AP CALCULUS (BC) NAME _______________________

Chapter 9 – Infinite Series Date _________________________

Section 9.1 – Power Series

1) What is the difference between an infinite sum and a finite sum?

2) Infinite Series

Definition:

An infinite series is an expression of the form:

a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an + …, or

where an is the nth term of the series.

a) Partial Sums of the Series – a sequence of real numbers defined by a finite sums of the
series.
s1 = a1
s2 = a1 + a2
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3

sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an =
If lim sn = S, then the infinite series converges to the sum S, and we
n∞

write: a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an + … = = S. Otherwise the series diverges.

b) Examples 1 and 2 (page 474)

c) Theorem

If an infinite series converges, then lim ak = 0.

k∞

And if lim ak ≠ 0, then the infinite series must diverge!

k∞

{this is more important than it looks!}

2) Geometric Series

a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + … + arn-1 + … =

converges to the sum a/(1 – r) if │r│ < 1; it diverges if │r│ > 1.

If the geometric series converges, then -1 < r < 1 is the interval of convergence.

a) Example 3 (page 475)

b) Constructing a Special Geometric Series

If we let a = 1 and x = r, such that │x│ < 1, then the GS looks like this…

1 + x + x2 + x3 + … + xn + … = 1/(1 – x).
The importance here is that this series represents a function!

c) Investigation – using the GC, graph the various partial sums of this series, and see
how well each one approximates the function y = 1/(1 – x) on (-1, 1).

3) Power Series

An expression of the form: = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + … + cnxn + …

is a power series centered at x = 0. An expression of the form:

= c0 + c1(x – a) + c2(x – a)2 + … + cn(x – a)n + …

is a power series centered at x = a.

The GS 1 + x + x2 + … + xn + … = is a power series centered at x = 0, and

converges on (-1, 1) {which is also centered at x = 0}

Something which will be confirmed later is that power series will either:
 converge for all x;
 converge on a finite interval whose center is the center of the interval; or
 converge only at the center!
4) Power Series and Other Functions – Exploration 1 (page 477)

Recall: The function is represented by = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + … + x n + …

on the interval (-1, 1).

Homework 9.1a: page 481 # 1ab, 2abc, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18

5) Power Series and Calculus

a) Discovering a Power Series by Differentiation

Find a PS for: . Begin with the PS for: .

Graph some of the partial sums versus the function.

What about the interval of convergence?

See Theorem 1 (page 478) – Term by Term Differentiation

b) Discovering a Power Series by Integration

Find a PS for ln(1 + x). Begin with PS for ____________.

Graph some of the partial sums versus the function.

See Theorem 2 (page 479) – Term by Term Integration.

c) Investigate what happens to both PS at x = 1.

6) Exploration 2 (page 480) – Determine a PS for tan-1x.

7) Exploration 3 (page 480) – Working backwards?

a) Determining Functions Which a Given Power Series Represents

Let:

Homework 9.1b: page 481 # 23, 24, 27, 30, 31, 39a, 48, 54, 55, 61, 63, 72
Section 9.2 – Taylor Series

1) Exploration 1 (page 484) – Group Work

Construct a polynomial (4th degree), , which meets the

following conditions:
P(0) = 1; P’(0) = 2; P”(0) = 3; P’’’(0) = 4; P’’’’(0) = 5

Based on the results of this exploration, we now formalize the process for constructing
polynomials that approximate “other” functions by emulating the functions behavior at x = 0.

2) Use the above technique to construct a 4th degree polynomial (aka a Taylor polynomial of
degree 4) to approximate, f(x) = ln (1 + x) at x = 0.

Homework 9.2a: page 492 # 2, 23, 39

3a) Construct a Power Series for sin x at x = 0. Graph Pn(x) vs. sin x and BEHOLD!!!

Homework 9.2b: page 492 # 3, 15

3b) Construct a Power Series for cos x at x = 0.

Discussion:
 These T-polynomials are not new – why not?
 Sin x and cos x are what type of functions? How does that relate to their T-polynomials?

4) MacLauren Series (Taylor Series centered at x = 0)

MacLauren Series (Taylor Series centered at x = 0):

Homework 9.2c: page 492 # 5, 6, 24, 31, 32, 40, 43, 44

5) Taylor Series (centered at x = a)

Taylor Series centered at x = a:

Homework 9.2d: page 492 # 13, 18, 21, 26, 42

Section 9.3 – Taylor’s Theorem

Although Taylor series exist whose infinite sums are exactly equal to certain functions, such as
sin x, in reality it is the Taylor polynomials that “do all the work.” As previously noted, even the
most powerful calculators and computers use Taylor polynomials to determine approximate
values for these functions.

The only questions that needs to be made in determining which order Taylor polynomial is
required…is how accurate must the approximations be?

1) Problem Statement: What order Taylor polynomial is needed to approximate sin x within
.0001 anywhere on [-π, π]?

This problem, and its solution, opens up the discussion of an important topic in convergent series
and their value as evaluation tools. How can we calculate these errors which arise from using an
approximating Taylor polynomial? And how can we keep them within specified bounds? The
errors in using approximating polynomials are called, truncation errors, since they result from
truncating the infinite series down to some finite polynomial of degree n.

2) Geometric Series – Determine the truncation error that arises from using

to approximate on (-1, 1). (If stuck, see page 496, Example 2)

Homework 9.3a: page 500 # 14

Although this example suggests how we might determine truncation error for any geometric
series; and demonstrates that we can find an exact value for that error, it should be clear that not
all series are geometric. With this in mind we proceed to try to get a handle on truncation errors
in non-geometric series.

3) Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder (Theorem 3 – page 496) – Stated without proof

If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I containing a,

then for each positive integer n and for each x ε I,

where

for some c between a and x.

This theorem tells us how to construct the approximating polynomial for a function with
derivatives of all orders; and it also gives a formula for the error generated using that
polynomial. f(x) is Taylor’s formula; and Rx(x) is the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation Pn(x) over I. Rn(x) is also called the Lagrange form of the remainder.
Homework 9.3b: page 500 # 1

Taylor’s Theorem gives us a method for proving convergence (as outlined in the box below):

We say that a Taylor series generated by f at x = a converges to f on I, if Rx(x)  0 as n  ∞;

and we write: .

4) Using Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder to Prove Convergence

a) Prove: converges to sin x for all x ε R. Show that Rx(x)  0 as n  ∞.

b) Prove: converges to cos x for all x ε R.

The method of proof used above is so powerful that we generalize its use and state it as the
following theorem:

5) Remainder Estimation Theorem (Theorem 4 – page 498)

If there are positive constants M and r such that

for all t between a and x,

then the remainder Rn(x) in Taylor’s Theorem satisfies the inequality

If these conditions hold for every n and all the other conditions of Taylor’s Theorem are

satisfied by f, then the series converges to f(x).

Homework 9.3c: page 500 # 7, 15, 33, 35, 44

6) Exploration 2 (page 499) – Euler’s Formula

Homework 9.3d: page 502 # 1 – 4; {HINT on #4 – what type of series is f(x) in #4?}
Section 9.4 – Radius of Convergence

Since a series is an infinite sum and a convergent series is a series which converges to a
particular sum, then in reality a convergent series is a number; while a divergent series is not!
In this section we turn our attention to determining for what values of x a particular power
series converges. Determining the Interval of Convergence amounts to two activities: 1)
finding the radius of convergence; and 2) then determining what happens at the endpoints. We
will first turn our attention to finding the radius of convergence.

1a) Recall that if a series is geometric (see example 1 – page 503), then we can easily determine
the values of x for which the GS will converge.

1b) According to Theorem 5 (page 504) there are only 3 possibilities for any power series of the

form: ; either:

 The series only converges at the center x = a; or

 The series converges for all x ε R; or
 The series converges on some finite interval centered at x = a.

NOTE: R is the radius of convergence and a – R < x < A + R is the interval of

Convergence.

2) Tests (Methods) for Determining Convergence/Divergence of a Power Series

a) nth-Term Test (Theorem 6 – page 504): If , then diverges.

Example: ; Divergent?

Homework 9.4a: page 511 # 38

b) Direct Comparison Test (Theorem 7 – page 505):

Let be a series with non-negative terms:

i) converges if there exists a convergent series with an ≤ cn for all

n > N;

ii) diverges if there exists a divergent series with an ≤ dn for all

n > N.

See Example 2 – page 505

Homework 9.4b: page 511 # 4, 33

 Definition – Absolute Convergence:

If the series of absolute values converges, then converges absolutely.

Theorem 8 – Absolute Convergence  Convergence: If converges, then converges.

See Example 3 – page 506

Homework 9.4c: page 511 # 5

c) Ratio Test (Theorem 9 – page 507)

Let be a series with positive terms, and with then,

i) the series converges if L < 1;
ii) the series diverges if L > 1;
iii) the test is inconclusive if L = 1.

NOTE: The ratio actually gives us a commonly-used method for determining the radius
of convergence for a particular power series; in addition, when applying the ratio test we
actually use absolute convergence which is a stronger result than necessary.

See Exploration 1 (page 508)

See Examples 4, 5, and 6 (pages 508 – 509)

Homework 9.4d: page 511 # 9, 12, 14, 17, 55 – 59, 64

3) Telescoping Series – see Example 7 (page 510)

Homework 9.4e: page 511 # 49, 50, 60

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Section 9.5 – Testing Convergence at Endpoints

1) The Integral Test

Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that an = f(n), where f is a continuous

positive, decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N (N a positive integer). Then the series

and the integral either both converge or diverge.

 See Example 1 (page 513)

2) The Harmonic Series and other p-series

See Exploration 1 (page 514)

Homework 9.5a: page 523 # 1

3) The Limit Comparison Test (LCT)

Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n > N (N, a positive integer).

i) If where 0 < c < ∞, then and both converge or both

diverge.

ii) If and converges, then converges.

iii) If and diverges, then diverges.

See Example 3 (page 515)

Homework 9.5b: page 523 # 5, 6

4) Alternating Series

a. Alternating Series Test – Leibniz’s Theorem

The series converges if the following 3

conditions are all satisfied:

i) each un is positive;
ii) un ≥ un+1 for all n ≥ N, for some integer N;

iii) .

Homework 9.5c: page 523 # 18

b. The Alternating Series Estimation Theorem

If an alternating series satisfies the conditions

of the Alternating Series Test, then the truncation error for the nth partial sum is
less than un+1 and has the same sign as the first unused term.
Homework 9.5d: page 523 # 23, 24

Homework 9.5e: page 525 # 1 – 4.