Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 4150–4157

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Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

A review on additive manufacturing of polymers composites

Neha Yaragatti a,⇑, Amar Patnaik b
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Manipal University Jaipur, India
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Additive Manufacturing, referred to as 3D printing has extended beyond simple prototyping and is being
Received 17 September 2020 used for the fabrication of fully functional active components. It is one of the flexible manufacturing tech-
Received in revised form 10 October 2020 nique that can apply to polymers, metals, ceramics, concrete, and composites. Owing to the ability to
Accepted 13 October 2020
select from a wide range of processible polymers and the enhancement in some of the properties offered
Available online 25 November 2020
by polymers, the AM industry, still predominantly targets the production of polymeric components. This
review demonstrates the current state of AM industry regarding polymeric materials. A brief explanation
Keywords:
of the additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, polymers, and polymer composites (fibre reinforces, par-
Additive manufacturing
3D printing
ticle reinforced and nanocomposites) utilised in the AM processes is provided. Polymer AM is being
Life cycle assessment applied in different applications such as biomedical, electronics, aerospace, automobile, and sporting
Polymers industries respectively. The review also emphasizes the rising importance of antimicrobial polymers in
Green composites the COVID-19 pandemic. The exponential use of polymeric materials in the industrial sector has caused
an increase in wastage generation and disposal issues which draws attention to the importance of green
composites as well as life cycle assessment (LCA) of products and processes. Finally, the significance of
Distributed Recycling via AM due to the disposal issues and low polymer recycling rates is illustrated.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advances in Materials Processing & Manufacturing Applications.

1. Introduction then applied extensively in the field of building and construction,

aerospace, automotive sector, biomedical, art and also in the food
Additive manufacturing is defined as the process of joining, industry. AM can produce custom-tailored products for end users,
layer upon layer to make objects from 3D model data [1]. The first with relatively lower costs as compared to other manufacturing
method to create an object by using computer-aided-design (CAD) techniques[5]. Fig. 1 demonstrates the basic steps involved in the
was developed in the 1980s [2]. From being used for simple proto- fabrication of a 3D printed part. Additive Manufacturing is playing
typing, additive manufacturing has entered an era where the users a vital role in the supply chain of the medical industries which
are in the driver’s seat, pushing its boundaries in production appli- faced mass shortage of crucial medical equipment and protective
cations [3].Overall size of the market for additive manufacturing products in the COVID-19 pandemic [6]. Instead of waiting for face
machines and related products, services and software as predicted mask parts, ventilator components, corona virus nasal testing
by Wohlers Report 2019 would be worth $US 15.8 billion in 2020, swab, face shields and parts of personal protective equipment
growing to $US 35.6 billion in 2024 [4].Unlike the conventional (PPE) to be mass produced in various countries and then supplied
manufacturing processes, additive manufacturing has emerged as to the hospitals, it allowed on demand manufacturing of these
an effective technique to reach geometrical accuracy in lesser time components thereby reducing the gap in the supply chain [7,8].
by using the raw materials efficiently and producing minimal The adoption of AM technologies in the world of manufacturing
waste [2,3]. It has been able to cut down days, weeks and even has occurred in stages which are identified as digital manufactur-
months of the product development time [1]. Due to its ability to ing, rapid tooling, rapid prototyping, and home fabrication [9].
revolutionize the way we make use products, AM has been used Despite being an emerging technology with certain limitations in
the build time, part size, and material feedstock, various polymer
and metal AM technologies are employed in the production of
⇑ Corresponding author. functional and complex components. With a focus on polymers
E-mail address: neha.u.y@gmail.com (N. Yaragatti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.490
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Materials Processing & Manufacturing Applications.
N. Yaragatti and A. Patnaik Materials Today: Proceedings 44 (2021) 4150–4157

Fig. 1. Steps involved in the 3D printing process.

and polymeric materials, this review paper describes the AM tech- mation of the CAD file over a movable build platform. It includes
niques that uses polymers, the role polymers have been playing in techniques like fused deposition modelling (FDM) and fused fila-
the growth of AM and recent developments in the use of polymers ment fabrication (FFF). During extrusion, the filament is in a
and polymer composites for AM. The importance of green compos- semi-liquid state and it hardens as it cools down after extrusion.
ites and polymer recycling is illustrated in Fig. 1. Sometimes, the designs require support which are provided by
additional nozzles. Due to low thermal expansion coefficient, melt-
2. Polymer AM technologies ing temperature and glass transition temperature, which can
reduce internal stresses caused during cooling, thermoplastic
Due to their tremendous synthetic versatility, adaptability, amorphous polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), PC-ABS blend,
availability of a variety of preformed processible options, and the polycarbonate (PC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and
ability to result in a wide range of properties, polymers have polyphenylsulfone (PPSF) are used in this process and no chemical
become the most sought and researched materials for additive reaction takes place during the print process. Material extrusion is
manufacturing technologies [10]. Polymer additive manufacturing the least expensive and a very user-friendly AM technology and the
offers numerous advantages over conventional polymer processing materials used are environmentally and mechanically stable [14].
techniques. Expensive development of tooling to iterate through
new ideas and concepts is eradicated in polymer AM. Thermoplas- 2.2. Powder bed fusion
tics, hydrogels, thermosets, functional polymers, elastomers, poly-
mer blends, and biological systems are the range of polymers used Powder bed fusion(PBF), also known as selective laser sintering
in AM [11]. ASTM International classifies AM technologies into (SLS), uses laser beam to selectively sinter or fuse layers of powder
seven categories and the detail mentioned in the Fig. 2 [12]. It uses one by one. Semi crystalline polymers that soften over a small tem-
a minimum amount of feed stock material, thereby saving on perature change with a notable change in viscosity are used for this
material cost and waste disposal and the in-house part production process. At times, thermoplastic polymers employed in SLS could
reduces the complexity of supply chain [13]. also present amorphous characteristics. Since the surrounding
powder cake can provide support to the overhangs, this process
2.1. Material extrusion does not require support structures. Polyamide 12 (nylon), is the
most popular semi crystalline material used in powder bed fusion.
Material extrusion is the most popular and extended AM tech- Polymer blends and composites like PA with fiber glass or metal
nology in which thermoplastic polymers in the form of filament are fibres are also used. Polycaprolactone (PCL), a biocompatible poly-
selectively dispensed through a nozzle according to the layer infor- mer is also used in SLS for biomedical applications. Commodity

Fig. 2. Types of AM Technologies.

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polymers like HDPE and polypropylene are used for the applica- the most sought solutions to overcome the challenges offered by
tions with lower mechanical demand in powder bed fusion [11,15]. pure polymers [19]. AM of polymer composites combines with
matrix and reinforcements to get a useful structural or functional
2.3. Vat polymerisation properties non attainable by any of the constituent alone, thus
eradicating the problems generated by parts printed with pure
Vat polymerisation is a technique in which photosensitive liq- polymers [20]. Reinforcement of secondary metallic, ceramic, or
uid thermoset polymers undergo photolithographic cross-linking polymeric inclusions in the form of fibres, whiskers, platelets, or
layer by layer to form a free-standing solid object. Stereolithogra- particles in a host polymer matrix leads to the formation of poly-
phy (SLA), continuous liquid interface production (CLIP), two pho- mer matrix composite (PMC). PMCs offer enhanced material and
ton polymerization (2PP), digital light processing (DLP), and mechanical properties and are serving to their full potential in var-
multiphoton polymerization (MPP) fall under this category. Pho- ious industries. Polymer composites have been broadly classified
topolymer materials used in vat polymerization are made up of oli- as particle reinforced polymer composites, fibre reinforced poly-
gomers, monomers, photo initiators, and additives like dyes, mer composites and nano composites [20].
antifoaming agents, inhibitors, toughening agents etc. SLA uses
laser emitting in the UV range as the light source to induce layer 3.1. Particle reinforced PMCs
by layer polymerization and cross linking of the liquid resin point
by point. DLP is similar to SLA, the only difference being exposure Due to their isotropic properties and low cost, particle rein-
of each layer all at once, rather than point by point, to a selectively forcements are being widely used to improve the properties and
masked light source. CLIP creates a dead zone by using an oxygen functionalities of the polymer matrix. Mixing particles with poly-
permeable film to inhibit polymerization at the surface near UV mers is easy, either in liquid form for SLA, powder form for SLS
source, which eliminates the need to recoat. or in the form of printable filaments for FDM. They provide
improved mechanical strength, improved dielectric permittivity
2.4. Material jetting and binder jetting and better wear resistance [21]. Zheng et al. [22] used Nano-
Al2O3 particles coated with polystyrene (PS) with a core–shell
Material jetting is a process in which selective deposition of the structure prepared by emulsion polymerization as fillers to rein-
build material such as photo polymers and thermoplastic materials force polystyrene based composites prepared by selective laser sin-
in the form of droplets takes place on a build platform with the tering. They confirmed that the surface treatments of the
help of an inkjet head. The nozzle ejects small droplets of the pho- nanoparticles resulted in a stronger and tougher polystyrene
topolymer material as it moves horizontally across the build plat- matrix. Nanoparticles dispersed well in the polymer matrix and
form. The layers are cured using UV light [11,16]. Binder jetting the material properties were enhanced with the accomplishment
process selectively deposits picolitre sized droplets of a liquid of a full dense structure. Kalsoom et al. [23] developed a thermally
binding agent onto a surface of a bind powder bed. Post processing conducting composite material made up of up to 30% microdia-
is done to remove the binder and to densify the constituent pow- mond particles in acrylate resins using SLA technique. The material
der and feedstock material that can be formed into a powder [11]. was used to rapidly 3D print prototypes of heat sink and cooling
coils.
2.5. Laminated object manufacturing
3.2. Fibre reinforced PMCs
Sheet lamination or laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a
Fibre reinforced composites has transformed AM into a robust
process in which feedstock in the form of sheets made from syn-
manufacturing model and FRP composites have exceptional prop-
thetic polymers or paper are bonded together or cut respectively,
erties like high strength to weight ratio, durability, damping prop-
to form an object. The sheets constitute a layer of the AM process.
erty, stiffness, impact, flexural strength, and wear resistance to
Various thermoplastics, including PC and PMMA, and polymer-
corrosion [24]. Glass fibres, graphene fibres, basalt fibres, kevlar
based composites have been utilised to build objects using LOM
fibres and carbon fibres are the commonly used synthetic fibres
technique. LOM has also been used to fabricate complex multilayer
in fibre-reinforced polymers. Natural fibres are more economical
ceramic components with the help of polymer additives [17].
than synthetic fibres due to their properties like reduced toxicity,
cost, weight, recyclability, and ease of availability[25]. Tekinalp
2.6. Direct energy deposition et al.[26] proposed the short fibre reinforced acrylonitrile butadi-
ene styrene (ABS) composites as a feedstock for 3D-printing and
Direct energy deposition (DED) uses focused thermal energy in showed that the tensile strength and modulus increases with the
the form of laser or plasma arc to melt and bind materials fed in the increase in the fibre content. Basalt fibre reinforced polymer (BFRP)
form of powder or wire, as they are being deposited. DED has the composites showed an increase in static strength and fatigue life at
capacity to produce large volume deposition rates and is predom- a certain maximum stress with a decrease in temperature [24].
inantly used for metals. It is used for repair and to generate com- Dickson et al. evaluated the properties of continuous carbon, glass,
positional gradients [18]. and kevlar fibre reinforced nylon composites. As compared to the
nylon printed specimen, an enhancement in the tensile properties
3. Polymer composites for AM by 6.3 times for tensile strength and 5 times for flexural strength
was observed [25].
The need for better materials in terms of strength, stiffness,
density, and lower cost with improved sustainability is growing. 3.3. Nanocomposites
Polymers have always grabbed the attention of manufacturers
due to their unique characteristics like ease of production, avail- Nanocomposites have attracted considerable amount of atten-
ability, light weight, low cost, ductility, and long life [19]. But parts tion from researchers and industry [27]. Polymer nanocomposites
printed from pure polymers have limited mechanical properties (PNCs) are the type of materials with nanofillers scattered in poly-
and functionalities and are not widely used as fully functional mer matrix. These nanofillers are used either as reinforcements or
and load bearing parts [20].Composites have emerged as one of as functional additives. Small loading of nanofillers enhance the
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mechanical, chemical, thermal, and other properties considerably and prevention, that take individual variability into account [32].
[28]. When using for AM, polymer nanocomposites can be used Additive manufacturing is assisting inpropelling the field of per-
for fabrication, in the same manner as pure polymers without sonalised medicines to greater horizons with its potential and
any modification of the machine [28]. Two ways have been identi- capabilities in implementing dose personalisation, multi-drug
fied to incorporate nanomaterials into a 3D print job: (1) automat- combinations, tailored release profiles, patient-friendly formula-
ically or manually introducing nanomaterials by intermittent tions and on demand printing.
stopping of 3D printing process of the host matrix material (2)
pre-mixing of nanomaterials into the host matrix before the 3D 4.1.2. Biomedical scaffolds and tissue engineering
printing of the nanocomposite mixture [27]. Chen et al. [29] pre- Biomedical scaffolds either made of natural or synthetic poly-
pared polyurethane /polylactic acid/ graphene oxide (GO) mers are used in biomedical and tissue engineering applications
nanocomposites by a solvent-based mixing process and extruded for the restoration, regeneration, or injured functional living organs
into a filament for FDM process. The addition of GO largely or replacement of defective and tissues. These scaffolds have a
enhanced the mechanical property and thermal stability of the highly porous 3D structure that permit cell activities like migra-
nanocomposites. tion, proliferation, and differentiation, and enable transportation
of oxygen and nutrients [33]. Scaffold materials must be biocom-
4. Applications and recent developments in AM of polymers and patible and nontoxic. Polymeric materials like hydrogels, proteins,
their composites thermoplastics, metallic materials like titanium and magnesium
alloys, bioactive ceramics and glasses, and polymer composites
Polymers are one of the fastest growing categories among all are the commonly used materials for scaffold fabrication [33].
the materials employed for various applications. Depending on Some of the polymeric materials used are natural polymers like
the type of method employed for fabrication, 3D printed parts gelatin, collagen, hyaluronic acid, and alginate, or synthetic poly-
are used in various sectors of industry. These parts are produced mers such as poly(e-caprolactone), polylactic acid, polyglycolic
using materials like natural or synthetic polymers, ceramics, resins, acid and polylactic-co-glycolic acid. The 3D bioprinting has
metals, composites or even living cells [30]. Fig. 3 shows the sec- emerged as a most appropriate method for the production of
tors of industry using polymeric parts fabricated using additive biomedical scaffolds and is a technique for controlling a cell pat-
manufacturing technologies. An overview of some of the applica- tern to retain the functionality and viability of the cells within
tions of AM fabricated polymeric parts has been discussed below. the printed 3D structure [34]. The computer aided design (CAD)
software allows easy customization of applied scaffolds in human
4.1. Biomedical and medical parts body [33].

Recent application of AM in biomedical field and medical parts 4.1.3. Dental applications
and devices is focused on regenerative medicine, tissue engineer- Photopolymers have been used for dental restorative applica-
ing, fabrication of porous scaffolds, orthopaedic devices, prosthesis, tions for years and are now being used to build crowns, dentures,
medical instrument fabrication, digital dentistry, drug delivery, 3D and artificial teeth by AM techniques. Dental modelling and con-
bioprinting etc. [30]. struction of temporary crowns, bridges and orthodontic bracket
guides is being done through SLA and inkjet printing [11].
4.1.1. Personalised medicines
Trenfield et al. [31] coined the term ‘printlets’ to refer to 3D 4.2. Electronics
printed tablets with a tailored dose, shape, size and release charac-
teristics that could be produced on-demand instead of the conven- A significant share in the electronics fabrication market is occu-
tional large batch processes that have been used for the ‘one-size- pied by printed electronics. Traces and interconnects, with passive
fits-all’ approach. In January 2015, a Precision Medicine Initiative and active components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
was launched with a concept of implementing treatment strategies application-specific electronic devices are being fabricated with

Fig. 3. Applications of 3D printed polymer parts.

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the help of AM technologies. Adapting AM technologies for print- mance through better equipments is gaining significance. AM is
ing electronic components will bring a transformation in the field being used for innovation, weight reduction of components and
of flexible electronics, wireless communications, efficient batteries to improve competitiveness. In the London Olympics 2012 and Par-
etc. [35]. Since AM technologies provide access to individual layers alympic Games, the cycling team of Great Britain collaborated with
during fabrication, complex functioning components and electron- a design firm to fabricate customised helmets for the team which
ics are being embedded into 3D printed structures. By multimate- improved the aerodynamis, comfort, safety and provided signifi-
rial 3D printing, wireless temperature and pressure sensing cant psychological advantages to the cyclists. The French Cycling
circuitry was embedded with shoe insole and fabricated. Wireless Federation in association with Erpro & Sprint and GIES2A devel-
communication chips was also embedded in the insole for data oped custom cycling handlebars that improved the rigidity and
transmission. The feasibilitiy of fabricating an electronically func- provided significant reduction in the bike weight [41]. The Ameri-
tional object through 3D printing was demonstrated. Lopes et al. can sports company Nike implemented the AM technology in 2013
[36] integrated stereolithography (SLA) and direct print (DP) tech- to prototype a plate for a cleat. They prototyped a fully functional
nologiesto fabricate 3D structures with embedded electronic cir- plate in a fraction of the time usually needed. The German sport
cuits [37]. wear manufacturer Adidas, created a running shoe midsole using
AM which reduced the weight and increased the flexibility of the
4.3. Aerospace product, without reducing its stability. Adidas is now planning
on producing customised shoes on demand and in store with the
Manufacturing of parts in the aerospace and aircraft industry help of a digital measurement of the customers’ feet.
very complex and time consuming. Additive manufacturing prop-
motes in time production of complex parts with no complex tool-
4.6. Antimicrobial polymers for AM
ing or huge machiery. AM parts in aerospace are divided into
metallic and non-metallic (polymer) components. Polymer AM
A basic problem in the employment of polymeric materials for
parts for non structural components are being used in the aero-
biomedical and medical purposes is related to material contamina-
space industry since the 1990s. Today leading manufacurers in
tion by a wide variety of microorganisms. Some of the materials
the aerospace industry are installing thousands of AM parts on air-
that are used in AM methodologies are naturally cytotoxic and a
crafts and are exploring the use of AM to produce parts like hinges,
majority of SLA and MJM polymers exhibit toxic effects which
brackets, interior components, and the lightweight fuselage and
can cause serious problems in biomedical applications. Antimicro-
airframe designs, targeting better fuel efficiencies [38].
bial polymers are the effective materials that have the capability to
kill or inhibit the significant growth of microbes on their surface
4.4. Automotive industry
[42]. Several polymer composites have been prepared using mate-
rials like graphene, copper, zinc, silver and TiO2 which are excellent
AM technologies in the automotive industry have paved way for
antimicrobial agent, and then used as feedstock in printers for the
lighter, safer, and environmental friendly cars with shorter produc-
fabrication of antimicrobial parts [43]. Additive manufacturing is
tion lead times at reduced costs. Ituarte et al.[39] through their
playing a key role in the supply chain of critical medical devices
case study on digital manufacturing applicability of alaser sintered
and equipment in the COVID-19 pandemic. The material contami-
component for automotive industry, showed that laser-sintered
nation by bacteria and viruses have critical limitation for use of
plastic materials are suitable in end use automotive applications,
polymeric materials to additively manufacture medical devices. It
especially when there are multiple product variations. No major
has been recently reported that nanoparticles are the appropriate
differences were found between PA12 (polyamide 12) and alumide
candidates for treatment against viruses and can be used in mon-
materials after mechanical tests, in terms of dimensional stability
itoring the COVID-19 infection. Due to the size similar to the
and fatigue resistance. They showed that PA 12 could be used to
viruses, using nanoparticles in the formulation of drugs and vacci-
produce gripper coupling instead of aluminium and that AM is
nes could be an effective measure to control COVID-19 infection.
more cost effective than IM when considering the given volumes
Antimicrobial coating with nanoparticles at public places, on pro-
and multiple product variations. Using nanocomposites in the fab-
tective equipment, and immediate surroundings is an effective
rication of vehicle parts and systems improve manufacturing
preventive measure to control the transmission of COVID-19
speed, environmental and thermal stability, promote recycling
[44]. Von Doremalen et al.[45] in their study on the surface sur-
and weight reduction. Juan et al. [40] demonstarted the application
vival of COVID-19 found that COVID-19 is detected for 4 h on cop-
of polymeric nanocomposites in the automotive industry. The key
per, up to 24 h on card board, and two to three days on plastic and
nanocomposite properties outlined by them for automotive appli-
the stainless surface under given experimental conditions. The
cations include (1) enhanced modulus and dimensional stability
development of an effective antimicrobial polymer for AM is very
(2) higher heat distortion temperature (3) improved scratch and
important due to the extensive use of polymers in the development
wear resistance and (4) toughness and rheological properties. Delic
of critical medical devices. Addition of copper nanoparticles to
et al. [41] analysed the effect of additive manufacturing adoption
polymers result in enhanced antimicrobial properties of the com-
on supply chain flexibility and performance. The research was
posite and hence provide promising applications to the develop-
based on a quantitative approach using a questionnaire survey
ment of medical devices. Fibres embedded with metallic
from a total of 124 medium-and large-sized European Union auto-
nanoparticles like copper and silver nanoparticles possess antimi-
motive manufacturing companies and hypothesized relationships
crobial and antiviral properties. Disinfectants and sanitizers with
were tested using partial least square structural equation modeling
silver salts are being used in the hospitals and at other health care
(PLS-SEM). It was proved that adoption of AM technologies posi-
facilities [46].
tively impacts supply chain flexibility, which in turn positively
impacts supply chain performance.
5. Sustainable AM of polymers, green composites and polymer
4.5. Sporting goods and equipments recycling

There is a perception that physical abilities and qualities of the Additive manufacturing finds applications in various domains
athletes are reaching their limits and improvements in perfor- due to the benefits it provides over the subtractive methods of pro-
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duction. It is playing a key role in moving towards smart and sus- 5.2. Life cycle assessment of polymers
tainable manufacturing. Some of the sustainability benefits pro-
vided by AM include improved resource efficiency, extended Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method to measure the environ-
product life, and reconfigured value chains. Despite these potential mental impact of a product or process resulting form its produc-
benefits, AM has not been appropriately investigated from a sus- tion, use and disposal. LCA is also used to find the global
tainability perspective. One of the key factors that plays a vital role warming (GW) potential, acidification, carcinogens, non-
in the sustainability aspect of AM, is the materials used. The poly- carcinogens, fossil fuel depletion, eutrophication, ozone depletion,
meric materials used for AM are not necessarily greener than human toxicity, ecotoxicity, smog formation, human health, and
materials used in traditional manufacturing. Application of poly- agricultural land use of products and processes. Tabone et al.
mers in our daily lives is unavoidable and the usage of polymers [51] evaluated the environmental impact of twelve polymers (7
and polymer composites is increasing globally. Rapid consumption polymers derived from petroleum, 4 derived from biological
of petroleum-based polymers and the polymeric waste associated resources, 1 derived from both) using the LCA methodology.
with the manufacturing processes is having a huge impact on the Horowitz et al.[52] conducted a full life cycle assessment of bottle
sustainability. Just like how the manufacturing process is expected water on four types of bottles: (1) ENSO bottle which contains a
to be sustainable, the polymers used, and their processing should special additive designed to help on the degradation of the plastic
have a minimal impact on the environment [47]. bottle after disposing it in a landfill (2) corn based PLA bottle
derived from an organic substance and degradable under certain
5.1. Green composites environmental conditions (3) recycled PET bottle which is a puri-
fied PET bottle that was disposed of and used in a closed loop sys-
To reduce the accumulation of plastic waste and the harmful tem, and (4) regular petroleum based PET bottle which is
effects of the traditional polymer composites and petroleum- conventional, non-biodegradable and accumulate in landfills.
based polymers, environment friendly materials with cleaner man- Among the 14 categories analysed, they found that recycled PET
ufacturing processes must be developed. ‘Green composites’ repre- and ENSO bottles were generally better than the PLA and regular
sent the class of materials with good environmental qualifications. PET bottles even though the ENSO bottle have highest significant
Green composites are a specific class of bio-composites where bio- effect in global warming, respiratory organics, and other recycled
polymers or bio-derived polymers are reinforced with natural PET, and has highest impact in the eutrophication category.
fibres [48]. An overview of bio-polymers and natural fibres found
in green composites is demonstrated in Fig. 4. Despite all the pos- 5.3. Polymer disposal
itive attributes of green composites or natural fibre reinforced bio-
polymers, there are some disadvantages and limitations which In the progress towards sustainability and zero discharge, con-
need to be addressed[49]. Additive Manufacturing of green com- cepts from polymer chemistry such as ‘recycling’, ‘reversible’, ‘re-
posites is currently very limited due to issues like difficulties in workable’, ‘decross linking’ and ‘biomass-based’ are joining con-
preparing composite feedstock filament for nozzle clogging, void ventional terms like ‘carbon neutral’, ‘renewal resources’ and ‘cir-
formation due to moisture absorption, fibre agglomeration and dis- cular utilization’. The total environmental impact of a product or
tribution, effect of fibre on curing and resolution, fibre orientation, process is decided by the end life scenario of polymers [47]. Main
fibre–matrix adhesion, light reflection from fibre and uncured approaches followed for disposing polymers are landfill, incinera-
regions in SLA [50]. Recent research has shown that even after tion, degradation, recycling, and composting. Disposing off poly-
being highly environment friendly, the green composites are not mers in a landfill leads to land pollution and is toxic to humans
fully eco-compatible due to limitations in recyclability and and other life forms. Even though bio-based polymers compose
biodegradability. themselves during the landfill, the process degrades over time

Fig. 4. Classification of Polymer Matrices and Natural Fibres.

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and emit methane gas which mixes with the atmosphere. Petro- materials for AM which not only fulfil the requirements of their
leum based polymers, take hundreds of years to degrade even 1% role as highly functional structures but also increase the scope of
and pollute the environment [47]. Incineration of polymer waste DRAM and open source 3D printing and recycling to improve the
not just produces harmful fumes and ash but also damages some quality of products, which is made by recycling.
biopolymers. The acceptance of incineration depends on a lot of
factors. The problems put forward by the process can be avoided CRediT authorship contribution statement
with better incinerator design and separation of feedstock. Even
though, incineration with energy recovery option reduces the envi- Neha Yaragatti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
ronmental impact, composting and recycling has provided better Writing - original draft. Amar Patnaik: Resources, Writing - review
impacts. & editing, Validation, Supervision.

5.4. Polymer recycling Declaration of Competing Interest

Due to increased usage of polymers and their low complete The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
biodegradability, recycling of polymers has gained huge impor- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
tance. Recycling will not only reduce the environmental impact to influence the work reported in this paper.
but also decrease the resource depletion. Considering the waste
management issues, recycling has demonstrated better perfor- References
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