The scientific method is a procedure used by scientists to answer questions and offer explanations.
The method has evolved and changed over time to become the procedure it is today. The specific
steps and their order vary based on the experiment it is being used for and the discipline it is being
used in. The steps of the Scientific Method are:

 Come up with a Question

 Conduct Background Research
 Create a Hypothesis
 Conduct an Experiment
 Analyze data
 Form a Conclusion

Experiments that follow this procedure can be replicated and if a hypothesis is supported enough
times, then it may become a theory. Biases can make an experiment invalid if they impact the way a
scientist follows this procedure.

What Is a Scientific Question?

Learning how to ask scientific questions is a key part of learning about the world. Scientific
questions are different from other kinds of questions because they must be objective, and they
must be testable. This means that the answer to a scientific question must be able to be proven true
repeatedly. A good scientific question should be about a factual matter that can be answered using
data. Learn about what is a scientific question and how to write a scientific question using the
information in this lesson.
 What is a scientific question?

Types of Scientific Questions

Scientific questions can be divided into types based on their characteristics. There are three main
types of scientific questions:

 Verification questions
 Theory questions
 Experimental questions

The first main type of scientific question is a verification question. Verification questions can be
answered by collecting data through measurement or observation. A verification question might ask
about the characteristics or properties of an organism or phenomenon.
The next type of scientific question is a theory question. A theory question should not be confused
with a conversational hypothetical question, which is sometimes posed as an imaginative exercise. A
scientific theory question is not a fictional, what-if scenario. Theory questions depend on having
some prior knowledge of the phenomenon being asking about. We use this prior knowledge to
develop an explanation of what or how something happens. Then, we can form a question based on
that theoretical framework.
The last type of scientific question is an experimental question. Experimental questions are useful
for comparing what happens when an element of a system is altered. To answer an experimental
question, an individual needs to identify the variables involved and then set up a way to test them.
Usually, an experimental question focuses on two variables at a time. There is an independent
variable, which is the one that will be manipulated (the cause), and a dependent variable, which is
the one that shows the result (the effect) of the experiment. The question can be phrased as a
hypothesis or as a statement that predicts an outcome. The results of the experiment will be used to
answer the question.

What Makes a Question Scientific?

To determine whether a question is scientific, it is important to know the characteristics of scientific
questions. Here are some key characteristics of what makes a question scientific:

 A scientific question should be significant and worthwhile.

 A scientific question should not be too broad.
 A scientific question should be testable.
 A scientific question should have one independent variable and one dependent variable.
 A scientific question should have a related hypothesis.

It may be useful to see an example of a question that is not scientific to better understand what
makes a question scientific. An example of an unscientific question is: "What is my dog thinking
about?" This is not a scientific question because it is not testable. There is not currently a way to
collect data about what a dog is thinking. Questions about opinions, such as "What is the best
color?" are also not scientific, because they are not objective.

How to Write a Scientific Question

Scientists practice how to write a scientific question to guide their studies. It is good to follow these
guidelines for writing scientific questions. Writing scientific questions can be more difficult than it
seems, so take time to learn these skills.

1. Think about a subject that needs investigation, or that generates feelings of curiosity.
Brainstorm possible questions about that topic. Write them down and do not worry about
whether they are good questions yet.
2. Review the questions and cross out the ones that are not testable.
3. Eliminate the questions that are too broad or that have many possible answers.
4. Narrow down the question so it meets the requirements of what makes a question scientific.

If the questions seem unscientific at first, it is still possible to craft them into good scientific
questions. Review the questions on the list and notice which ones might need improvement. Is there
a question that is too broad or that is not testable? Compare the question to the list of what makes a
question scientific. Which characteristics should a good scientific question have? Reword the
question until it fits the scientific question definition outlined in this lesson.
Scientific Questions Examples
To assist with building skills in writing the three types of scientific questions, here are some scientific
questions examples.
An example of a verification question is, "What is the density of water?" This is a verification
question because it can be answered by measuring the mass and volume of water to calculate its
density. Another example of a verification question is, "What are the characteristics of burned
wood?" This question can be answered using observational data to describe the answer.
An example of a theory question is, "Behaviorist theory suggests that giving a dog a reward after
performing a trick will result in the dog learning to associate the behavior with the reward. Will the
same be true for my puppy?" This is a question based on prior knowledge and an established
theory, and it can be tested. Someone can test the theory by using the training method with a puppy.
The results of the test should be collected so they can analyze the data and use it to answer the
question.

One type of scientific question might test a behavioral theory.

An experimental question is typically used to compare the effects of one variable on another. An
example experimental question is, "Will seeds soaked in sugar water sprout sooner than seeds
soaked in plain water?" In this question, the independent variable is the type of water (sugar or
plain), and the dependent variable is the time it takes for the seeds to sprout. The question can also
be stated as a hypothesis, which incorporates a prediction about the anticipated result of the
experiment. Here is a possible hypothesis for this experiment: "Seeds soaked in sugar water will
sprout sooner than seeds soaked in plain water. This is a testable, experimental hypothesis."

An experimental scientific question might compare how water affects seeds

Lesson Summary
The ability to design scientific questions is an essential skill for inquiry and learning. A scientific
question typically falls into one of these three categories: a verification question, a theory
question, or an experimental question. There are several key characteristics of scientific
questions. A good scientific question must be objective and testable. A scientific question should not
be so broad that it has many variables and possible answers. Scientific questions that focus on
an independent variable and a dependent variable are usually easier to understand than less-
defined questions. Scientific questions may be answered using data that is measured or observed.

What is Experimental Design?

The independent and dependent variables have a cause-and-effect relationship with one another.
The independent variable is manipulated in an experiment. The experimenter causes the
independent variable to change. The dependent variable changes as an effect of the independent
variable being changed.
When performing an experiment, the experimenter needs to define variables, assign subjects, and
measure the dependent variable.
Experimental design is a way to test a hypothesis through a series of steps. The purpose of an
experimental design is to create controlled conditions for an experiment to limit the exposure to
outside interference. The result of an experimental design is to form a conclusion based on your
hypothesis.
The outcome of an experimental investigation could lead to supporting evidence of scientific law
and scientific theory. Scientific law and theory are well supported by evidence through investigations
conducted through experimental design. However, a theory cannot become a law and a law cannot
become a theory. The difference between the two are:

 Scientific theory explains why things occur the way they do after significant repeated
experiments.
 Scientific law is a pattern, typically established through an equation. The data collected
through repeated experiments support a relationship between experimental variables.

Experimental design process is conducted throughout all disciplines of science for the advancement of

What Makes a Good Experiment

To design a good experiment, one needs to have background knowledge in the area of the
experiment they wish to perform. As one performs their experiment, they want to ensure they are
using the proper equipment. Proper equipment is accurate and precise. Accuracy is how close the
values collected are to the real value. Precise is how close all measurements are to one another.
Having an experiment recognized for its thoroughness and detail is key to a good experiment. Good
experiments have both accuracy and precision.
Science is about constantly discovering new things and understanding how things work. The
scientific method is a standard process that scientists use to record their experimental processes.
This process is performed in order to allow others to repeat the process and accept or reject the
results of the experiment.
When conducting an experiment through the scientific method, one should use existing theory to
create a good experiment. To create new theories, one would need to conduct an experiment
through the scientific method.

Experimental Design Process

The experimental design is a set of procedures that are designed to test a hypothesis. The process
has five steps: define variables, formulate a hypothesis, design an experiment, assign subjects, and
measure the dependent variable.
To start the experimental design process, one needs to have a testable idea (hypothesis). To come
up with a testable idea, one asks questions. The questions asked lead to the decision on what
information one wants to find with their experiment.
In order to perform an experiment, one has to have a way to measure the outcome of the
experiment. The measurements need to be accurate and precise. Once the data is collected, it
needs to be analyzed. Creating graphs and data tables with the data collected helps with the
analysis process. The analysis is about what the data says and how will the information be used.

Step 1: Define Variables

Defining the variables is the first step in the experimental design process. The variables are the part
of the experiment that are factors. There are three different variables called independent, dependent,
and control. The independent variable is what the experimenter will change. The dependent variable
changes due to the independent variable.
As an example, to determine the variables for an experiment, the experimenter has to consider their
subject and what they plan to test. For this example, the experiment is about plants and the color of
light would cause the most plant growth. The independent variable is to expose plants to red, green,
yellow, and blue light. The dependent variable is the growth of the plants under each color of light.

Step 2: Formulating Hypotheses

A hypothesis is an educated guess about what the outcome of the experiment will be before the
experiment is conducted. The purpose is to prove or disprove the hypothesis at the end of the
experiment. When formulating a hypothesis, a statement should be written. The statement could be
something like this, "If you expose plants to different colors of light, they will grow at different
speeds."

Step 3: Experimental Design Science (Treatment and

Control Group)
Experiments have a treatment group and a control group. The treatment group is the group that the
experiment is performed on. The control group does not receive any changes or treatment. The
control group remains under normal unchanged conditions.
For the experimental group in this example, plants were exposed to different lights (10 plants to
green light, 10 plants to red light, 10 plants to yellow light, and 10 plants to blue light). For the control
group, 10 plants were exposed to sunlight.

Step 4: Assign Subjects

Assigning subjects (participants) in an experiment could be a random selection, random assignment,
or maybe both. Random selection and random assignment are commonly misunderstood. In random
selection, one picks a population for their experiment. Random selection must be explained in the
experimental design to show how and why the population was chosen for the experiment. Random
assignment is how the subjects are grouped for the experimental design. In random assignment, it
the subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control groups.
In the example, fifty plants were used in an experiment to test different colors of lights on the growth
of plants. The plants were randomly assigned to different colors. Each group of 10 plants was
assigned a different color of light (red, green, yellow, or blue).

Step 5: Measure the Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is measured as part of the experiment. As the independent variable is
manipulated, the dependent variable changes. The change of the dependent variable is the value
needed to analyze the data for the experiment. The results are measured by collecting qualitative or
quantitative values.
An experimenter conducts experiments under the same conditions and only changes the
independent variable.
The plants were grown under different colors of light. Each week for six months the plant's height
was measured in millimeters. The measurements were recorded in a data table.
 Creating a good experiment for science starts with having knowledge of your topic.

Example of an Experimental Investigation

Real-world experimental investigations are being conducted every day. This is an example of an
experimental investigation conducted by a pharmaceutical company. The pharmaceutical company
created medication to treat a specific disease. An experiment was conducted to test the medication's
effectiveness. The scientists selected two groups of participants, the treatment group and the
placebo group. The treatment group received the medication. The placebo group did get a pill, but it
had no effect on the disease (the pill had no medication in it). Throughout the experiment, data were
collected (quantitative and qualitative). After the experiment concluded, the data collected confirmed
the medication showed positive results for patients in the treatment group. The placebo group had
no improvement.

Lesson Summary
The experimental design is an invaluable process in the scientific community to provide data to
support or refute a hypothesis. The experimental investigation begins with an observation that
leads to a question that helps the experimenter to come to an informed decision on their hypothesis.
The five steps in the experimental design are defining variables, formulating hypotheses, creating an
experimental design process, assigning subjects, and measuring the dependent variable.
When conducting an experiment, it is important to create a good experiment by researching and
understanding the content to be conducted, and have the five steps of the experimental design
completed with care and completeness.
Agrarian Societies
Around 12,000 years ago, human societies started to change. Once living a nomadic life as hunter-
gatherers where we were constantly on the move season by season, year by year, humans started
to settle down and live in specific locations. This was the development of agrarian societies.
An agrarian society is a society where cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth: where
the focus is on agriculture and farming.
It's not clear why or how humans came to the decision to become farmers. Perhaps it was through
experimentation or humans just wanted more food. But whatever the reason, this was a dramatic
shift in the way humans lived. Although we may not think of it as such, this was a time in human
history where humans were making great technological advances. Farming technology, while
relatively modest at first, began to develop.
Technology and economic activity go hand in hand. As humans gained farming skills, for the first
time they were able to produce more food and goods than they needed. And this gave the
opportunity for trade with other groups of humans. This economic activity continued to drive better
technology, allowing humans to produce even more food and so on. Eventually, it got to the point
that some humans could work exclusively on farming, while others could have different jobs, like
making buildings or crafts. This idea of having each person with a specific job is called division of
labor, and it was a super efficient way for humans to work.
The move to agrarian societies wasn't all good, however. Hunter-gatherers were constantly on the
move but that also kept them lean, strong and healthy. They burned all the calories they ate and had
lives that contained a lot of leisure time. Farming was often hard and time-consuming, and humans
would work themselves to the bone to gain their advantage.

Industrial Revolution
Thousands of years later, as our technological knowledge improved, science began to develop.
Through science, we understood the world better than ever and could use that knowledge to our
advantage, taking control of the resources available to us.
The Industrial Revolution was the change to mechanical manufacturing processes between
approximately 1760 and 1830. It allowed us to use machines to create iron and other metals and
introduced the heavy use of steam engines and coal. Division of labor really got into full swing in this
part of history as even the factories that produced goods divided their workers into jobs. Each
person would do the same task over and over, which was much more efficient. Economic activity
was booming, and making food and goods had never been so easy and cheap.
These advances drove the creation of super-powers and empires. The British Empire, for example,
was built on it, as were the expansions of French and Spanish territories later. Similar to the
development of agrarian societies, the change was a mixed bag. Workers were often exploited and
had to deal with terrible conditions. Life expectancy was extremely low during this time, and the rich
gained the greatest benefits.

The Digital Age

This trend only continues today in the digital revolution. As computers and communication
technology in general, have improved over the course of the late 20th century until today, our ability
to produce large amounts of goods and services cheaply improves all the time.
What was the net result of all this science, technology and economic output? There were always
plenty of downsides, and there are still downsides to this day. But perhaps the digital revolution has
the fewest. Medical technology improved in leaps and bounds over the 20th century, and life
expectancy is higher than it's been in all of known human history. There is always a price - the
natural world has been exploited in the process, for example. The way we live our lives - with
machines to do a lot of our work and many of us working in jobs involving computers and extremely
limited movement - has its problems and disadvantages.
But with the good and the bad, it seems likely that science, technology and economic productivity
will continue to have huge impacts on the way society develops for years to come.

Lesson Summary
Around 12,000 years ago, human societies started to change from a nomadic life as hunter-
gatherers to agrarian societies. An agrarian society is a society where cultivating the land is the
primary source of wealth: where the focus is on agriculture and farming.
As humans gained farming skills, for the first time they were able to produce more food and goods
than they needed. And this gave the opportunity for trade with other groups of humans. This
economic activity continued to drive better technology, allowing humans to produce even more food
and so on. Eventually it got to the point that some humans could work exclusively on farming, while
others could have different jobs, like making buildings or crafts. This idea of having each person with
a specific job is called division of labor, and it was a super efficient way for humans to work. The
move to agrarian societies wasn't all good, however: farmers were less healthy and had less leisure
time than hunter-gatherers.
Thousands of years later, as our technological knowledge improved, science began to develop,
which, in turn, led to the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was the change to
mechanical manufacturing processes between approximately 1760 and 1830. It allowed us to use
machines to create iron and other metals and introduced the heavy use of steam engines and coal.
Though there were many benefits, workers were often exploited and had to deal with terrible
conditions.
This trend only continues today in the digital revolution. As computers and communication
technology have improved over the course of the late 20th century until today, our ability to produce
large amounts of goods and services cheaply improves all the time.
There are positive impacts and negative impacts of science and technology on human activity. But
you could argue that the positives outweigh the negatives. Medical technology has improved in leaps
and bounds over the 20th century, and life expectancy is higher than it's been in all of human history.
One thing is sure - science, technology and economic productivity will continue to have huge
impacts on the way human society develops.