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The Whitsun Weddings

something of fearful religious importance. Pretty soon we left
SUMMARY the guests behind—though we had internalized all their
perspectives—and raced towards London, the train blowing fits
It was Whitsun Saturday and I left late. It was a sunny day and
of steam. The environment grew more urbanized, fields giving
my train departed around 1:20, almost completely empty. The
way to plots of land being developed, and I noticed poplar trees
windows were open due to the stifling heat, even the seat
casting shadows over the roads.
cushions were hot, and everything felt very slow. Out of the
window I saw the backs of houses, the glare of windshields, and In that fifty minutes or so, which was just long enough to get
I could smell the fish-dock. We rode beside the wide, flat, slow comfortable and reflect on the wedding, all of these new
river, zooming through the Lincolnshire countryside. marriages got started. The newly-weds gazed out of the
window, crammed into the carriage. A cinema, a cooling tower,
The train kept its steady course all through the hot afternoon,
and a cricket game were all visible from the window. I don't
as we traveled south and inland. We passed big farms with
think any of the different couples thought about the people
cows whose shadows were small under the high sun, and canals
they would never meet now that they were married, or how
full of industrial waste. I saw a greenhouse, and hedges rising
they all were sharing this first hour of their respective
and falling. The carriage had a pretty bad smell from the cloth,
marriages together. As we approached sunny London, our final
but sometimes the smell of grass overpowered it. Towns
destination, I thought of the different areas packed together
seemed to repeat themselves as we went past, each one
like squares of wheat.
signaled by a scrapyard.
We were headed straight for the capital, racing past glinting rail
At the beginning of the journey, I didn't notice the weddings
and stationary train carriages. The sooty, mossy walls of the city
whose noise could be heard from each station. The sun was too
started to surround us and the shared experience was nearly
bright for me to see what was happening in the shade of the
over. The collective power of these newly-weds was ready to be
platform, and though I could hear a commotion I thought it was
unleashed. We slowed and braked, feeling the gravity as though
porters mucking around with the mail. I kept reading, but as the
we were falling like a shower of arrows sent beyond view,
train pulled away I noticed a large group of young female
raining down somewhere else.
wedding guests. They were smiling, had elaborate hair, and
were dressed as if in a caricature of contemporary styles, with
heels and veils. They were poised uncertainly on the platform
watching us leave.
THEMES
It was as though they were witnessing the end of something
that we on the train had survived. Now I was intrigued, so I took TIME, DEATH, AND IMPERMANENCE
greater notice at the next station and comprehended the scene “The Whitsun Weddings” describes the speaker’s
more clearly. I saw fat fathers with sweaty heads, loud train journey into London on Whitsun Saturday (a
overweight mothers, and uncles being rude. Then I noticed the date in summer that was once a popular choice for weddings
girls again, with their perms, nylon gloves, and fake jewelry, and due to certain tax breaks). As it does so, the poem takes an
the yellows, pinks, and brown-greens. unsentimental look at what it means to be human in light of the
These fashion elements separated the girls visually from the unstoppable forward march of time. Even though weddings
other guests, almost as if they were an illusion. These might be thought of as new beginnings, the speaker draws out
numerous weddings—which took place in small halls and cafes the way that all this celebration is ultimately cast in the light (or
near the train yards, with rooms covered in streamers and full shadow) of its impermanence—that is, in the face of inevitable
of coach-loads of guests—were nearly over. At every station, death.
newly-weds boarded the train while the guests gave last bits of Before the wedding parties even show up in the poem, the
advice and threw confetti. When we left each station, I read the speaker builds an atmosphere of decay. Looking out upon the
faces of those still on the platform, each of which seem to say shifting English landscape that passes by the train's windows,
something about the wedding. The children seemed bored. the speaker sees “industrial froth” on the canals. This evokes
For the fathers, this was the biggest success of their lives, the vast shifts in the fabric of society due to modern
though something about it felt like a joke. The older women industrialization, which was happening at the time of Larkin's
looked like they knew a terrible secret, while the girls seemed writing. It also suggests the way that human activity wears
perplexed, holding their purses tighter—perhaps even down and muddies the world around it. Likewise, the carriage-
intimated by what they saw, as though they'd witnessed cloth of the train, which was ostensibly once pristine and new,

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now “reeks” with a bad odor, subtly suggesting rot and overuse. LOVE AND MARRIAGE
Later, the speaker sees “acres of dismantled cars”—objects Larkin’s poetry often takes an unsentimental look at
made defunct by time. All of these images suggest that the love, frequently presenting it as little more than an
human world cannot stay fresh for long—an idea that, in turn, biological mechanism to ensure the human race’s reproduction.
comes to affect the later description of the newlyweds “The Whitsun Weddings” takes slightly satirical aim at the
themselves as “Fresh.” That is, in creating this atmosphere of artificiality, conformity, and farcical nature of weddings to
decay, the poem implies that even these bright young faces will undermine the notion of love as some sort of grand, magical,
eventually become worn out and stale. and everlasting endeavor. In reality, the poem implies, marriage
At first, however, the wedding parties are vibrant. Marriage is and love are kind of commonplace and mundane. The poem
traditionally one of life’s major events, and the newlyweds and thus contrasts the supposed meaningfulness of getting
their guests behave with all the pomp and ceremony of a married—e.g. the big day—with a kind of hollowness at its core.
momentous occasion. Their enthusiasm reflects the idea of
The wedding parties don’t appear until the poem’s third stanza.
marriage as a stamp of permanence—of pledging to be together
At first the speaker doesn’t even realize that all the commotion
forever and so on. At the same time, however, the way the train
he can hear is caused by wedding guests, thinking it to be
passes by the wedding parties seems to highlight that this
something else entirely (showing that, to him at least, these
permanence is just a kind of trick played by the magnitude of
weddings are not especially important). When he does take
the occasion. That is, however momentous these events may
notice, he is taken aback by the sheer number weddings that
feel to the participants, they are little more than fleeting visions
seem to be taking place. This makes them feel less special and
that pass by almost as soon as they appear.
unique, best summed up by the speaker’s approximate counting
This idea is supported by the description of the wedding parties of the weddings as adding up to a “dozen” (a word usually
initially posed on the platforms “as if out on the end of an event associated, at least in England at the time, with
/ Waving goodbye / To something that survived it.” The young eggs—something decidedly less than romantic).
couples’ new beginnings, in their way, signify their
It’s also worth considering why the speaker encounters so
endings—another step away from their youth and freedom. The
many wedding parties on his train journey to London. The U.K.
poem sums this up in the phrase “happy funeral”—this is a happy
government used to offer a tax break to those married by a
day for many, but this happiness all too brief.
certain deadline—which coincided with the long Whitsun
The speaker then focuses on the balding fathers, the “mothers weekend (long because it included a bank holiday, a.k.a. an extra
loud and fat,” and the “smut[ty]” uncles of the newly- day off). It was thus a popular time to get married for economic
weds—hinting at the way that the “Fresh” young couples will and practical reasons—but not really for romantic ones. This
age and turn into similar figures. Likewise, the focus on the gently undermines the romanticized clichés about love as
gaudiness of the girls’ appearances (their “jewellery- something special, magic, and eternal.
substitutes” and so on) shows that the pomp of the big day is a
The speaker then observes the wedding parties more intently,
kind of temporary illusion. Indeed, the supposed importance of
critiquing the guests’ appearances as gaudy and fake. The girls
the wedding day is undermined by the way that this importance
are dressed not fashionably, but in “parodies of fashion”
can never last. That’s why the “success” of these wedding days
adorned with “jewellery-substitutes”; the fathers have “seamy”
is, though “huge,” also “wholly farcical.” Time will continue to
foreheads; the mothers are “loud and fat.” Perhaps this is what
move forward, and, the poem suggests, this happy moment will
leads the speaker to describe the “success” of the weddings as
soon end; death lurks behind every smile and under every
both “huge” and “wholly farcical”—these are momentous
wedding hat.
occasions, but they also seem vacuous and pretentious.
It’s worth noting that critics are particularly divided about this
Where this theme appears in the poem:
section of the poem. Some see it as an unfair and snobbish take
• Lines 1-6 down of the working classes, and others view it as a set of
• Lines 6-8 honest observations that reflect the reality that, given this
• Line 8 particularly wedding date was popular for primarily financial
• Lines 9-10 reasons, it did tend to be the poorer in society getting wed.
• Lines 11-20 “[J]ewellery-substitutes,” then, need not necessarily carry
• Lines 27-33 negative connotations. It’s possible to read the poem as
• Lines 33-45 primarily concerned with making fine-tuned observations
• Lines 45-80
about the rituals and social practices of marriage—and how
those relate to the idealism that is usually associated with love.
Indeed, this ambiguity about the speaker’s position towards the

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weddings is important. On the one hand, the speaker's indifference.
observations certainly do highlight something fake and Each of the guests, in turn, seem to have their own private
throwaway. But the ending of the poem seems to take a view thoughts about the wedding, which the speaker, as a kind of spy
that incorporates these weddings as both meaningful and in their midst, can interpret: the children are bored; the fathers
meaningless. When the train comes to its stop at the end and are overwhelmed; the women are sharing "the secret like a
the speaker remarks on “this frail / traveling coincidence,” it at happy funeral" (that marriage can be a disappointment,
once seems both significant and kind of hollow. The train is perhaps); the girls are "gripping their handbags tighter" out of
about to unleash a kind of “power” by emptying out its newly- some kind of instinctive fear. All of these different figures are
weds—who will in turn reproduce and create the next sectioned off from each other, held together only loosely and
generation of couples—but it’s not necessarily a power with any precariously by the weddings themselves (which, of course, are
real sense of wonder or magic. pretty much over at this point in the day).
Instead, it’s as common as rain in England—which is how the And though these individual wedding parties are brought
poem ends, by subverting the mythology of Cupid’s arrows together by a sense of celebration and occasion, the parties,
(which usually make their targets fall in love) and imagining too, are isolated from one another. That is, each wedding is its
them somewhere “out of sight” becoming rain. These arrows, own distinct group, failing (or choosing not) to recognize that
then, don't follow through with their special purpose (thus there are numerous other parties doing exactly the same thing.
undermining the idea of love as a kind of destiny). Their own sense of community somewhat ironically cuts them
That said, rain is also associated with fertility, and the fact that off from other communities. The newlyweds never think, for
all the couples are married also means that, in their way, they instance, "of the others they would never meet," nor about the
are a community with a shared experience that they will always fact that "their lives would all contain this hour"—that is, how all
have in common whether they know it or not—a community these newlyweds will have forever shared this train ride.
that will in turn impact the world. That's why the speaker views this shared experience as a kind
of "coincidence," one which seems significant but perhaps in
Where this theme appears in the poem: reality actually isn't. That said, he can't really relate to the
• Lines 21-80 newlyweds because he isn't one of them; he might simply be
projecting all this, in turn misreading the situation and
contributing to his own and social separation. Overall, though,
ALIENATION AND COMMUNITY it's not as if the newlyweds even seem that happy. There is a
The speaker is clearly alienated from the wedding kind of disquiet in the carriages, allow the reader to wonder
parties he encounters on the train, but there is also a whether the ultimate act of communion—marriage—really does
sense running throughout "The Whitsun Weddings" that, bring people closer together, or just cuts two people off from
ultimately, everyone else is alone too. The wedding parties the rest of the world.
create a sense of community from which the speaker is
excluded, yet even this feeling of togetherness may only be Where this theme appears in the poem:
temporary. In the end, the guests and newlyweds all go their • Lines 1-27
separate ways, the "frail ... coincidence" of this shared train ride • Lines 36-45
over as quickly as it began. • Lines 48-55
A sense of isolation is present from the start of the poem. For • Lines 58-63
one thing, the speaker's train is initially empty as it heads back • Lines 64-68
to London. And though the countryside seen through the train • Lines 74-77
window is full of a certain kind of life, or at least the evidence of
life (through buildings and so on), there aren't any other people
in the first two stanzas of the poem. This marks the speaker out LINE-BY
LINE-BY-LINE
-LINE ANAL
ANALYSIS
YSIS
as a somewhat lonely figure.
Indeed, when the speaker encounters the bustle and LINES 1-6
commotion of the wedding parties, he feels very much like a That Whitsun, I ...
detached observer. At first, he doesn't even notice that these ... a hurry gone.
weddings are the source of the "whoops and skirls" he can hear The poem opens by establishing its disarmingly casual tone
tone,
from the platform. There is a total disconnect between the pitching somewhere between a narr
narrativ
ativee and dramatic
speaker and the crowds—and between the importance that the monologue
monologue. Though the whole poem is tightly—and
crowds place on the wedding day and the speaker's virtuosically—controlled in terms of its form
form, the language is

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intentionally down-to-earth and even prosaic (as is Larkin's The mention of the smell from the "fish-dock" plays into the
work more generally). poem's overall discussion of time, anticipating the mention of
Like a story or diary entry, the poem starts by setting the scene. the newlyweds as "Fresh" couples and hinting at the way all
The poem is set on Whitsun Saturday in mid-1950s United things—including people—grow old and decay, like the stinking
Kingdom. This isn't an arbitrary detail, but a key part of the fish. The asyndeton of these lines (the lack of the conjunction
poem's setup. Because of tax and marriage laws in the U.K. at word "and") links the different observations together,
the time, the Whitsun weekend in May was an advantageous conveying the way that these are perceptions made in a
time to get married. It afforded certain tax breaks, and also continuous chain as the train makes its way.
coincided with a long weekend due the Whitsun bank holiday It's also worth noting the beautiful metrical effect of the last
(Monday). That's why the speaker encounters so many wedding two lines. As the train leaves the more built-up urban
parties on his train journey from the East of England to London. environment, the speaker's view becomes more regular and
Of course, the wedding parties themselves aren't introduced repetitive. Accordingly, the poem employs two lines of pure,
until the third stanza, making them a kind of chance encounter clean iambic pentameter (lines of five da-DUM
DUM metrical feet
feet):
(and subtly undermining the idea of the wedding day as
something special and unique). The riv
riv- | er’s le
levv- | el drift
drift- | ing breadth | began
gan,
The stanza form used throughout is Larkin's own, but is loosely Where sky | and Lin Lin- | colnshire
shire | and wat
wat- | er meet
meet.
based on the odes of John Keats. This aspect of the poem is
analyzed in more detail in the form section of this guide, but These lines have a hypnotic effect that suggests a deepening of
here it's worth acknowledging the way that the second line in thought, as though the rhythm of the train facilitates a kind of
each stanza is considerably shorter than the rest (two metrical meditative state. The train passes through Lincolnshire, which
feet as opposed to five), which helps evoke the push-pull is an area to the northeast of London.
rhythm of a train alternating between acceleration and coming
LINES 11-16
to a stop.
All afternoon, through ...
Initially, the train carriage is mostly empty. This helps the poem
... hothouse flashed uniquely:
set up a contrast between the quiet isolation of the speaker and
the boisterousness of the wedding—and this contrast provides The second stanza moves the poem on a few hours as the train
the poem's vantage point, with the speaker able to comment on travels through the "tall heat" of May. The assonance and
the weddings in a detached and observant way. And though gentle consonance help create a sense of time passing by
there is no "sense / Of being in a hurry," the mention of the date slowly:
and hour does foreshadow one of the poem's main
themes—the relentless passing of time. The diacope (close All aftternoo
oon, throu
ough the ta
tall heatt thatt sleptt
repetition
repetition) in line 5—"all
all windows down, all cushions hot, all For miles inland,
sense"—gives the reader a sense of the uniformity of the train
carriages, which again anticipates something the poem The long /oo/ and /aw/ vowels give make the lines feel
develops later: the uniformity of the wedding parties. stretched in time, while the delicate /t/ sounds have a quiet
regularity like the rhythms of a lullaby.
LINES 6-10 Line 13 evokes something similar:
We ran ...
... and water meet. A slow and stopping curve southwardss we kept.
After the caesur
caesuraa in line 6, the speaker makes his first
observations of the view through the train window. Here, as in The alliter
alliteration
ation of /s/ sounds (also called sibilance
sibilance) works
much of the poem, caesura and enjambment are used skillfully similarly to the /t/ above, but it's also worth noting the
to suggest the forward motion of the journey. The poem is placement of the verb in this line ("kept"). Indeed, this is the
constantly stopping and starting, and these moments don't first main verb in the stanza, and the way it is delayed until the
necessarily conform to the ends of each line. end of the stanza's third line means that the grammatical sense
of the sentence itself goes on a kind of journey.
The train exits its first station—quite probably Larkin's adopted
hometown, Hull—and begins its journey to London. Lines 7-10 Lines 14 to 16 evoke the English landscape. Much of this is
paint a vivid picture of 1950s England, though there is little agricultural land full of "sh
short-sh shadowed cattle." This marvelous
sign of life at the moment. The poem builds a sense of quiet alliterative phrase cleverly reminds the reader that the sun is
reflection, which allows for the abrupt interruption and still pretty high in the sky (if it was low the shadows would be
noisiness of the wedding parties from the third stanza onwards. long) and perhaps subtly hints at the briefness of life (as though
humans themselves cast their shadow on the earth for a short

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time only). The third stanza represents a key moment in the poem's
The "industrial froth" floating on the canals speaks to the development. So far, the speaker has been the only person in
specters of industrialization and mass production lurking in the poem. But it's here that the journey's growing sense of
what has so far been an almost pastoral scene. The froth is both quiet is loudly interrupted by the presence of the numerous
a symbol of a society undergoing fundamental change and of a wedding parties that the poem's title references.
kind of waste product. Waste is an important idea in the poem, But the speaker doesn't even "n notice" the "n
noise" (this is
as it contrasts with "Fresh[ness]" which forms part of the ironically loud alliter
alliteration
ation) of the weddings at "each
speaker's observations about the newlyweds. The implication, station"—he's been lulled, like the reader, into a kind of
of course, is that before too long time will turn anything fresh observant stupor. His excuse is that the brightness of the "sun"
into waste—including the promises of young love. makes it difficult to focus on "what's happening in the shade."
This minor detail—the fact the speaker initially failed to notice
LINES 16-20 the weddings—subtly undermines the sense of momentous
hedges dipped ... occasion that surrounds each of these weddings. This is
... of dismantled cars. supposed to people's "big day"—but for the speaker today is
After line 16's caesur
caesuraa, the speaker continues to make really just another day. The fact that the sun "destroys" the
observations about what he sees as the train makes its journey. speaker's interest additionally links with the poem's interest in
The enjambment between lines 16 and 17 creates a neat visual impermanence and decay.
effect of hedges "dipp[ing] and [rising]," the phrase itself lifting Line 25 is an intentionally noisy line:
and falling over two lines.
But the speaker isn't just focused on what he can see, but also And
nd down
n the long cool
ool pl
platformss whoops
oops and
nd skirlss
on what he can smell (and later hear). The sense of smell was
also mentioned in line 8, in reference to "the fish-dock." For The prominent assonance (/oo/) and consonance ( /n/, /d/, /l/,
most of the journey the speaker can smell "the reek of /p/, /s/) highlighted above helps build a sense of the boisterous
buttoned carriage-cloth," as he describes it in line 18, but atmosphere on the station platforms, which are full of wedding
occasionally this is "Displaced" by the "smell of grass." Again, parties. "Larking" (which means playing about) in line 26 is a
the poem divides its observations along the lines of freshness possibly a pun on the poet's name, reinforcing the idea that at
and a kind of staleness—supporting the poem's overall first the speaker was too absorbed in his own thinking to notice
discussion of the passing of time. what was happening in the stations.
The "smell of grass" also hints at a kind of fertility, which the LINES 27-33
rain at the end of the poem perhaps gestures towards as well.
Once we started, ...
In much of Larkin's poetry, there is a kind of deconstruction of
... that survived it.
love which shows it to be as much about mere reproduction
and biological dominance as it is about more lofty ideals such as After the caesur
caesuraa of line 27, the speaker focuses more intently
fate, togetherness, and emotional warmth. on the wedding parties. This is probably the most critically
contested part of the poem, with some people feeling that it
The enjambment between lines 16-19 pushes the poem
represents Larkin unfairly taking aim at the working class;
forward, mirroring the train's ongoing journey. Soon enough,
others view as an astute and non-sentimental set of
another image of waste appears, which isn't even tied to a
observations.
specific town (suggesting it is an image that appears multiple
times throughout the journey): The first thing to notice about lines 27-30 is the sheer amount
of caesurae. This contributes to a much more energetic, even
Until the next town, new and nondescript, frenetic, sound. That frenetic sound fits with the way that the
Approached with acres of dismantled cars. platform itself is busy with the movement and noise of the
young wedding guests. These girls are "grinning and
The alliter
alliteration
ation of "new and nondescript" conveys the pomaded"—they are dressed for the happy occasion. The
uniformity of these towns, and the "acres of dismantled cars" balancing of the various clauses also hints at the way that the
again play into the way that time works as a kind of quiet women and girls have to balance on their high heels.
destroyer. The main point of contention in these lines is the phrase
"parodies of fashion." In other words, the speaker thinks the
LINES 21-27 woman are dressed in an almost grotesque imitation of
At first, I ... contemporary styles. It certainly sounds like a statement with
... went on reading. negative connotations, but it can also be read as a finely-tuned
perception. Remember, the popularity of the Whitsun weekend

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for weddings was primarily for financial reasons—and of descriptions there is a common link of lewdness and un-
therefore as a date it did tend to make more of a difference for refinement. This hints at the speaker's feeling that weddings
those less well off in society. So, though the girls are dressed are less like marvelous romantic occasions and more like ways
not fashionably but in "parodies of fashion," perhaps this just for the human race to go about its sordid business of
reflects economic reality. In other words, all they can afford are reproduction.
knock-offs and cheaper clothes. In this reading of Larkin's
poem, the speaker might even sympathize with the reality of LINES 38-41
not being able to afford the kinds of clothes one wants. and then the ...
Also notice the subtle ambiguity in pronouns here. In contrast ... from the rest.
to the noisy women on the platform, the speaker and his fellow In this section the speaker returns his gaze to the "girls" first
passengers form their own kind of accidental community. mentioned in line 28. Perhaps they are worthy of special
Accordingly, the speaker sometimes slips into "we" rather than attention because they represent the current crop of potential
"I," which creates a kind of us vs. them dynamic. Indeed, the brides, still "fresh" enough to be pairing off and getting married.
people on the train are watching the wedding party, who in turn Through its detailed description, this section itself "Mark[s] off
are watching the people on the train, and so on—creating an the girls unreally from the rest"—that is, it gives them an air of
anxious feedback loop of observation. surreality and perhaps superficiality too. The subtle assonance
Enjambing across stanzas, the poem introduces a simile in lines and alliter
alliteration
ation in "th
then the peerms" suggests the girls' constant
31 to 33. The girls look attention to their hair, and the mention of "jewellery-
substitutes" suggests there is something fake about their
As if out on the end of an event appearance.
Waving goodbye It's up to the reader to decide if these observations are made
To something that survived it. with disdain or not—perhaps they just reflect the speaker's
inability to relate to these young women. Indeed, the color of
This simile foregrounds the poem's focus on time and their clothes seems to separate them almost as some kind of
impermanence. These weddings are supposed to be new alien species:
beginnings, and ceremonial markers of a kind of eternal love.
But the girls already look like they are at "the end of an event" lem
monss, mauvvess, and ollivve-ochress
and "waving goodbye." In other words, time, and the way it
marches people relentlessly towards their non-existence, The /l/, /m/, /v/, and /s/ consonance here sounds almost
seems to lurk in the poem's atmosphere. indulgent, conveying the girls' decadence and flamboyant
appearance. Even the observation that their gloves are "nylon,"
LINES 33-38 rather than leather, draws the readers attention to the fact
Struck, I leant ... what they are wearing is somewhat synthetic. Also notice the
... uncle shouting smut; way that the poem again enjambs between two stanzas, the
The caesur
caesuraa in line 33 is one of many that supports the poem's sentences refusing to conform neatly to the stanza shape.
conversational, prosaic tone. The adjective that LINES 42-46
follows—"Struck"—carries with it connotations of being under a
kind of spell, which is a reasonable way of interpreting the Yes, from ...
poem as a whole. The sight of the wedding parties does cast a ... rest stood round;
kind of magic over the speaker and, in turn, the reader—though In this section, the speaker daydreams about the weddings
it's not the same kind of magic that people associate with ideas themselves. He imagines the locations of the weddings and the
of eternal love. It's more like a spell of curiosity. The diacope of reception parties, all of which most likely have taken place in
"more" in line 34 shows this deepening sense of curiosity as the fairly humble surroundings, such as "cafés". This section has no
speaker's attention fixes on the different wedding guests. Now less than four instances of hyphenated word combinations,
taking a closer look, he can see it "all again in different terms." which could be interpreted as a subtle textual representation
The descriptions here are less than flattering. The brides' of marriage (two words being joined together) or even the
fathers are big-bellied and sweaty—which is suggested by the "bunting" mentioned in line 43 (long strings of decorative flags).
alliter
alliteration
ation of "ssuits" and "sseamy"—while the mothers are "loud The speaker imagines several different parties that are all
and fat." The adjective "seamy" perhaps hints at the related pretty much the same, with guests arriving and departing by
word "seam," suggesting that the big occasion is in its way the coach-load. The alliter
alliteration
ation of "b
banquet" and "bbunting, and
hastily stitched together or inauthentic. The uncles are also then "w
wedding" with "wwere," is intentionally obvious, evoking
noisy, shouting "smut" (dirty words). Between these three sets the garishness of the wedding celebrations. The fact that the

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"wedding-days" themselves are coming to an end hints at the "departing." In other words, each person's facial expression
poem's theme of impermanence, undermining what is of course casts the wedding in a different light. Indeed, perhaps their
supposed to be a special day. The descriptions in this section wide-brimming smiles change slightly to allow a little more of
also aim to get across the sheer numbers involved in these their real emotion to show through. For the children, the
weddings—a bounty of newly-weds and an even greater weddings—and the concept of coupling off—are alien and
number of guests. This, too, subtly questions whether these boring. The fathers, for their part, "had never known / Success
marriages really are all that special. so huge and wholly farcical."
The caesur
caesuraa after "end" in line 45 gives the word special These lines, 50 and 51, are key. The weddings are cast as both
emphasis, halting the poem in its tracks. After this caesura, the "Success so huge" and "wholly farcical"—on the surface, these
speaker observes the "fresh couples" climbing onto his train have been momentous occasions, but in reality they don't mean
(setting off for their brief honeymoons; the bank holiday anywhere near as much as people pretend. Even though the
afforded them an extra day away form work). This moment also two words are separated by a stanza break and enjambment
enjambment,
signifies that the newlyweds are now literally and figuratively "ffathers" and "ffarcical" alliter
alliterate
ate to link these two words
setting off on a new journey. The description of the onlooking together. The proud fathers, in other words, typify the
weddings guests—"the rest stood round"—is monosyllabic, somewhat absurd pretentiousness of the weddings
suggesting the way that their attention is fixed squarely on the themselves.
departing couples.
LINES 52-57
"Fresh" is a key word in the poem. It carries with it connotations
of the excitement of the newlyweds, but also hints at the way The women ...
time will undo this freshness before too long. Indeed, this ... gouts of steam.
juxtaposition between freshness and oldness/staleness weaves In lines 52 to 57, the speaker focuses on the female reactions
its way throughout the poem as part of its subtle discussion of to the departing wedding guests. The older women share a
time and impermanence. "secret like a happy funeral." This is a somewhat puzzling
moment in the poem because the speaker doesn't expand on
LINES 47-51 what this "secret" actually is, treating that question with an
The last confetti ... appropriate air of secrecy. Perhaps this secret has something to
... and wholly farcical; do with the reality of marriage, as opposed to the pomp,
With the train now departing its station, the wedding guests circumstance—and falsehoods—of the wedding day.
say their goodbyes to the "Fresh couples" heading off on their It's here, too, that the poem makes its most overt reference to
honeymoons. Here the poem deploys a brilliant example of the theme of time, death, and impermanence. The women
zeugma
zeugma: appear to look upon the departing newlyweds as though they
were viewing something that is not merely happy, but is "like a
The last confetti and advice were thrown, happy funeral" (the poem's third simile
simile). In other words, the
joyous and boisterous occasion somehow manages to contain a
Here, both confetti and advice are governed by the same verb suggestion of death as well—as though this is not just a new
(which is written in the passive voice to emphasize how it's beginning, but the recurrence of a familiar ending too.
hard to tell who is doing the throwing). Confetti is a standard The following observation about the "girls" seems to support
part of the U.K. wedding ritual, and so, too, is advice (asked for the above analysis. Tense, nervous, and excited, these younger
or not). But placing the two together like this means that the female guests grip their handbags "tighter" as they stare at the
two words inform one another, even though one is something newlyweds pulling away into the distance. The mention of
physical and the other is more abstract. "gripping" and "tighter" gently hints at sexual intercourse,
Confetti is a whole load of small bits of paper thrown over the which is reinforced by the mention of a "religious wounding"
newly weds after they get married. It's literally throwaway. (tying in with the once-common practice of remaining a virgin
That's where the zeugma comes in—linking the throwaway until getting married). The word "wounding" also suggests
confetti with the supposedly serious "advice" undermines that some kind of injury, again building a less than idealistic view of
advice, suggesting that people's words of wisdom about love marriage.
and marriage don't really count for much. Again, there is a After the caesur
caesuraa that follows "wounding" in line 55, the train
conflict between the way that people think they are unique (in picks up momentum as it heads towards London. The speaker
this case, able to convey a special understanding of marriage), uses the prosaic phrase "free at last" to describe the way that
and the mundane reality that they are just like everyone else. the pomp and ceremony have been left behind—but it also
The poem then shifts into its second simile
simile, describing the faces plays somewhat ironically with the notion of freedom in
of those still on the platform as "defin[ing]" what they can see relation to marriage as an eternal bond.

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It's worth noting as an aside that the phrase "shuffling gouts of alliter
alliteration
ation (also sibilance
sibilance) mirroring the way that the newly-
steam" indicates that this particular train is steam-powered. weds are crammed into the carriage. Of course, this image
image—the
Steam trains were phased out of use on the main British train sheer numerousness of the newlyweds—subtly undermines the
lines soon after the poem was published, meaning that this notion of the wedding day as something special, and of the love
description dates the poem, unintentionally becoming an between the bride and groom as unique and once-in-a-lifetime.
indicator of the poem's fixation with time and impermanence. In Between the em-dash at the start of line 65 and the em-dash in
other words, the steam train soon became part of society's line 66 (where it functions as a caesur
caesuraa), the poem lists some of
discarded waste, like the "acres of dismantled cars" described the things that the couples (and the speaker) can see out of the
earlier in the poem. window. As with earlier in the poem, the asyndeton (the lack of
LINES 58-63 "and") makes these observations feel connected and
continuous. The cinema perhaps represents some of the
Now fields were ... idealized Hollywood notions of love, while the cooling tower
... got under way. could be interpreted as a phallic symbol
symbol. "Someone running up
From line 58 onwards, the surrounding environment changes to bowl" is a reference to cricket, and is a distinctly transitory
as the train nears London. London, of course, is a huge city, and observation. That is, it describes a very particular moment in
the speaker's view reflects this. Instead of fields, the speaker time, and thus intensifies the poem's attention to the passing of
sees "building-plots." He notices poplar trees, which are time.
common in the capital city—and they cast shadows not on Indeed, the speaker's next observation is transitory as well. The
muddy ground but "over major roads," planted there as part of speaker thinks there's something profound (or nearly
the city's urban planning. The assonance in "long shado ows oveer profound) about the way that all of these newlyweds share this
majoor ro
oads" captures a sense of the length of these shadows first hour of their new lives together—but they don't seem to
by slowing down the line's pace. realize it, perhaps because they're too caught up in their own
The speaker accidentally shares a kind of intimacy with the conversations. The speaker's isolation from the frenetic
newly-weds: he is an awkward presence in the first hour of celebrations of the weddings allows him to make these insights
multiple couples. This section of the journey takes around "fifty into what he later calls "this frail / Travelling coincidence."
minutes," which the speaker describes as just enough time for
the newcomers "to settle hats and say / I nearly died." Or, more LINES 69-75
accurately, when the journey is done this section of it will feel I thought of ...
like it was just enough time for the above. This phrase—"I nearly ... Travelling coincidence;
died"—is a euphemistic way of saying something like "I was so In lines 69 and 70, the speaker imagines London from a bird's-
embarrassed/shocked." This, then, speaks to the sense of eye view. London is divided into different "postal districts," each
grandeur felt by the newly weds on their "big day," which is a with its own postcode (see the Resources section for a visual
kind of tension that can be released now that they're not under representation). The speaker thinks of these districts as being
the staring eyes of the wedding guests. "packed like squares of wheat," a simile which has a couple of
Larkin often uses words that mean more than might first interesting implications.
appear, and his use of "dozen" might be one of those. Ask an Firstly, the word "packed" ties in with the way that the couples
English person what they associate with the word and it will themselves are not unique—there are loads of them squashed
probably be eggs. Eggs are, of course, not only commonplace into the train carriages. The specific comparison to "squares of
and fragile—like these fledgling couples—but they're also part wheat" is an agricultural image that relates to fertility and the
of the reproductive process and suggestive of fertility. basic sustenance of life (food as a kind of survival). Wheat is
Elsewhere in Larkin's poems, he reframes love as a kind of one humanity's oldest crops, so this simile also subtly reflects
dumb biological force that works as a tool to aid human on the way that these love stories might not be as special as
reproduction. they think; they do, however, have a collective power in that the
newlyweds will procreate and raise the next generation of
LINES 64-68
newlyweds, and so on.
They watched the ...
As is typical of Larkin, profundity sits side-by-side with a lack of
... contain this hour.
meaning. As though destined by fate, the speaker and the
In this section, the watched become the watchers. That is, the newlyweds are "aimed" (a word which anticipates the ending's
newly-weds are no longer on the other side of the train arrow image) at London. But that's also just where the train is
window, but on the inside looking out. The speaker, of course, is going. At this point, the passengers have ceded all control of
still watching them, cutting a kind of detached, isolated figure. their destination. The caesur
caesuraa after "aimed" allows for this
These "fresh couples" are "ssitting side by side," the crowded moment to sink in—for the reader to consider whether there

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really is anything significant about what is happening. Notice how the consonant /d/ sounds convey the braking
Lines 71 to 75 use enjambment to represent a quickening of action of the train. Just like brake pads being applied to the
pace as the train comes close to London. The "bright knots of wheels, the reader's tongue has to come into contact with the
rail" is not just an effective way of describing the complicated roof of the mouth in what is called a voiced alveolar stop. In
train tracks and switches, but also hints at future complications other words, the reader has to stop the airflow on these
in the lives of the newlyweds (and, of course, the fact that they sounds, subtly mimicking the train's arrival at its final stop. The
have just "tied the knot"). alliter
alliterating
ating and sibilant /s/ consonants gently evoke the sound
of rain.
The "walls of blackened moss" that signal the train's arrival in
the metropolis also tie in with the poem's general discussion of This is another ambiguous section of the poem. The speaker
freshness and waste. Indeed, moss is often seen as a notices a "sense of falling" as the brakes bring the train to a
representation of decay or neglect (not to mention that here stop, perhaps suggesting some kind of impending disaster
it's "blackened" from the trains' soot)—but it's also an example (marital problems later down the line, for example). This is then
of the persistence of life and the ability of organisms to survive developed through a simile which is also an allusion
allusion. The
in all kinds of conditions. This plays into a more cynical reading "arrow-shower / Sent out of sight" is a reference to the myth of
of the poem, one that associates marriage with humanity's Cupid, a God from classical mythology whose arrows would
relentless reproductive forces rather than the supposed magic make the targets fall in love. The myth ties in with common
of being in love. ideas of fate and romance—the idea that "the one" is out there
waiting for everyone.
Here, the speaker neatly sums up his train experience in the
phrase "frail / Travelling coincidence." Referring to coincidence But, of course, Larkin makes the allusion deeply ambiguous.
is a clever touch, because it leaves the question of significance This is not a pair of arrows, but an "arrow-shower"—numerous
open-ended. That is, some people view coincidences as arrows making the act of firing less of a special event. In other
remarkable events (and sometimes as proof of some grand life words, this speaks to the way that these different pairs of
narrative), while others see them as just that—coincidences newlyweds are all part of the same mass of new couples.
born of meaningless chance. The phrase "it was nearly done" Looked at most cynically, this undoes any sense of these
subtly plays into the way that death and impermanence seem weddings being special, using the language/mythology of love
to lurk in the poem's atmosphere, offering a kind of alternative to deconstruct any illusions about love being profound,
to the promise and happiness represented by the marriages meaningful, or rare.
themselves. Within the simile, these arrows fall somewhere "out of sight"
and "becom[e] rain." This, too, is ambiguous. The transformation
LINES 75-80 into rain—which crops need in order to grow—could be a
and what it ... reference to fertility and reproductive power. Indeed, perhaps
... somewhere becoming rain. this is the "power" that the speaker perceives in the newlyweds
After the caesur
caesuraa in line 75, the poem draws to a close (while in line 76. On the other hand, the comparison to rain could just
the train itself comes to its final stop, London). In be another way to say that these marriages are commonplace
characteristically ambiguous terms, Larkin talks about how the and unremarkable, nowhere near as important as the pomp and
train carriages have "held" some kind of "power"—the "power" ceremony would suggest. Rain in England is, of course, nothing
that comes with "being changed." This, essentially, is the mass unusual!
power signified by the numerous newlyweds. Each couple on The poem ends on this ambiguous note, the caesurae in the last
their own are fairly insignificant, but looked at en masse they two lines creating the "sense of falling" described by the
seem to represent something with greater impact on the speaker and leaving the reader on uncertain footing. Perhaps
world—or potential impact, at least. But Larkin doesn't ask the the reader has just witnessed something deeply profound that
reader to marvel at this power—merely to notice it. The poem speaks to the nature of human life—or maybe it was just a train
carefully weighs the apparent importance of this moment, all journey.
those new marriages just getting started, with its possible
insignificance too.
The last three and a half lines make effective use of sound SYMBOLS
patterning:
THE COUNTRYSIDE
[...] We slowed d again,
The train journey undertaken in this poem is a long
And as the tightened d brakes took hold
d, there swelllled
d
one, stretching from the east of England to London.
A sense of falllling, like an arrow-shower
As part of this, the speaker sees a fair share of countryside out
Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming rain.

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of his window. This countryside symbolizes the ways in which reproduction.
nature affects human society and behavior—even the When the train nears London, this urban environment
institution of marriage. intensifies. The speaker notices a cinema and a cricket
On a basic level, of course, the countryside simply signifies the game—both of which seem like surreal details that flash by
natural world itself. This isn't a heavily romanticized depiction before they can be fully comprehended. This surreal quality
of nature, but more a series of relatively detached again suggests a kind of emptiness. To the speaker, these
observations. Subtly, though, the presence of the river, images suggest diversion and entertainment, but not
farmland, cattle, etc. helps build a detailed picture of the natural necessarily real meaning.
world and the way that the natural world is used by human When the train gets close to its destination, the speaker notices
society. This a countryside modified by human activities like "walls of blackened moss." This image speaks in part to the
farming and industry, as exhibited by the "Canals with floatings dirtiness of the urban environment, but also to the
of industrial froth." The references to the countryside in the resourcefulness of life itself (moss, of course, is a living thing).
poem underscore the fact that humans both shape the natural Perhaps this resourcefulness is the power that the speaker
world and depend on it. refers to in lines 76-77: "all the power / That being changed can
This also ties in with the poem's implication that humans' ideas give."
of love and marriage are ultimately based on the biological
(and, thus, natural) need for reproduction—something Larkin Where this symbol appears in the poem:
often suggests. Just as the English countryside shaped
• Lines 7-8: “the backs of houses, crossed a street / Of
agriculture and industry, so too does the natural need for
blinding windscreens, smelt the fish-dock;”
procreation shape English attitudes towards marriage. That is,
• Line 15: “Canals with floatings of industrial froth;”
love isn't necessarily a fairy tale—maybe it's just the most
• Lines 19-20: “Until the next town, new and nondescript,
efficient way for the human race to propagate and spread.
/ Approached with acres of dismantled cars.”
• Lines 58-59: “Now fields were building-plots, and
Where this symbol appears in the poem: poplars cast / Long shadows over major roads,”
• Lines 9-10: “The river’s level drifting breadth began, / • Lines 65-66: “—An Odeon went past, a cooling tower, /
Where sky and Lincolnshire and water meet.” And someone running up to bowl—”
• Lines 14-15: “Wide farms went by, short-shadowed • Lines 69-70: “I thought of London spread out in the sun,
cattle, and / Canals with floatings of industrial froth” / Its postal districts packed like squares of wheat:”
• Lines 16-17: “hedges dipped / And rose: and now and • Line 73: “walls of blackened moss”
then a smell of grass”

THE URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL

POETIC DEVICES
ENVIRONMENT ALLITERATION
"The Whitsun Weddings" makes frequent reference Alliter
Alliteration
ation is used throughout "The Whitsun Weddings." An
to what the speaker can see out of his train window as he heads early example is in line 13:
to London. The speaker's glimpses of urban and industrial life
symbolize both waste and the human potential for renewal. A slow and stopping curve southwards we kept.
Of course, this changes depending on which part of the country
the train is in at any given point. The speaker's observations are The /s/ sounds here are distributed with an even regularity
finely-tuned, and at first he sees evidence of people without throughout the line, giving it a sense of momentum (in fact,
actually spotting any people themselves. This builds a sense of alliteration in this poem often creates forward motion). This
disquiet in the poem that feeds into the way it casts doubt on subtly mirrors the train's ongoing path from the east of England
the meaning of love and marriage. The built environment seems to the south.
to suggest the emptiness of contemporary life. In the same stanza, line 19 also uses alliteration effectively:
The urban environment also helps develop the poem's
historical and social context. The "new and nondescript" towns, Until the next town, new and nondescript,
for example, reference the extensive rebuilding of the post-war
years in England. The "acres of dismantled cars" (scrapyards) The repetition of the identical /n/ sounds evokes the way that,
speak to both waste and the human talent for regeneration, at that speed, each town that goes by lacks definition. That is,
feeding into the poem's subtle discussion of fertility and the speaker's eyes can hardly settle on what's there before the

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train is going past the next town. This also builds a sense of the
cultural and historical atmosphere, referencing the numerous • Line 21: “notice,” “noise”
new towns that were built in England during the postwar years • Line 23: “station,” “stopped,” “sun”
(the years after World War II). • Line 24: “interest,” “in”
• Line 26: “with”
The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth stanzas all use alliteration as
• Line 27: “went,” “Once,” “we”
way of creating a noisy, almost boisterous reading experience.
• Line 28: “passed,” “grinning,” “pomaded,” “girls”
This, of course, is no coincidence—it reflects the commotion
• Line 29: “parodies”
caused by the wedding parties on the station platforms. The
• Line 30: “posed”
alliteration of "n
notice" and "nnoise" in line 21 shows the way that
• Line 33: “something,” “survived,” “Struck”
the speaker hears the guests before he consciously
• Line 36: “broad belts,” “suits”
comprehends what's happening.
• Line 37: “seamy foreheads,” “fat”
Lines 28-30 are full of /p/ sounds that, through being so • Line 38: “then the”
obviously placed, evoke the garish and loud outfits of the girls • Line 40: “mauves”
in "p
parodies of fashion." The fathers wear "b broad belts" (line 36) • Line 41: “Marked”
and "ssuits" (which alliterates with "sseamy foreheads"). "Th
Then • Line 43: “banquet-halls,” “bunting-dressed”
th
the" in line 38 has a delicate sound that evokes the meticulous • Line 44: “wedding-days”
attention the girls have paid to their hairdos. "Fathers" in line • Line 45: “Were”
50 chimes with "farcical" in line 51 to question whether the • Line 46: “couples climbed,” “rest,” “round”
apparent importance of the wedding days is really grounded in • Line 48: “And, as,” “define”
reality. • Line 49: “departing”
Once the train, now full of newlyweds, has left the guests • Line 50: “dull,” “fathers”
behind, the alliteration starts to represent other elements of • Line 51: “Success so,” “farcical”
the poem. The /s/ sound, which was associated with the regular • Line 53: “funeral”
motion of the train in line 13, returns: "ssitting side by side" (line • Line 54: “girls, gripping”
• Line 55: “last”
64); "sspread out in the sun" (line 69). The two plosive /p/
• Line 56: “loaded,” “sum,” “saw”
sounds in line 70—"[London's] postal districts packed like
• Line 58: “plots,” “poplars”
squares of wheat"—are themselves packed into the line (echoed
• Line 60: “Some,” “seem”
by "P
Past standing Pullmans" in line 73).
• Line 61: “settle,” “say”
Finally, the poem's closing four lines intensify the alliteration to • Line 62: “died”
what is probably its peak. /S/ alliteration takes grip of the poem, • Line 63: “dozen”
mimicking the way the brakes are reducing the train's speed. • Line 64: “sitting side,” “side”
"S
Slowed," "sswelled," "ssense," "ssent," "ssight," and "ssomewhere" • Line 66: “none”
brilliantly manage to evoke the sound of rain and, through their • Line 67: “Thought,” “the,” “they,” “never”
sheer repetitiveness, a kind of magic spell. This alliteration, • Line 68: “their”
then, neatly sums up the poem's ambiguous ending, which asks • Line 69: “spread,” “sun”
whether love is truly something magical and mythical (e.g. • Line 70: “postal,” “packed”
Cupid's arrow, discussed in the allusion section) or is as • Line 71: “we were,” “we”
common and unremarkable as bad weather in England. • Line 73: “Past,” “Pullmans”
• Line 74: “Came close”
Where Alliter
Alliteration
ation appears in the poem: • Line 77: “slowed”
• Line 78: “swelled”
• Line 1: “Whitsun,” “was” • Line 79: “sense”
• Line 3: “sunlit Saturday” • Line 80: “Sent,” “sight,” “somewhere”
• Line 7: “Behind,” “backs”
• Line 9: “breadth,” “began”
ALLUSION
• Line 10: “Where,” “water”
• Line 13: “slow,” “stopping,” “southwards” There is one allusion in "The Whitsun Weddings." This takes
• Line 14: “short-shadowed cattle” place in the poem's final sentence, which runs from line 77
• Line 15: “Canals,” “floatings,” “froth” (after the caesur
caesuraa) to the end. The simile here compares the
• Line 16: “hothouse,” “flashed,” “hedges” "sense of falling" brought on by the deceleration of the train to
• Line 18: “carriage-cloth” "an arrow-shower / Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming
• Line 19: “next,” “new,” “nondescript” rain." This isn't an explicit reference, but given that the poem is

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focused on weddings and love, it's reasonable to interpret this In line 30, /o/ sounds serve yet another purpose:
moment as a nod towards the classical myth of Cupid.
The story of Cupid, who is affiliated with Eros in Greek All po
osed irreso
olutely, watching us go
o,
mythology, is told in Ovid's Metamorphoses. He is a god of love
who famously carries a bow and arrow. As the Sam Cooke song, Clustering around the word "posed," these /o/ sounds are
"Cupid
Cupid," spells out, when the god draws back his bow and fires aimed at giving the reader a sense of the poise and appearances
an arrow, it makes the target fall in love (though he also carries of the young female wedding guests. The "mau auves, and
arrows that achieve the opposite effect). olive-o
ochres" in line 40 achieves a similar effect, the closeness
of the /o/ vowel sounds suggesting the kind of meticulous
The key difference between Larkin's poem and the myth of
attention that these girls pay to their clothes.
Cupid is that Cupid usually only fires one arrow at a time,
selecting his targets methodically and deliberately. The Even more long and short /o/ assonance appears in lines 58 and
suggestion of an "arrow-shower," as well as likening these 59, once more conjuring a sense of passing time:
arrows of love to a kind of rain, makes them numerous and
thereby less unique or special. This plays into the way the poem Now fields were building-plo
ots, and po
oplars cast
undermines the idea that love itself depends on magic and fate, Lo
ong shadow
ows over major roa
oads,
suggesting it is less special than most people think.
Similarly, the assonance in line 64—"siitting siide byy siide"— crams
But this allusion could also be read in a more positive light, as
the line with uniform vowel sounds, subtly representing the
the numerous arrows also speak to a kind of collective power
way that the newlyweds are squeezed into the train carriage, all
held by the newlyweds (which is perhaps the ability to
looking more or less the same.
reproduce and create the next generation of young people).
Finally, assonance in the last three lines helps the poem feel like
Where Allusion appears in the poem: it's coming to a rest:

• Lines 77-80: “We slowed again, / And as the tightened And as the tightened brakes took hold, theere sweelled
brakes took hold, there swelled / A sense of falling, like A seense of falling, like an arrow
ow-show
ower
an arrow-shower / Sent out of sight, somewhere Seent ou
out of sight, soomewheere beco oming rain.
becoming rain.”
The /e/, /a/, /o/, /ow/, and /uh/ assonance here combines with
ASSONANCE consonance and alliter
alliteration
ation to make it feel as though a spell is
Assonance is used throughout "The Whitsun Weddings." An being cast (tying in with the reference to Cupid, which is
early example is in line 9: discussed in the allusion section). These vowel sounds also slow
the poem down, representing the train coming to a stop at its
Thee riiveer’s leeveel driiftiing brea
eadth beegan, final destination.

Here the /uh/, /e/, /i/, and /ee/ vowel sounds themselves seem to Where Assonance appears in the poem:
level out, representing the constant presence of the river
• Line 1: “late,” “away”
outside the train window.
• Line 3: “One-twenty,” “sunlit,” “Saturday”
In line 11, vowel sounds evoke a sense of time passing (an • Line 4: “three,” “empty,” “train”
important thematic concern throughout the poem): • Line 5: “All,” “all,” “hot,” “all”
• Line 6: “being,” “hurry,” “gone,” “ran”
All afternoo
oon, throu
ough the taall heat that slept • Line 7: “backs,” “street”
• Line 8: “windscreens,” “fish-dock”
These vowels slow the poem's pace to give the reader a sense • Line 9: “The river’s level drifting breadth began”
of an afternoon going by. • Line 10: “sky,” “Lincolnshire,” “meet”
Similarly vowel sounds achieve a different effect in line 25: • Line 11: “All afternoon, through,” “tall”
• Line 13: “kept”
• Line 14: “went,” “shadowed cattle, and”
And down the long coo
ool platforms whoo
oops and skirls
• Line 15: “Canals,” “froth”
• Line 16: “hothouse,” “hedges”
These /oo/ sounds mimic the whooping, cheering noises of the
• Line 17: “then,” “smell”
wedding parties—which the speaker hasn't yet fully noticed,
• Line 18: “of buttoned”
but hears in his periphery.

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the rhythms and propulsion of a train journey.
• Line 23: “Each,” “we” The first example is in lines 5-8:
• Line 25: “cool,” “whoops”
• Line 27: “reading,” “we” All windows down, all cushions hot, all sense
• Line 29: “parodies,” “heels”
Of being in a hurry gone. We ran
• Line 30: “posed irresolutely,” “go”
Behind the backs of houses, crossed a street
• Line 31: “end,” “event”
Of blinding windscreens, smelt the fish-dock;
• Line 32: “goodbye”
• Line 33: “survived”
Notice how the asyndeton makes the diacope (close repetition
repetition)
• Line 35: “saw,” “all”
of "all" seem more repetitive, evoking the repeating landscape
• Line 36: “fathers,” “broad”
outside the train window. Likewise, the houses, windscreens,
• Line 37: “mothers”
and fish dock pass by the reader all-the-more hastily precisely
• Line 38: “uncle,” “smut”
• Line 40: “mauves,” “ochres” because they don't have the usual connecting word "and"—just
• Line 41: “Marked off” like they pass by the speaker's view.
• Line 42: “cafés” A similar effect occurs in lines 36-38, as the speaker looks at all
• Line 43: “banquet-halls,” “yards,” “dressed” the weddings guests who have come to send the young couples
• Line 44: “annexes,” “wedding” off. The speaker lists all the types of people he has seen,
• Line 45: “end,” “line” separated by semi-colons rather than "and." It's as if he's seen
• Line 46: “Fresh,” “climbed,” “rest” so many people that the images of them are packed tightly in
• Line 47: “last,” “and” his memory. This occurs again in lines 46-47 and lines 49-53.
• Line 48: “And, as we,” “each,” “seemed” All in all, the speaker's use of asyndeton captures the piling-on
• Line 49: “saw departing” of wedding imagery that he experiences during his journey.
• Line 50: “something dull” Later on in the poem, the speaker's thoughts seem to deepen
• Line 51: “so,” “wholly”
and become more meditative. The poem then seems to shift
• Line 54: “While,” “tighter”
into more conventional grammar (including the "ands"),
• Line 56: “sum of all,” “saw”
showing this intensification of thought, as opposed to the
• Line 57: “We hurried,” “ London, shuffling,” “steam”
previous quick-fire observations that used asyndeton.
• Line 58: “fields,” “plots,” “poplars”
• Line 59: “Long shadows over major roads”
• Line 60: “minutes,” “in” Where Asyndeton appears in the poem:
• Line 61: “hats and” • Lines 5-8: “All windows down, all cushions hot, all sense /
• Line 62: “I ,” “died” Of being in a hurry gone. We ran / Behind the backs of
• Line 63: “way” houses, crossed a street / Of blinding windscreens, smelt
• Line 64: “They,” “landscape,” “side by side” the fish-dock;”
• Line 66: “someone,” “ running up,” “none” • Lines 36-38: “The fathers with broad belts under their
• Line 67: “others” suits / And seamy foreheads; mothers loud and fat; / An
• Line 69: “London,” “sun” uncle shouting smut;”
• Line 71: “aimed. And as,” “raced across” • Lines 46-47: “Fresh couples climbed aboard: the rest
• Line 72: “knots,” “rail” stood round; / The last confetti and advice were thrown,”
• Line 73: “Past standing,” “walls,” “blackened moss” • Lines 49-53: “children frowned / At something dull;
• Line 74: “Came,” “it was,” “done, this frail” fathers had never known / Success so huge and wholly
• Line 75: “Travelling,” “and,” “held” farcical; / The women shared / The secret like a happy
• Line 76: “ready to,” “loosed” funeral;”
• Line 77: “That being,” “can,” “We slowed”
• Line 78: “hold, there swelled” CAESURA
• Line 79: “sense,” “an arrow-shower”
Caesur
Caesuraeae appear frequently throughout "The Whitsun
• Line 80: “Sent out,” “somewhere becoming”
Weddings." They are an important part of the poem's tonetone,
which is distinctly conversational and down-to-earth (while
ASYNDETON also being hypnotic and beautifully controlled). The poem has a
Asyndeton
Asyndeton—the absence of conjoining words like "and"—is used tight ten-line stanza form, but the syntax and grammar of these
to great effect in "The Whitsun Weddings." It serves one stanzas is deliberately prose-like, often running over line
primary purpose, which is to connect clauses and develop a breaks and stopping mid-line. Accordingly, then, every stanza is
sense of ongoing momentum. This, of course, is meant to evoke

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full of caesurae—in fact there are more lines that have one than
don't! • Line 14: “by, short-shadowed,” “cattle, and”
Notice how the first line starts like the first sentence in a story • Line 16: “uniquely: hedges”
or a campfire anecdote: • Line 17: “rose: and”
• Line 19: “town, new”
• Line 21: “first, I”
That Whitsun,, I was late getting away:
• Line 23: “at: sun”
• Line 27: “reading. Once,” “started, though,”
The caesura definitely helps achieve that prosaic effect. The
• Line 28: “them, grinning,” “pomaded, girls”
following two stanzas begin in exactly the same way.
• Line 29: “fashion, heels”
The caesurae also help give the reader a sense of the speaker's • Line 30: “irresolutely, watching”
connected series of observations, which are made possible • Line 33: “it. Struck,”
simply by what he is seeing (and smelling) out of the window. In • Line 34: “time, more”
lines 14-17, for example, each caesura introduces the next sight • Line 37: “foreheads; mothers”
or smell: • Line 38: “smut; and”
• Line 40: “lemons, mauves, and”
Wide farms went by, short-shadowed cattle, and • Line 42: “Yes, from”
Canals with floatings of industrial froth; • Line 43: “yards, and”
A hothouse flashed uniquely: hedges dipped • Line 44: “annexes, the ”
And rose: and now and then a smell of grass • Line 45: “end. All”
• Line 46: “aboard: the”
Farms, cattle, canals, hothouses, hedges, the smell of • Line 48: “moved, each”
grass—each of these appears suddenly after a caesura. This • Line 49: “departing: children”
gives the impression of sights passing by the speaker's window. • Line 50: “dull; fathers”
• Line 54: “girls, gripping,” “tighter, stared”
This kind of list-making appears elsewhere in the poem too. The
• Line 55: “wounding. Free”
section from lines 37-45 uses multiple caesurae to get across
• Line 57: “London, shuffling”
the busyness of both the platforms and the weddings
• Line 58: “building-plots, and”
themselves (as the speaker imagines them).
• Line 59: “roads, and”
Line 45 uses a strong full-stop caesura after "end" to mark the • Line 60: “minutes, that”
separation of the newlyweds (who get on board the train) from • Line 64: “landscape, sitting”
the guests on the platform, with a similar effect being achieved • Line 65: “past, a”
after "wounding" in line 55 (which makes the phrase "religious • Line 66: “bowl—and”
wounding" more dramatic). • Line 71: “aimed. And”
In the poem's ending, caesurae break the last two lines into • Line 73: “Pullmans, walls”
fairly equal parts: • Line 74: “close, and,” “done, this”
• Line 75: “coincidence; and”
A sense of falling, lik
likee an arrow-shower • Line 77: “give. We”
Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming rain. • Line 78: “hold, there”
• Line 79: “falling, like”
• Line 80: “sight, somewhere”
Notice how this gives the ending a kind of rising and falling
motion, creating a kind of rhythmic arc that matches with the
image of arrows firing into the air and landing quietly CONSONANCE
somewhere else. "The Whitsun Weddings" is full of consonance
consonance. In, fact hardly a
line goes by that doesn't have any consonance! Of course, some
Where Caesur
Caesuraa appears in the poem: of these instances are more meaningful than others. The first
three lines, for example, have a lot of /t/ consonance—but that
• Line 1: “Whitsun, I” doesn't necessarily convey anything particularly important,
• Line 5: “down, all,” “hot, all”
beyond providing a sense of musicality and unity to the poem.
• Line 6: “gone. We”
• Line 7: “houses, crossed” Lines 5 and 6 are probably the first key example. Here the lines
• Line 8: “windscreens, smelt” relies heavily on /n/ sounds:
• Line 11: “afternoon, through”
All win
ndows down
n, all cushion
ns hot, all sen
nse

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Of being in
n a hurry gon
ne. We ran
n the image of London being like "squares of wheat" all packed-in
tight together.
This /n/ sound exerts a strong presence on this section, The last few lines are also full of consonance:
conveying a sense of the stuffy heat within the carriage. The
uniformity of the sound also evokes the uniformity of the decor [...] We slowed d again n,
inside the train, as well as foreshadowing the repetitiousness of Andnd ass the tightten ned brakkess tookk hold
ld, there swelllled
d
the landscape outside. A sens nse off falllling, like an
n arrow
w-showwer
Line 15 uses consonance to great effect, describing one of the Sent nt outt of sightt, somewhere becomin ng rain
n.
regular sights out of the train window:
Notice how the line is gripped by tightening /n/ and /d/ sounds,
Can
nals
ls with fl
floattingss of in
ndustr
striall fr
froth; helping the poem itself to feel like it's coming to a stop. This
section is also full of /s/ sounds (sibilance), which have both
Say this out loud and notice how it seems full of sounds (/n/, /f/, mundane and magical connotations. That is, they could
/l/, /t/, /s/, and /r/) that are almost like a tongue-teaser. This represent the sound of rainfall—or collectively perhaps they
moment conveys the common sight of industrial waste by mimic the sound of a spell or incantation through their
clogging up the line with consonance. rhythmic repetitiveness.
The poem then uses noisy consonance, some of which is
alliter
alliteration
ation, to convey the boisterous arrival of the wedding Where Consonance appears in the poem:
parties into the poem. So the /s/ sounds (otherwise known as • Line 1
sibilance
sibilance) of "whoopss and skirlss" (line 25), "porterss," and "mailss" • Line 2
(line 26), make the poem turn up its own volume to signal the • Line 3
commotion that's taking place on the platform. Then, with the • Line 4
speaker noticing the young female wedding guests, consonance • Line 5
is used to show the sheer effort they've made in terms of their • Line 6
appearance: • Line 7
• Line 8
We pass ssedd them m, grinn
nning
ng and
nd pommaddedd, girlss • Line 9
In parod diess of fashion, heels ls and
d veils
ls, • Line 10
Allll possedd irressollutelly, watching us go, • Line 11
• Line 12
Notice how the sounds in this section (/p/, /s/, /m/, /g/, /n/, /d/, /s/, • Line 13
and /l/) are carefully curated, mimicking the meticulous • Line 14
attention that the girls have given to their outfits. Similarly, • Line 15
lines 39 and 40 use consonance to give the reader a sense of • Line 16
the girls' "unreal[]" appearances ("llem
mons
ns, mauvvess, and ollivve- • Line 17
• Line 18
ochress").
• Line 19
Line 57 marks an important transition in the poem, the point at • Line 20
which the newlyweds separate from their wedding guests and • Line 21
head towards London (accompanied, of course, by the speaker): • Line 22
• Line 23
We hurried
d towards
ds Lond
ndon
n, shuffling gouts
ts of • Line 24
st
steam. • Line 25
• Line 26
The three consecutive /d/ sounds in the line give the poem a • Line 27
sense of forward momentum (now that the train is moving • Line 28
again), while the /s/ consonance (or sibilance) evokes the sound • Line 29
of the steam engine. • Line 30
• Line 31
Line 70 is full of consonant sound:
• Line 32
• Line 33
Its
ts post
stall dist
stricts
cts pack
cked likke sq
squaress of wheatt: • Line 34
• Line 35
The density of sounds here (/s/, /p/, /t/, /l/, /d/, and /c/) mirrors

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The repeated "all" emphasizes the uniform appearance of the
• Line 36 train from carriage to carriage. The main thing to notice is the
• Line 37 sense of an oppressive heat—though this is the first station on
• Line 38 the journey, the windows are all down from the train's previous
• Line 39 journey. And the train has been in the sun, heating up its
• Line 40 cushions and making them "reek." The "all" also has a propulsive
• Line 41 rhythm to it that anticipates the motion of the train itself.
• Line 43
• Line 44 The next example is in line 34 (quoted with 33 and 35):
• Line 45
• Line 46 [...] Struck, I leant
• Line 47 More promptly out next time, more curiously,
• Line 48 And saw it all again in different terms:
• Line 49
• Line 50 Here, the diacope signals a shift in the speaker's state of mind.
• Line 51 The wedding parties are no longer a noise happening on the
• Line 53 periphery, but his point of focus. His thought process is
• Line 54 becoming more fixed and meditative, thus opening up the rest
• Line 55 of the poem for a closer development of his observations.
• Line 56
The final example of diacope is in line 63 and describes the
• Line 57
newlyweds—who have just got on the train—as "sitting side by
• Line 58
side
side." This neat little repetition of "side" shows the proximity of
• Line 59
bride to groom, and also the way that multiple couples are
• Line 60
• Line 61 crammed into the carriages.
• Line 62 Taken together, these instances of diacope act as rhetorical
• Line 63 flourishes that heighten the speaker's observations of his
• Line 64 surroundings and the people he encounters.
• Line 65
• Line 66 Where Diacope appears in the poem:
• Line 67
• Line 68 • Line 5: “All,” “all,” “all”
• Line 69 • Line 34: “More,” “more”
• Line 70 • Line 64: “side by side”
• Line 71
• Line 72 ENJAMBMENT
• Line 73
Enjambment is used throughout "The Whitsun Weddings."
• Line 74
Indeed, every stanza has at least four enjambed lines. It's best
• Line 75
to consider the use of enjambment in relation to the poem's
• Line 76
form. The poem uses a tightly controlled ten-line stanza
• Line 77
• Line 78 throughout its eighty lines. But eighty lines of poetry would
• Lines 78-78 probably sound quite tiresome if the formal control was made
• Line 79 too obvious—if, for instance, most of the lines were end-
• Line 80 stopped
stopped. At least, the poem would probably sound like it was
written in the mid-19th rather than mid-20th century.
DIACOPE Accordingly, Larkin controls the lines, grammar, and phrases
with a hidden virtuosity, making the poem intentionally down-
Diacope is used in three lines of "The Whitsun Weddings." The
to-earth and even conversational in its tone. Enjambment is a
first instance is in line 5, when the speaker starts describing his
huge part of this, freeing sentences from having to end where
experience on the train (quoted with line 6):
the lines end. Caesur
Caesuraa is also key. In part, this adds a sense of
velocity to the poem's lines, evoking the onward momentum of
All windows down, all cushions hot, all sense
the train. Overall, then, enjambment is a vital part of the poem's
Of being in a hurry gone.
tone.

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With the above in mind, there are examples in which the
enjambment carries additional meaning too. Look at the way • Lines 44-45: “wedding-days / Were”
"sense" in line 5 and "slept" in line 11 are both suspended • Lines 45-46: “line / Fresh”
momentarily by the line-break, both words reflecting the • Lines 48-49: “ define / Just”
apparent lack of hurry. In line 16, hedges "dipped" and, in the • Lines 49-50: “frowned / At”
next line, "rose," these two verbs themselves playing out on the • Lines 50-51: “known / Success”
vertical space of the page (just as the actual hedges do in the • Lines 52-53: “shared / The”
vertical space of the train window). • Lines 54-55: “stared / At”
• Lines 58-59: “cast / Long”
Line 31's enjambment seems especially important:
• Lines 59-60: “for / Some”
• Lines 60-61: “seem / Just”
As if out on the end of an event
• Lines 61-62: “say / / I ”
Waving goodbye
• Lines 64-65: “side / —An”
• Lines 66-67: “none / Thought”
The "event" is separated from the act of "waving," playing out in • Lines 67-68: “meet / Or”
miniature the separation of the people on the platform from • Lines 71-72: “across / Bright”
those on the train. • Lines 72-73: “rail / Past”
At times, the poem even enjambs from the end of one stanza to • Lines 73-74: “moss / Came”
the start of the next. This happens between stanzas 4-7. It • Lines 74-75: “frail / Travelling”
seems particularly important between lines 60 and 61, helping • Lines 75-76: “held / Stood”
the poem emphasize the sense of separation that now applies • Lines 76-77: “power / That”
to the newlyweds—who are on the train—and the wedding • Lines 78-79: “swelled / A”
parties they have left behind. • Lines 79-80: “arrow-shower / Sent”
The last stanza is full of enjambment, which helps build the
poem towards its conclusion. Enjambment makes the SIMILE
grammatical sense of the last three lines feel tense and Simile is used in a few key moments of "The Whitsun
suspended, subtly mimicking the inevitable fall of arrows shot Weddings." There are four examples, each of them important to
into the air. the development of the poem.
The first of these is in lines 31-33, in which the young female
Where Enjambment appears in the poem: wedding guests stand on the station platform
• Lines 2-3: “about / One”
• Lines 3-4: “Saturday / Did” As if out on the end of an event
• Lines 5-6: “sense / Of” Waving goodbye
• Lines 6-7: “ran / Behind” To something that survived it.
• Lines 7-8: “street / Of”
• Lines 11-12: “slept / For” This simile beautifully foregrounds the poem's concern about
• Lines 14-15: “and / Canals” time and impermanence. For all its apparent importance, not to
• Lines 16-17: “dipped / And” mention pomp and ceremony, each wedding is coming to an
• Lines 17-18: “grass / Displaced” end—subtly hinting at the way all things decay over time. The
• Lines 18-19: “carriage-cloth / Until” train departing the platform—separating from the girls still
• Lines 21-22: “noise / The” standing there—seems to mimic the way a whole life can go by
• Lines 22-23: “made / Each” seemingly in the blink of an eye, and it's as if the girls and the
• Lines 23-24: “destroys / The” speaker subconsciously recognize this.
• Lines 25-26: “skirls / I” The next simile is also about female wedding guests and
• Lines 28-29: “girls / In” appears in lines 52 and 53:
• Lines 31-32: “event / Waving”
• Lines 32-33: “goodbye / To”
The women shared
• Lines 33-34: “leant / More”
The secret lik
likee a happy funeral;
• Lines 36-37: “suits / And”
• Lines 40-41: “that / Marked”
These women are older than the girls in the last simile. This is a
• Lines 42-43: “cafés / And”
mysterious moment in the poem which asks the reader to
• Lines 43-44: “bunting-dressed / Coach-party”
consider what this "secret" actually is—and why it is like a

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"happy funeral." The simile seems to speak to the same theme Here, the verb "thrown" applies to both "confetti" and "advice,"
as above: time and impermanence. These women know from but in different senses. That is, the onlookers literally throw
experience that the promises of young love—and the vows confetti, and figuratively "throw," or shout out, advice.
made on wedding days—are often undone in the fullness of By employing zeugma here, the speaker equates advice and
time. That's why it's both a happy day, full of life, and a kind of confetti. It's easy to imagine each bit of advice almost as a
funeral—something hard to define has died (youthful naiveté, cheap, colorful scrap of paper, just like confetti. And just as
perhaps). confetti is a traditional element of U.K. weddings, the speaker
The next simile is in lines 69 and 70, when the train gets near to humorously suggests that advice is too. Yet confetti is also
London (its final stop): literally thrown away in celebration. It all looks the same, and is
easily disposable. In using zeugma here, the speaker seems to
I thought of London spread out in the sun, imply that this advice is also throwaway, that it's also basically
Its postal districts packed lik
likee squares of wheat: all the same.
This taps into the speaker's feeling that people's lives aren't as
Apart from being a brilliant image, this moment relates to the unique as they think they are. Everyone gets married, grows
way that the newlyweds themselves are all "packed" in tight on old, has the same problems, and then dies—all to keep the
the train carriage. The reference to wheat speaks to notions of human race going. This last celebratory moment neatly sums
fertility and new growth, perhaps preempting the collective that up. Abstract human experiences—such as receiving advice
power that the speaker ascribes to the newlyweds in lines 76 from loved ones—are no more unique or important that shreds
and 77. of paper.
The poem's final simile is right at the end: Packing all these sentiments (or lack of sentiment) into a single
line is an example of Larkin's signature wit. Of course, it's a very
[...] We slowed again, dry and cynical wit. This use of zeugma, then, clearly shows how
And as the tightened brakes took hold, there swelled Larkin was able to use poetry to offer sharp commentary on the
A sense of falling, lik
likee an arrow-shower state of human affairs in mid-century England.
Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming rain.
Where Z
Zeugma
eugma appears in the poem:
This simile is about the feeling of momentum as the train's
brakes tighten (a kind of leaning-forward sensation that stops • Line 47: “The last confetti and advice were thrown”
when the train is fully stationary). The simile compares that
"swell[ing]" sense of falling to an "arrow-shower" arcing up high
into the air and falling back down to earth as rain. This is a VOCABULARY
complicated idea that alludes to the myth of Cupid (discussed
in the allusion section). Essentially, it expresses the poem's Whitsun (Line 1) - Whitsun is the name used in Britain (and
ambiguity—maybe there is a genuine magic to love, or maybe elsewhere) for the Pentecost, which is the seventh Sunday
love is as common as bad weather in England. after Easter, marking the visitation of the Holy Spirit to Jesus's
disciples. In England, it was a popular date for a wedding
Where Simile appears in the poem: because it granted certain tax advantages and was on a long
weekend (the Monday was an extra day off).
• Lines 31-33: “As if out on the end of an event / Waving
goodbye / To something that survived it.” Lincolnshire (Line 10) - A county in the east of England.
• Lines 52-53: “ The women shared / The secret like a Hothouse (Line 16) - A heated glass building for growing
happy funeral;” plants, similar to a greenhouse.
• Lines 69-70: “I thought of London spread out in the sun, Reek (Line 18) - A strong bad smell.
/ Its postal districts packed like squares of wheat”
• Lines 78-80: “there swelled / A sense of falling, like an Carriage-Cloth (Line 18) - The fabric that covers the train's
arrow-shower / Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming seats.
rain.” Nondescript (Line 19) - Bland; similar; lacking defining detail.
In other words, all the towns look the same.
ZEUGMA Whoops and Skirls (Line 25) - Shouting and cheering.
The poem employs zeugma in line 47: Porters (Line 26) - People employed at the station for moving
things around (including the mail).
The last confetti and advice were thrown
Larking (Line 26) - Playing around (with a possible pun on the

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poet's name). all, the whole poem has followed the speaker's train journey
Pomaded (Line 28) - Pomade is a waxy hair product (especially chronologically—in a straightforward, stop-by-stop manner.
popular in mid-20th century Britain). The girls have a lot of this It's also worth noting that the ten-line stanzas—and indeed the
product in their hair. eight stanza total length— steers close to the ode form
Seamy (Line 37) - Seamy means something like sordid and developed and employed by John Keats in his own odes (see,
disreputable, but here probably relates more to the kind of for instance, "Ode
Ode to a Nightingale
Nightingale"). Like those odes, this poem
seams found on stitched fabric. In other words, the fathers is an examination of time and beauty (or, perhaps, the lack of it).
have lines (wrinkles) on their foreheads. And like those odes, the poem employs a meditative tone as the
speaker makes a series of observations.
Smut (Line 38) - Rude, lewd, or dirty words.
Perms (Line 38) - A curly hairstyle created using heat and METER
chemicals. "The Whitsun Weddings" is a tightly-organized metrical poem,
Bunting-Dressed (Line 43) - Decorated with small coloured and is a quintessential example of Larkin's control of rhythm
flags. and stress
stress. The poem is definitively iambic (da-DUM
DUM), giving it a
steadily propulsive sound that evokes the momentum of a train
Annexes (Line 44) - An annex is a small constructed space traveling across the country. For the most part, these iambs are
connected to a main building. in lines of five feet
feet—the classic sound of iambic pentameter
pentameter.
Gouts of Steam (Line 57) - Gouts are drops or spots, in this Line 9 provides a perfect example:
case of steam (the train is a steam engine).
Poplars (Line 58) - A common London tree. They are tall and The ri
ri- | ver’s le
levv- | el drift
drift- | ing breadth |began
gan,
narrow, and often planted in rows.
Odeon (Line 65) - A chain of cinemas in the U.K. Notice how steady and consistent this sounds. If there's one
classic metrical scheme for English poetry, it's probably iambic
Pullmans (Line 73) - Train carriages manufactured by the
pentameter—making this the perfect meter for a poem so
Pullman Company.
resolutely based in the English landscape (both rural and
urban). The rhythm is also hypnotic, evoking the way that the
FORM, METER, & RHYME rhythms of train wheels can lull people into a kind of stupor (or
sleep!).
FORM Of course, one look at any of the poem's eight stanzas will
"The Whitsun Weddings" is a tightly controlled formal poem. It demonstrate that not all the lines have five metrical feet. The
is composed of eight ten-line stanzas that follow a strict meter second line in each stanza is only two feet long (iambic
and rh
rhyme
yme (further discussed in those sections of the guide). dimeter
dimeter). Apart from being another demonstration of Larkin's
control of meter, this seems to mimic the push and pull of a
Put simply, this is a long poem! This is deliberate on Larkin's
train accelerating and decelerating as it negotiates several
part, allowing for the slow and steady development of the
stations along its route. "For miles | inland
land"—which is line 12—is
poem's main themes (love, time, isolation and so on). The poem
a good example of this variation.
is in no hurry and develops at a regular pace, mimicking the
steady forward momentum of the train. Caesur
Caesurae
ae often It's worth noting that the poem's general form is very close to
provide stopping points, like stations along the way. Even the odes of John Keats, a 19th century British Romantic poet
looking at it on the page, the uniformity of the stanza shape (see "Ode
Ode to a Nightingale
Nightingale"). Like those odes, this poem has
makes the poem visually resemble the equal-length carriages of ten-line stanzas, and both poets use the same rhrhyme
yme scheme
scheme.
the train, as though the reader is looking down on the train So perhaps the shorter second line in each stanza is Larkin's
from above. way of marking this form as his own—paying tribute to Keats
but also diverging in his own direction.
There are some key moments to note during the poem's "slow
and stopping development." The first two stanzas have no There are a few key moments where the poem disrupts its
mention of the weddings at all—the weddings arrive in the iambic pattern. Line 32, for example, employs a troachic
third. Then, after the caesura in line 55, the newlyweds part (DUM
DUM-da) substitution in its first foot:
ways with their guests, marking the next significant transition in
the poem. Finally, the train comes to its destination in the last Waving | goodb
bye
stanza—which is also the point when the poem is at its most
ambiguous and figur
figurativ
ativee, with the "arrow-shower" simile
simile. The This makes the word "wave" seem more active, while also giving
poem, then, comes to a stop at the same time as the train. All in it a falling rhythm that perhaps foreshadows the similar

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metrical effects used in the poem's penultimate line. while the rhyme between "froth" and "carriage-cloth" in stanza
Before looking at that line, though, here is line 57: two is crystal clear.
These moments help steer the poem away from overly poetic
We hur
hur- | ried towards Lon
on- | don, shuff
shuff- | ling gouts | language. They also suggest a tension between a prescribed
of steam
steam. path (rhyme scheme), and the possibility of wandering away
from that path—just as young people must weigh the pressure
There are a number of ways of scanning the above line, but to marry against the option of breaking with that tradition.
notice how the unstressed syllables in "hur
hurried towards As a whole, this rhyme scheme has its roots in the Keatsian odeode,
Lon
ondon" seem to rush out of the mouth, as the reader tries to which follows the same set of rhymes and was John Keats's
squeeze the extra syllables into the established iambic sound. development of the classical ode form. It lends itself well to
This, then, mimics the very image that it describes—a hurried meditative contemplation, which is precisely what is on show in
journey. this poem (aided by the meditative rhythms of the train journey
Now, here's the poem's end (lines 79 and 80): itself). Technically speaking, the rhyme scheme divides each
stanza into four lines and six lines respectively—a quatr
quatrain
ain and
A sense | of fall
fall- | ing, lik
likee | an arr
arr- | ow show
shower a sestet
sestet. Larkin intentionally avoids accenting this division,
Sent out | of sight
sight, | some
somewhere | becom com- | ing rain
ain. aiming for the disarming casual tone that draws the reader
deep into the poem.
Notice how the penultimate line (79) builds tension through
the sound of falling. Though it can be scanned to pretty much
conform to iambic pentameter, the extra syllable at the end of SPEAKER
the line creates this falling effect:
Most people interpret the speaker in this poem as Larkin
himself—or a version of Larkin at least! This would have been a
A sense | of fal
fal- | ling, lik
likee | an ar
ar- | row show
shower
familiar train journey for Larkin, who lived and worked in Hull
(east England) for most of his life. The poem is written in the
Contrast that line, then, with the one that follows immediately
first-person singular ("I"), but occasionally it slips into the first-
after and closes the poem. The last two feet in this line are
person plural ("we"). This slight confusion is thematically useful
iambic again ("becom
com- | ing rain
ain"), which has the effect of
for the poem, showing that there is a kind of tension between
bringing the poem's sound back down to earth. So, the
the speaker's isolation as a detached observer and the groups
penultimate line goes up and the final line goes down, ending on
of wedding guests—between individual and community, in
the heavy stress of rain.
other words.
RHYME SCHEME That said, there is no clear indicator in the poem itself as to who
The rh
rhyme
yme scheme in "The Whitsun Weddings" is strict and the speaker is. However, for the sake of clarity, this guide has
regular throughout the poem. Each ten-line stanza runs: also taken the speaker to be Larkin or a version of Larkin. As
such, we use the singular "he" to refer the speaker, in contrast
ABABCDECDE
to the "they" that refers to the many people that the individual
Perhaps the most remarkable thing about the rhyme speaker sees on his journey.
scheme—apart from the way Larkin sustains it for so many lines
For the most part, the speaker is just a typical train-traveler
without it becoming tiresome—is the way that it is not even
gazing out of the window. At first, he doesn't even notice the
that noticeable. Indeed, Larkin opts for a conversational tone
boisterous wedding parties, mistaking them for rowdy
without too many obvious poetic elements—and the rhymes
employees (line 26). He tries to go on reading, but then he takes
are just there, without drawing too much attention to
more notice of the weddings, deciding to concentrate on them
themselves. They help push the poem forward, but without
more intently. The rest of the poem depicts his innermost
becoming a distraction.
thoughts about those weddings, and there is a distinct division
Many of the rhymes are also slant rhrhymes
ymes—often so between him and them. For the most part, his tone is very
imperceptible that it's only through the rhyme scheme in other down-to-earth—but it takes a leap into something more
stanzas that readers can notice them. For instance, "street" and figur
figurativ
ativee in the poem's closing image of an "arrow-shower"
"meet" clearly rhyme in stanza one, whereas the chime falling "out of sight."
between "grass" and "cars" is much more subtle. Similarly, the
rhyme between "sense" and "fish-dock," if it exists at all, is
practically impossible to perceive (the two share sibilant SETTING
sounds, and their /e/ and /i/ sounds are somewhat similar),
"The Whitsun Weddings" has a very distinctive sense of setting.

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First of all, it's set on a specific day—Whitsun Saturday (in May). A good comparison poem would be "An An Arundel TTomb
omb," which
It takes place in England on a journey between the east uses a sculpture as a way to reflect on the nature of love. This
(Lincolnshire) and London, the capital. The year isn't specified poem appears in the same collection as "The Whitsun
though there are clues that place it in the 1950s, which was Weddings" (the collection is also called The Whitsun Weddings).
when the Larkin wrote and published the poem. It's a hot day, This poem subtly hints that love might not be quite as magical
making the trains "reek" with the stench of "carriage-cloth." as it seems. Such a sentiment is probably best expressed in
The poem is, of course, set on a train. This is a vital component Larkin's "This
This Be the V
Verse
erse." That poem presents love as a kind
of how the poem develops—the train journey provides the of dumb biological force, helping one generation "hand[] on
poem's vantage point (the speaker looking out of the window) misery" to the next.
and the sense of time passing, as the speaker passes through
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
one station after another. This combination of the speaker's
gaze and the hours going by contributes to the poem's The poem is set sometime in 1950s England, and the historical
meditative and reflective tone. context plays an important role throughout. During that era,
getting married on the Whitsun weekend afforded the British
The poem, then, is full of observations specifically relating to
public two key advantages: a tax break, and a longer weekend
the setting. The speaker observes both rural and urban
(because the Monday was a bank holiday). This made it a very
environments—farms and "acres of dismantled cars." This gives
popular weekend for getting married—hence the sheer number
the reader a sense of post-war England—the speaker passes of wedding parties encountered on the speaker's train journey
towns that are too new to really have their own character, and from Lincolnshire to London. It's worth noting that this
this contributes to a tension between the natural world and advantage was more meaningful to the lower economic classes,
urban growth (playing into the poem's discussion of love as a and the poem is sometimes criticized as being a somewhat
kind of unstoppable life-force). Cultural references like the snobbish takedown from a middle-class poet. In turn, this
Odeon cinema and "someone running up to bowl" (cricket) criticism itself is often debated.
showcase typical leisure activities of the day.
The historical context plays out in the view from the train
window. The speaker, usually taken to be Larkin himself, sees a
CONTEXT country in transition. England underwent a great deal of
rebuilding after the Second World War, and whole new towns
LITERARY CONTEXT were created (the "nondescript" nature of these towns is
referenced in line 19). There is a kind of tension between the
"The Whitsun Wedding" is one of Larkin's most enduring
rural countryside and the built urban environment, subtly
poems and showcases many of his poetry's distinctive
playing out beside the train tracks.
characteristics. There is a virtuosic control of rh
rhyme
yme and meter
coupled with a disarmingly down-to-earth tone. Larkin was The approach to London brings with it a noticeable change too,
grouped with a number of other mid-20th century British poet the speaker seeing signs of popular leisure activities like the
as The Movement (poets like Thom Gunn Gunn, Donald Da Davie
vie, and cinema and cricket (lines 65 and 66). Larkin was preoccupied
Ted Hughes
Hughes) who defined themselves against the Romantic and with the changing nature of sex and relationships in British
abstract excesses of earlier poets like Dylan Thomas
Thomas. society, and though this poem predates the introduction of the
contraceptive pill and the liberating attitudes of the 1960s,
As always, these kinds of groupings are somewhat crude—and,
Larkin's fixation on the meaning—or lack of meaning—of love is
indeed, Larkin's poetry features many elements that are
in full display. The poem also nods to love as a kind of constant
perhaps more in line with the Romantic poets than it first
presence in human history with the allusion to Cupid (a god
appears. This poem, for example, is heavily indebted to the
from classical mythology) in the closing lines.
formal innovations of John K Keats
eats, perhaps the quintessential
Romantic poet. "The Whitsun Weddings" has the same stanza
length, rhyme scheme, and meditative tone as some of Keats's
odes (for instance, "Ode
Ode to a Nightingale
Nightingale"). That said, this poem
MORE RESOUR
RESOURCES
CES
is considerably less prone to romantic idealism, and feels very EXTERNAL RESOURCES
much rooted in its specific historical and cultural context.
• Weddings and Statistics — An interesting analysis of the
Larkin has a reputation for being a somewhat miserable, cynical changing social habits of marriage through the years, from
poet. While there's undoubtedly some truth in this, the poem is the British Office of National Statistics.
undoubtedly beautiful and certainly has an element of nostalgic (https:/
(https://www
/www.ons.go
.ons.govv.uk/visualisations/marriages/
longing throughout it. For someone so supposedly critical of marriages/inde
marriages/index.html)
x.html)
love, the subject occupies a number of Larkin's most famous
poems. • BBC Documentary — A film about Larkin that particularly

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 Get hundreds more LitCharts at www.litcharts.com
looks at the importance of place in his poetry.
(https:/
(https://www
/www..youtube.com/watch?v=0E4q55lPSrk) HOW T
TO
O CITE
• More PPoems
oems and Larkin
Larkin's
's Bio — A valuable resource from
the Poetry Foundation. MLA
(https:/
(https://www
/www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/philip-larkin)
.poetryfoundation.org/poets/philip-larkin) Howard, James. "The Whitsun Weddings." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC,
7 Jan 2020. Web. 22 Apr 2020.
• A Reading of the PPoem
oem — The poem read by the poet
himself. (https:/
(https://www
/www..youtube.com/ CHICAGO MANUAL
watch?v=c9eTF6QNsxA)
Howard, James. "The Whitsun Weddings." LitCharts LLC, January 7,
• An Essa
Essayy — An interesting piece from the Poetry 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020. https://www.litcharts.com/
Foundation about the poem. poetry/philip-larkin/the-whitsun-weddings.
(https:/
(https://www
/www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/68946/philip-
.poetryfoundation.org/articles/68946/philip-
larkin-the-whitsun-weddings)

LITCHARTS ON OTHER PHILIP LARKIN POEMS

• An Arundel T
Tomb
omb

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