Module-1: General Introduction

M1: General Introduction

M1.1 Introduction of Composites

Historical Development / Historical overview:

Past:

After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel, spinning of continuous yarns is
probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the
tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally
grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins.
More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw
reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M1.1.1 (a)) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone
and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Figure M1.1.1 (a): Composite Korean bow

Present:

Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true
revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the
second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties
(insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of
spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century.
First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost
reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest
development is the use of composites to protect man against fire and impact (Figure M1.1.1 (b))
and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural
fibres in the composite technology, see Figure M1.1.1 (c). Increasingly nowadays, the success of
composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and
reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers
are shown in Figure M1.1.1 (d) and Figure M1.1.1 (e).

Future:

In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process
resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength,
stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously
show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

Concept of Composite:
Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day
composite materials, which are mostly structural.

Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific
character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix
to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific
character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable
properties.

Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear
determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels
at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic.

In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding
the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the
constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force.

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or
resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of
handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for
which matrices are chosen.

Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the
reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and
metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites,
with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased
failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.

Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics.
The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some
cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two
interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites
provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of
fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of
reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is
that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive. Figure M1.1.1 (f) helps to classify
matrices.
 Figure M1.1 (f): Classification of Matrix Materials

M1.2 Basic Definitions and Classifications of Composites

M1.2.1 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix
composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer
Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-
carbon composites.
• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites
(FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a
composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties
vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further
increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the
composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and
when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These
fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body.
The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are
examples of this category.

M1.2.2 Organic Matrix Composites

M1.2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-
Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities
such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose
instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to
alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be
retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets
very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced
composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect
ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated
temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of
softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds.

Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract
the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace
metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the
morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an
extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is
constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep
resistance. Figure M1.2.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.

Figure M1.2.1: Thermoplastics

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to
be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which
often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for
heating, shaping and cooling the structures.

Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.

There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the
heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated
temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to
repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are
used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge
sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating
to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky
components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds.

Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy
matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure M1.2.2 shows some
kinds of thermosets.

Figure M1.2.2: Thermoset Materials

Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic

entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the
reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a
negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties.
Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins.

Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of
140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is
ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range
of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and
the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in
automobile and structural applications.

The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters
withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the
formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC
or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and
can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.

Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service
at around 200-250ºC .

M1.2.2.2 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are
not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and
stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They
can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most
metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need
to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature
application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by
high moduli.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix
materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-
weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures
determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be
used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more
stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

M1.2.2.3 Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general
and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at
elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a
favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures
above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.

High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined
to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is
because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the
matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an
increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.

The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some
extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted
to as an option.

When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the
resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite
will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in microcracks extending
from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a composite with tensile
strength lower than that of the matrix.

M1.2.3 Classification Based on Reinforcements

M1.2.3: Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are
essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near
circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a
preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers. Figure M1.2.3
shows types of reinforcements in composites.
 Figure M1.2.3: Reinforcements

Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes
the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or
conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform
all or one of these functions as per the requirements.

A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix
and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that
the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

M1.2.3.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.

Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers
were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant
to heat.

Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the
strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the longitudinal
fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is applied.
Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied along its
direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength of the
composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of
orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.

Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional

stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More
complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make projections
of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites, strength can be changed
from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in composites with nearly isotropic
properties.

Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number
of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to have a
constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of
the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber
composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three axes.

However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or
after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this way.

There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one, yield
composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in the
direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable ratio,
about less than one-fifth.

In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The
longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices
and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.

It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short
fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation,
although it does not reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their
lengths being several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason why
filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.

Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different
ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.

Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers
yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of composites
to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites that use glass,
ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with considerably higher strength than those
that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical strength. The
continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which
the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the
fiber is possible in the finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of
bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.

Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.

Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular
cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of
capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.

Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a
fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller diameters
due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.

After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new
options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers provide
perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in composites that are
desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse
compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow portion
is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and fabricate.

M1.2.3.2 Laminar Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can
be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may be of
several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined order more
than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.

Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to
follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values
pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and
so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed
materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets
and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are
also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong sheet may use
over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such compositions. Fiber
laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.

The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or stiffness
are single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-
effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin
continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and
electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments where
denser faces are required.

There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures.
Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted
or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the
best known metal-organic laminate. Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal
laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of metal-plastic laminates known.
They are made by adhesive bonding processes.

M1.2.3.3 Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in
the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of
reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less
equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion
hardened materials.

The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume
concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion
strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also
different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by
arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by
dispersion.

In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of
fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.

Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the three

systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties acquire
sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and geometric
shapes of the array. The composite’s strength usually depends on the diameter of the particles,
the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The matrix properties
influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.

Note: In this module text in “Italic” indicates advanced concepts.

[Give hyperlink as advanced/reference material]

M1.2.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements and Matrices
There are two types of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion
(fraction) of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the
reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart
special physical (mechanical and electrical) properties to enhance the matrix properties.

M1.2.4.1 Classification Based On Matrices

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded, and is
completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix to any point in the
material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is
usually a lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant
support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy
matrices are common.

The composite materials are commonly classified based on matrix constituent. The major
composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites
(MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is
generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites
(PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.

These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.

1. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example, use
ceramic fibers in a plastic matrix.
2. Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded in a
matrix made from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix materials such
as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used. Typical applications of MMCs
include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance systems; an MMC made from silicon-
carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is currently being developed for use as the skin
(fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace Plane.
3. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples include
silicon carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass. The ceramic
matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-temperature
components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.

M1.2.4.1.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites/Carbon-Carbon

Composites (CCC)

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such
as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of
melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the
conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a
partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible.
Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly
when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens
to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an

elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process
of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds.

Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract
the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace
metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the
morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an
extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is
constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep
resistance. Figure M1.2.4.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.

Figure M1.2.4.1: Thermoplastics

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also
to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which
often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for
heating, shaping and cooling the structures.

Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally.

There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises
the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated
temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to
repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are
used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge
sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and
heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky
components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds.

Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy
matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure M1.2.4.2 shows
some kinds of thermosets.

Figure M1.2.4.2: Thermoset Materials

Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic

entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the
reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a
negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties.
Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins.

Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of
140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is
ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide
range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for
years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They
are used in automobile and structural applications.

The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters
withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the
formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC
or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and
can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.
Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service
at around 200-250ºC .

M1.2.4.1.2 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are
not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness
are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can
withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals
and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be
stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature
application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized
by high moduli.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix
materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-
weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures
determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be
used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more
stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

M1.2.4.1.3 Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general
and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at
elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a
favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures
above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature
applications.

High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined to
cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is
because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the
matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an
increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some
extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted
to as an option.

When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the
resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite
will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in microcracks extending
from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a composite with tensile
strength lower than that of the matrix.

M1.2.4.2 Classification Based On Reinforcements

Introduction to Reinforcement

Reinforcements: A strong, inert woven and nonwoven fibrous material incorporated into the
matrix to improve its metal glass and physical properties. Typical reinforcements are asbestos,
boron, carbon, metal glass and ceramic fibers, flock, graphite, jute, sisal and whiskers, as well
as chopped paper, macerated fabrics, and synthetic fibers. The primary difference between
reinforcement and filler is the reinforcement markedly improves tensile and flexural strength,
whereas filler usually does not. Also to be effective, reinforcement must form a strong adhesive
bond with the resin.

The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing the
mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibres used in composites have
different properties and so affect the properties of the composite in different ways.

However, individual fibres or fibre bundles can only be used on their own in a few processes
such as filament winding. For most other applications, the fibres need to be arranged into some
form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for assembling fibres
into sheets and the variety of fibre orientations possible lead to there being many different types
of fabrics, each of which has its own characteristics.

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are
essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near
circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a
preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers. Figure
M1.2.4.3 shows types of reinforcements in composites.
 Figure M1.2.4.3 Reinforcements

Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes
the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or
conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform
all or one of these functions as per the requirements.

A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix
and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that
the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

M1.2.4.2.1 Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.

Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers
were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant
to heat.

Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the
strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the
longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is
applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied
along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength
of the composite.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of
orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.

Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional

stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More
complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make
projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites, strength can
be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in composites with nearly
isotropic properties.

Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number of
plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to have a
constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of
the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber
composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three axes.

However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before
or after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this way.

There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one, yield
composites with one-third the strength of an unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in the
direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a composite with a comparable ratio,
about less than one-fifth.

In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The
longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have been
reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong matrices
and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.

It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short
fibers. Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation,
although it does not reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their
lengths being several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason why
filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.

Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different
ways like winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.

Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers
yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of composites
to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation composites that use glass,
ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with considerably higher strength than those
that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical strength. The
continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in
which the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which
the composite is to be placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the
fiber is possible in the finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of
bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface.

Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.

Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular
cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of
capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites.

Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a
fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller diameters
due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects.

After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new
options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers provide
perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in composites that are
desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers, the transverse
compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the hollow portion is
more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and fabricate.

M1.2.4.2.2 Fibre Reinforcements

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic
fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high
thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the
diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used.

Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high
silica and quartz fibers, aluminina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers,
aramid fibers and multiphase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into
E-glass, A-glass, R-glass etc.

There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers.

The potential of fibers of graphite, silica carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific
mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

M1.2.4.2.3 Whiskers

Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually
discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several materials like
graphite, silicon carbide, copper, iron etc. Typical lengths are in 3 to 55 N.M. ranges. Whiskers
differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one.
Whiskers can have extraordinary strengths upto 7000 MPa.

Whiskers were grown quite incidentally in laboratories for the first time, while nature has some
geological structures that can be described as whiskers. Initially, their usefulness was
overlooked as they were dismissed as incidental by-products of other structure. However, study
on crystal structures and growth in metals sparked off an interest in them, and also the study of
defects that affect the strength of materials, they came to be incorporated in composites using
several methods, including power metallurgy and slip-casting techniques.

Metal-whisker combination, strengthening the system at high temperatures, has been

demonstrated at the laboratory level. But whiskers are fine, small sized materials not easy to
handle and this comes in the way of incorporating them into engineering materials to come out
with a superior quality composite system.

Early research has shown that whisker strength varies inversely with effective diameter. When
whiskers were embedded in matrices, whiskers of diameter upto 2 to 10µm yielded fairly good
composites.

Ceramic material’s whiskers have high moduli, useful strengths and low densities. Specific
strength and specific modulus are very high and this makes ceramic whiskers suitable for low
weight structure composites. They also resist temperature, mechanical damage and oxidation
more responsively than metallic whiskers, which are denser than ceramic whiskers. However,
they are not commercially viable because they are damaged while handling.

M1.2.4.2.4 Laminar Composites/Laminate Reinforced Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can be
described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may be of
several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined order
more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific purpose.

Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to
follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values
pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and
so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed
materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets
and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are
also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong sheet may
use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such compositions. Fiber
laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or stiffness
are single layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being
cost-effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.

Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin
continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and
electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive environments where
denser faces are required.

There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures.
Such materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted
or pre-finished metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the
best known metal-organic laminate. Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal
laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of metal-plastic laminates known.
They are made by adhesive bonding processes.

M1.2.4.2.5 Flake Composites

Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close
contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes
and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less than fibers.

But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape and show defects in the
end product. Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken the
final product. They are also resistant to be lined up parallel to each other in a matrix, causing
uneven strength. They are usually set in matrices, or more simply, held together by a matrix with
a glue-type binder. Depending on the end-use of the product, flakes are present in small
quantities or occupy the whole composite.

Flakes have various advantages over fibers in structural applications. Parallel flakes filled
composites provide uniform mechanical properties in the same plane as the flakes. While angle-
plying is difficult in continuous fibers which need to approach isotropic properties, it is not so in
flakes. Flake composites have a higher theoretical modulus of elasticity than fiber reinforced
composites. They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in small quantities.

M1.2.4.2.6 Filled Composites

Filled composites result from addition of filer materials to plastic matrices to replace a portion
of the matrix, enhance or change the properties of the composites. The fillers also enhance
strength and reduce weight.

Another type of filled composite is the product of structure infiltrated with a second-phase filler
material. The skeleton could be a group of cells, honeycomb structures, like a network of open
pores. The infiltrant could also be independent of the matrix and yet bind the components like
powders or fibers, or they could just be used to fill voids. Fillers produced from powders are
also considered as particulate composite.
In the open matrices of a porous or spongy composite, the formation is the natural result of
processing and such matrices can be strengthened with different materials. Metal impregnates
are used to improve strength or tolerance of the matrix. Metal casting, graphite, powder
metallurgy parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled composites.

In the honeycomb structure, the matrix is not naturally formed, but specifically designed to a
predetermed shape. Sheet materials in the hexagonal shapes are impregnated with resin or foam
and are used as a core material in sandwich composites.

Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite. The filler particles may
be irregular structures, or have precise geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers or
spheres.

While their purpose is far from adding visual embellishment to the composites, they occasionally
impart colour or opacity to the composite which they fill.

As inert additives, fillers can change almost any basic resin characteristic in all directions
required, to tide over the many limitations of basic resins as far as composites are concerned.
The final composite properties can be affected by the shape, surface treatment, blend of particle
types, size of the particle in the filler material and the size distribution.

Filled plastics tend to behave like two different constituents. They do not alloy and accept the
bonding. They are meant to develop mutually; they desist from interacting chemically with each
other. It is vital that the constituents remain in co-ordination and do not destroy each others
desired properties.

Matrix in a few filled composites provides the main framework while the filler furnishes almost
all desired properties. Although the matrix forms the bulk of the composite, the filler material is
used in such great quantities relatively that it becomes the rudimentary constituent.

The benefits offered by fillers include increase stiffness, thermal resistance, stability, strength
and abrasion resistance, porosity and a favorable coefficient of thermal expansion.

However, the methods of fabrication are very limited and the curing of some resins is greatly
inhibited. They also shorten the life span of some resins and are known to weaken a few
composites.

M1.2.4.2.6.1 Microspheres

Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their specific gravity, stable
particle size, strength and controlled density to modify products without compromising on
profitability or physical properties are it’s their most-sought after assets.

Solid glass Microspheres, manufactured from glass are most suitable for plastics. Solid glass
Microspheres are coated with a binding agent which bonds itself as well as the sphere’s surface
to the resin. This increases the bonding strength and basically removes absorption of liquids into
the separations around the spheres.

Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence the commercial value
and weight of the finished product. Studies have indicated that their inherent strength is carried
over to the finished moulded part of which they form a constituent.

Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled specific gravity. They are
larger than solid glass spheres used in polymers and commercially supplied in a wider range of
particle sizes. Commercially, silicate-based hollow microspheres with different compositions
using organic compounds are also available. Due to the modification, the microspheres are
rendered less sensitive to moisture, thus reducing attraction between particles. This is very vital
in highly filled liquid polymer composites where viscosity enhancement constraints the quantum
of filler loading.

Formerly, hollow spheres were mostly used for thermosetting resin systems. Now, several new
strong spheres are available and they are at least five times stronger than hollow microspheres
in static crush strength and four times long lasting in shear.

Recently, ceramic alumino silicate microspheres have been introduced in thermoplastic systems.
Greater strength and higher density of this system in relation to siliceous microspheres and their
resistance to abrasions and considerable strength make then suitable for application in high
pressure conditions.

Hollow microspheres have a lower specific gravity than the pure resin. This makes it possible to
use them for lightning resin dominant compounds. They find wide applications in aerospace and
automotive industries where weight reduction for energy conservation is one of the main
considerations.

But their use in systems requiring high shear mixing or high-pressure moulding is restricted as
their crush resistance is in no way comparable to that of solid spheres. Fortunately, judicious
applications of hollow spheres eliminate crazing at the bends in the poly-vinyl chloride plastisol
applications, where the end component is subjected to bending stresses.

Microspheres, whether solid or hollow, show properties that are directly related to their
spherical shape let them behave like minute ball bearing, and hence, they give better flow
properties. They also distribute stress uniformly throughout resin matrices.

In spherical particles, the ratio of surface area to volume is minimal (smallest). In resin-rich
surfaces of reinforced systems, the Microspheres which are free of orientation and sharp edges
are capable of producing smooth surfaces.

M1.2.4.2.7 Particulate Reinforced Composites

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in
the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of
reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less
equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion
hardened materials.

The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume
concentration is greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion
strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also
different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by
arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by
dispersion.

In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of
fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.

Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the three

systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties acquire
sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and geometric
shapes of the array. The composite’s strength usually depends on the diameter of the particles,
the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement. The matrix properties
influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.

M1.2.4.2.8 Cermets/Ceramal

The Cermet is an abbreviation for the "'ceramic" and "metal." A CerMet is a composite material
composed of ceramic (Cer) and metallic (Met) materials. A Cermet is ideally designed to have
the optimal properties of both a ceramic, such as high temperature resistance and hardness, and
those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo plastic deformation. The metal is used as a binder
for an oxide, boride, carbide, or alumina. Generally, the metallic elements used are nickel,
molybdenum, and cobalt. Depending on the physical structure of the material, cermets can also
be metal matrix composites, but cermets are usually less than 20% metal by volume.

It is used in the manufacture of resistors (especially potentiometers), capacitors, and other

electronic components which may experience high temperatures.

Some types of cermet are also being considered for use as spacecraft shielding as they resist the
high velocity impacts of micrometeoroids and orbital debris much more effectively than more
traditional spacecraft materials such as aluminum and other metals.

One application of these materials is their use in vacuum tube coatings, which are key to solar
hot water systems.

Cermets are also used in dentistry as a material for fillings and prostheses. Also it used in
machining on cutting tools.

Cermets are one of the premier groups of particle strengthened composites and usually
comprises ceramic grains of borides, carbides or oxides. The grains are dispersed in a
refractory ductile metal matrix, which accounts for 20 to 85% of the total volume. The bonding
between ceramic and metal constituents is the result of a small measure of mutual solutions.

Metal oxide systems show poor bonding and require additional bonding agents. Cermet
structures are usually produced using power metallurgy techniques. Their potential properties
are several and varied depending on the relative volumes and compositions and of the metal and
ceramic constituents. Impregnation of a porous ceramic structure with a metallic matrix binder
is another method used to produce cermets. Cermets may be employed as coating in a power
form. The power is sprayed through a gas flame and fused to a base material. A wide variety of
cermets have been produced on a small scale, but only a few have appreciable value
commercially.

M1.2.4.2.9 Solidification of Composites/Directionally Solidified Eutectics

Directional solidification of alloys is adopted to produce in-situ fibers. They are really a part of
the alloy being precipitated from the melt, while the alloy is solidifying. This comprises eutectic
alloys wherein the molten material degenerates to form many phases at a steady temperature.
When the reaction is carried out after ensuring the solidifying phases, directionally solidified
eutectics result.

During the solidification of alloy, crystals nucleate from the mould or some relatively cooler
region. A structure with many crystalline particles or grains results from this and grows into
each other. When unidirectionallly solidified, random coalescing is not allowed to occur.

M1.2.5 Common Categories of Composite Materials based on fibre length:

Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as follows:

1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):

a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

Figure M1.2.5.1: Short-fibre reinforced composites

b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites

 Figure M1.2.5.2: Long- fibre reinforced composites

2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites):

Figure M1.2.5.3: Particulate Composites

3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):

Figure M1.2.5.4: Flake Composites

4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):

 Figure M1.2.5.5: Filler Composites

M1.2.5 Examples for composite materials:

• Fibre reinforced plastics:

o Classified by type of fiber:
ƒ Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)
ƒ Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)
ƒ Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")
o Classified by matrix:
ƒ Thermoplastic Composites
• short fiber thermoplastics
• long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics
• glass mat thermoplastics
• continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics
ƒ Thermoset Composites
• Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)
• Metal matrix composites (MMCs):
o White cast iron
o Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
o Metal-intermetallic laminate
• Ceramic matrix composites:
o Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
o Cermet (ceramic and metal)
o Concrete
• Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites
o Asphalt concrete
o Dental composite
o Syntactic foam
o Mother of Pearl
• Chobham armour (see composite armour)
• Engineered wood
o Plywood
o Oriented strand board
o Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix)
o Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix)
 • Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles
o Arborite
o Formica (plastic)

M1.2.6 Role and Selection of fibers

The points to be noted in selecting the reinforcements include compatibility with matrix
material, thermal stability, density, melting temperature etc. The efficiency of
discontinuously reinforced composites is dependent on tensile strength and density of
reinforcing phases. The compatibility, density, chemical and thermal stability of the
reinforcement with matrix material is important for material fabrication as well as end
application. The thermal discord strain between the matrix and reinforcement is an important
parameter for composites used in thermal cycling application. It is a function of difference
between the coefficients of thermal expansion of the matrix and reinforcement. The
manufacturing process selected and the reinforcement affects the crystal structure.

Also the role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in structural Composites. In particulate
and whisker reinforced Composites, the matrix are the major load bearing constituent. The role
of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the composite through prevention of matrix
deformation by mechanical restraint. This restraint is generally a function of the ratio of inter-
particle spacing to particle diameter. In continuous fiber reinforced Composites, the
reinforcement is the principal load-bearing constituent. The metallic matrix serves to hold the
reinforcing fibers together and transfer as well as distribute the load. Discontinuous fiber
reinforced Composites display characteristics between those of continuous fiber and particulate
reinforced composites. Typically, the addition of reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness
and temperature capability while reducing the thermal expansion coefficient of the resulting
MMC. When combined with a metallic matrix of higher density, the reinforcement also serves to
reduce the density of the composite, thus enhancing properties such as specific strength.

M1.2.7 Matrix Materials

M1.2.7.1 Introduction
Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre
reinforcement, the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides support
for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to the
composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a binding agent in a structural component in
which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the part is classified as resin rich.
On the other hand if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A resin rich part is
more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part is weaker
because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not well
supported.
M1.2.7.1.1 Matrix Selection
Thermodynamically stable dispersoids are essential for the use of metal matrix composites for
high temperature applications. This can be done by using an alloy dispersoid system in which
solid state diffusivity, interfacial energies and elemental solubility are minimized, in turn
reducing coarsening and interfacial reactions. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are regarded
as widely used matrices due to low density and high thermal conductivity. Composites with
low matrix alloying additions result in attractive combinations of ductility, toughness and
strength. In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix composites minor alloying elements, used
in wrought alloys as grain refiners, are not required. These additions should be avoided since
coarse inter-metallic compounds get formed during consolidation, thus, reducing the tensile
ductility of the composite.

M1.2.7.1.2 Role of matrix materials

The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of particular
importance is whether the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously reinforced. The
use of continuous fibers as reinforcements may result in transfer of most of the load to the
reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be governed primarily by the fiber
strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer of load to
the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix alloy for
continuously reinforced composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength. On this
basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in continuously
reinforced composites. For discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix may govern
composite strength. Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by consideration of the
required composite strength and higher strength matrix alloys may be required.

Additional considerations in the choice of the matrix include potential reinforcement/matrix

reactions, either during processing or in service, which might result in degraded composite
performance; thermal stresses due to thermal expansion mismatch between the reinforcements
and the matrix; and the influence of matrix fatigue behavior on the cyclic response of the
composite. Indeed, the behavior of composites under cyclic loading conditions is an area
requiring special consideration. In composites intended for use at elevated temperatures, an
additional consideration is the difference in melting temperatures between the matrix and the
reinforcements. A large melting temperature difference may result in matrix creep while the
reinforcements remain elastic, even at temperatures approaching the matrix melting point.
However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement must be considered when there is a small
melting point difference in the composite.

M1.2.7.2 Functions of a Matrix

In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
• Holds the fibres together.
• Protects the fibres from environment.
• Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same
amount of strain.
• Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
• Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
 • Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate
failure path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
• Carry interlaminar shear.

The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure.
However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-
plane shear properties of the composite material. The interlaminar shear strength is an important
design consideration for structures under bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is
important under torsion loads. The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre
buckling under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive strength of
the composite material. The interaction between fibres and matrix is also important in designing
damage tolerant structures. Finally, the processability and defects in a composite material
depend strongly on the physical and thermal characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and
curing temperature of the matrix.

M1.2.7.3 Desired Properties of a Matrix

The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure are
as follows:

• Reduced moisture absorption.

• Low shrinkage.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and eliminates
voids during the compacting/curing process.
• Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
• Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
• Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
• Low temperature capability (depending on application).
• Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
• Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
• Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).

As stated above, the matrix causes the stress to be distributed more evenly between all fibres by
causing the fibres to suffer the same strain. The stress is transmitted by shear process, which
requires good bonding between fibre and matrix and also high shear strength and modulus for the
matrix itself. One of the important properties of cured matrix system is its glass transition
temperature ( Tg ) at which the matrix begins to soften and exhibits a decrease in mechanical
properties. The glass transition temperature is not only an important parameter for dimensional
stability of a composite part under influence of heat, but it also has effect on most of the physical
properties of the matrix system at ambient temperature.

As the load is primarily carried by the fibres, the overall elongation of a composite material is
governed by the elongation to failure of the fibres that is usually 1-1.5%. A significant property
of the matrix is that it should not crack. The function of the matrix in a composite material will
vary depending on how the composite is stressed. For example, in case of compressive loading,
the matrix prevents the fibres from buckling and is, therefore, a very critical part of the
composite since without it; the reinforcement could carry no load. On the contrary, a bundle of
fibres could sustain high tensile loads in the direction of the filaments without a matrix. Some of
the physical properties of the matrix which influence the behaviour of composites are:
• Shrinkage during cure,
• Modulus of elasticity,
• Ultimate elongation,
• Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and
• Fracture toughness.

M1.2.7.4 Factors considered for Selection of Matrix

In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
• The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as
the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength matrix, which will not
transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
• The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity,
exposure to ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by
dust particles, etc.
• The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
• Smoke requirements.
• Life expectancy.
• The resultant composite should be cost effective.

The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said
to be the matrix for the fibres.

M1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Composites Materials

M1.3.1 Advantages of Composites

Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant use in
aerospace industry are as follows:
• High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.
• High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio. As enumerated above, weight savings are
significant ranging from 25-45% of the weight of conventional metallic designs.
• Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
• Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre pattern
can be laid in a manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain the applied
loads.
• Fibre to fibre redundant load path.
• Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not sustain
damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.
 • It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex
double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in one
manufacturing operation.
• Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling speeds,
reduced number of intermediate bearings and supporting structural elements. The
overall part count and manufacturing & assembly costs are thus reduced.
• High resistance to impact damage.
• Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high volume
commercial applications that traditionally have been the domain of sheet metals.
Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.
• Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.
• Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and low
coefficient of thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to comply with
a broad range of thermal expansion design requirements and to minimise thermal
stresses.
• Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration (joint/fastener
reduction) thereby reducing cost.
• The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well as their
corrosion resistance and durability reduce the down time for maintenance.
• Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.
• Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built to
shape rather than machined to the required configuration, as is common with metals.
• Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined
with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
• Improved friction and wear properties.
• The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed new
approaches to the design of aeroelastic flight structures.

The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common implements and
equipment such as a graphite racquet that has inherent damping, and causes less fatigue and
pain to the user.

M1.3.2 Limitations of Composites

Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:

• High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
• Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
• Transverse properties may be weak.
• Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
• Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
• Difficult to attach.
• Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
ƒ Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life.
ƒ Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
ƒ Hot or cold curing takes time.
 ƒ Analysis is difficult.
ƒ Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.

However, proper design and material selection can circumvent many of the above disadvantages.

New technology has provided a variety of reinforcing fibres and matrices those can be combined
to form composites having a wide range of exceptional properties. Since the advanced
composites are capable of providing structural efficiency at lower weights as compared to
equivalent metallic structures, they have emerged as the primary materials for future use.

In aircraft application, advanced fibre reinforced composites are now being used in many
structural applications, viz. floor beams, engine cowlings, flight control surfaces, landing gear
doors, wing-to-body fairings, etc., and also major load carrying structures including the vertical
and horizontal stabiliser main torque boxes.

Composites are also being considered for use in improvements to civil infrastructures, viz.,
earthquake proof highway supports, power generating wind mills, long span bridges, etc.

M1.3.3 Comparison with Metals

Requirements governing the choice of materials apply to both metals and reinforced plastics. It
is, therefore, imperative to briefly compare main characteristics of the two.
• Composites offer significant weight saving over existing metals. Composites can provide
structures that are 25-45% lighter than the conventional aluminium structures designed to
meet the same functional requirements. This is due to the lower density of the
composites.

Depending on material form, composite densities range from 1260 to 1820 kg/in3 (0.045 to 0.065
lb/in3) as compared to 2800 kg/in3 (0.10 lb/in3) for aluminium. Some applications may require
thicker composite sections to meet strength/stiffness requirements, however, weight savings will
still result.
• Unidirectional fibre composites have specific tensile strength (ratio of material strength
to density) about 4 to 6 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
• Unidirectional composites have specific -modulus (ratio of the material stiffness to
density) about 3 to 5 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
• Fatigue endurance limit of composites may approach 60% of their ultimate tensile
strength. For steel and aluminium, this value is considerably lower.
• Fibre composites are more versatile than metals, and can be tailored to meet performance
needs and complex design requirements such as aero-elastic loading on the wings and
the vertical & the horizontal stabilisers of aircraft.
• Fibre reinforced composites can be designed with excellent structural damping features.
As such, they are less noisy and provide lower vibration transmission than metals.
• High corrosion resistance of fibre composites contributes to reduce life- cycle cost.
• Composites offer lower manufacturing cost principally by reducing significantly the
number of detailed parts and expensive technical joints required to form large metal
 structural components. In other words, composite parts can eliminate joints/fasteners
thereby providing parts simplification and integrated design.
• Long term service experience of composite material environment and durability
behaviour is limited in comparison with metals.
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Introduction (1)
There are many reasons for the growth in composite applications, but the primary impetus is that
the products fabricated by composites are stronger and lighter. Today, it is difficult to find any
industry that does not utilize the benefits of composite materials. In the past three to four decades,
there have been substantial changes in technology and its requirement. This changing
environment created many new needs and opportunities, which are only possible with the
advances in new materials and their associated manufacturing technology. In the past decade,
several advanced manufacturing technology and material systems have been developed to meet
the requirements of the various market segments. Broadly speaking, the composites market can be
divided into the following industry categories:
1. aerospace,
2. automotive,
3. construction,
4. marine,
5. corrosion resistant equipment,
6. consumer products, appliance/business equipment, and
7. others.
The range of materials can be classified into the categories: (2) Metals, Polymers, Ceramics and
inorganic glasses and Composites.
Metals lose their strength at elevated temperatures. High-Polymeric materials in general can
withstand still lower temperatures. Ceramics outstrip metals and polymers in their favorable
melting points, ability to withstand high temperatures, strength and thermal expansion properties,
but due to their brittleness they are often unsatisfactory as structural materials. This lead to the
exploration of composites.
Emergence of strong and stiff reinforcements like carbon fibre along with advances in polymer
research to produce high performance resins as matrix materials have helped meet the challenges
posed by the complex designs of modern aircraft. The large scale use of advanced composites in
current programmes of development of military fighter aircraft, small and big civil transport
aircraft, helicopters, satellites, launch vehicles and missiles all around the world is perhaps the
most glowing example of the utilization of potential of such composite materials.
The Aerospace Industry (1)
The aerospace industry was among the first to realize the benefits of composite materials.
Airplanes, rockets, and missiles all fly higher, faster, and farther with the help of composites.
Glass, carbon, and Kevlar fiber composites have been routinely designed and manufactured for
aerospace parts. The aerospace industry primarily uses carbon fiber composites because of their

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high-performance characteristics. The hand lay-up technique is a common manufacturing method

for the fabrication of aerospace parts; RTM and filament winding are also being used. The below
charts shows the estimated growth of composites in aerospace applications.

http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/the-outlook-for-thermoplastics-in-aerospace-
composites-2014-2023
The aerospace structures and features
Important requirements of an aerospace structure and their effect on the design of the structure
are presented in the below table.

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Applications of composites in aerospace structures

It is to be realized that in order to meet the demands in the above table, it is necessary to have
materials with a peculiar property-set. The use of composites has been motivated largely by such
considerations.
The composites offer several of these features as given below:
1. Light-weight due to high specific strength and stiffness
2. Fatigue-resistance and corrosion resistance
3. Capability of high degree of optimization: tailoring the directional strength and stiffness
4. Capability to mould large complex shapes in small cycle time reducing part count and
assembly times: Good for thin-walled or generously curved construction
5. Capability to maintain dimensional and alignment stability in space environment
6. Possibility of low dielectric loss in radar transparency
7. Possibility of achieving low radar cross-section
These composites also have some inherent weaknesses:
1. Laminated structure with weak interfaces: poor resistance to out-of-plane tensile loads
2. Susceptibility to impact-damage and strong possibility of internal damage going unnoticed
3. Moisture absorption and consequent degradation of high temperature performance
4. Multiplicity of possible manufacturing defects and variability in material properties.
Materials for aerospace composites
The materials systems which have been considered useful in aerospace sector are based on
reinforcing fibers and matrix resins given in table 2 and 3, respectively. Most aerospace
composites use prepregs as raw materials with autoclave moulding as a popular fabrication
process. Filament winding is popular with shell like components such as rocket motor casings for
launch vehicles and missiles. Oven curing or room temperature curing is used mostly with glass
fibre composites used in low speed small aircraft. It is common to use composite tooling where
production rates are small or moderate; however, where large number of components are
required, metallic conventional tooling is preferred. Resin injection moulding also finds use in
special components such as radomes. Some of the popular systems are given in table 4 along with
the types of components where they are used in a typical high-performance aircraft.

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APPLICATIONS (3)
Business and Commercial aircrafts

(1) The major reasons for the use of composite materials in spacecraft applications include weight
savings as well as dimensional stability. In low Earth orbit (LEO), where temperature variation is
from –100 to +100°C, it is important to maintain dimensional stability in support structures as well
as in reflecting members. Carbon epoxy composite laminates can be designed to give a zero
coefficient of thermal expansion. Typical space structures are tubular truss structures, facesheets
for the payload baydoor, antenna reflectors, etc. In space shuttle composite materials provide
weight savings of 2688 lb per vehicle.

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Passenger aircrafts such as the Boeing 747 and 767 use composite parts to lower the weight,
increase the payload, and increase the fuel efficiency. The components made out of composites for
such aircrafts are shown in Table 1.3.

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES IN AUTOMOBILES (4)

The automotive industry is widely viewed as being the industry in which the greatest volume of
advanced composite materials, particularly polymer matrix composites (PMCs), is using.
Motivations for using PMCs include weight reduction for better fuel efficiency, improved ride
quality, and corrosion resistance. Extensive use of composites in automobile body structures
would have important impacts on methods of fabrication, satellite industry restructuring, and
creation of new industries such as recycling.
The application of advanced materials to automotive structures require:
1. clear evidence of the performance capabilities of the PMC structures, including long-term
effects;
2. the development of high-speed, reliable manufacturing and assembly processes with
associated quality control; and

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3. evidence of economic incentives (which will be sensitively dependent on the

manufacturing processes).
The three performance criteria applicable to a new material for use in automotive structural
applications are
1. fatigue (durability),
2. energy absorption (in a crash), and
3. ride quality in terms of noise, vibration, and harshness (generally related to material
stiffness).
Extensive research and development (R&D) efforts currently underway are aimed at realizing
eight potential benefits of PMC structures for the automotive industry:
1. weight reduction, which may be translated into improved fuel economy and performance;
2. improved overall vehicle quality and consistency in manufacturing;
3. part consolidation resulting in lower vehicle and manufacturing costs;
4. improved ride performance (reduced noise, vibration, and harshness);
5. vehicle style differentiation with acceptable or reduced cost;
6. lower investment costs for plants, facilities, and tooling—depends on cost/volume
relationships;
7. corrosion resistance; and
8. lower cost of vehicle ownership.
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA (4)
From a structural viewpoint, there are two major categories of material response critical to
applying PMCs to automobiles. These are fatigue (durability) and energy absorption. In addition,
there is another critical vehicle requirement, ride quality, which is usually defined in terms of
noise, vibration, and ride harshness, and is generally perceived as directly related to vehicle
stiffness and damping. Material characteristics play a significant role in this category of vehicle
response.
POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The fiber with the greatest potential for automobile structural applications is E-glass fiber–
currently. Similarly, the resin systems likely to dominate at least in the near term are polyester and
vinyl-ester resins based primarily on a cost/processability trade-off versus epoxy. Higher
performance resins will only find specialized applications, even though their ultimate properties
may be somewhat superior. The form of the glass fiber used will be very application-specific, and
both chopped and continuous glass fibers should find extensive use. Most structural applications
involving significant load inputs will probably use a combination of both chopped and continuous
glass fibers with the particular proportions of each depending on the component or structure.

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CARBON COMPOSITES (5)

A fascinating material with unlimited possibilities
Carbon composites are already used in many branches such as automotive engineering, racing,
aerospace technology, wind energy production, mechanical engineering, automation and robotics
technology, medical technology and the sports industry.
Carbon composites has a wide range of advantages such as:
• Extremely light
• Very high stability
• Long-lasting
• Multifunctional
• Non-corrosive
• High energy absorption in a crash
• Economical
• Attractive appearance
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
The successful application of PMCs to automotive structures is more dependent on the ability to
use rapid, economic fabrication processes than on any other single factor. The fabrication
processes must also be capable of close control of PMC properties to achieve lightweight, efficient
structures.
1. Compression molding of sheet molding compounds (SMCs)
2. High-Speed Resin Transfer Molding
3. Filament Winding
4. Prepreg layup

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES IN MARINE INDUSTRY (6)

The first marine application of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material was in the
construction of boats shortly after World War II. Boat builders began to use FRP composites
instead of timber, which was traditionally used in small maritime craft, because wood was
becoming increasingly scarce and expensive, timber was as losing favour with many boat builders
and owners because wooden boats were easily degraded by seawater and marine organisms and
therefore required ongoing maintenance and repairs that can be expensive. The earliest attempts
to fabricate boat hull with FRP composites was in 1947 when twelve small surf boats were made
for the UNITED STATES NAVY. The application of FRP composites to maritime crafts was
initially driven by a need for lightweight, strong, corrosion resistant durable naval boats. Most of
these early applications were driven by the need to over come corrosion problems experienced
with steel or aluminum alloys or environmental degradation suffered by wood. Another reason
for using composite was to reduce weight, particularly the topside weight of ships. The high
acoustic transparency of composites also resulted in their use in rodomes on ships and sonar
domes on submarines.
3.2 EARLY NAVAL APPLICATION OF FRP COMPOSITES:
1. Mine sweeper (15.5 meter)
2. Landing craft (15.2 meter)
3. Personnel boat (7.9 meter )
4. Sheathing of wood hulls
5. Submarine sonar dome

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6. Submarine firs
7. Landing craft reconnaissance (15.8 meter)
8. Submarine non pressure hull casing
Increasingly, naval patrol boats are being built with an all-composite design or a composite hull
fitted with an aluminum super structure. The growing popularity of FRP patrol boat is due mainly
to their excellent corrosion resistance, which reduces maintenance costs, and lightweight. This can
result in better speed and fuel economy. It is estimated that the composite patrol boats are usually
approximately 10% lighter than an aluminum boat and over 35% lighter than a steel boat of the
same size. Carbon fiber composites are rarely used on naval vessels because of their high cost.
LEISURE, SPORTING AND COMMERCIAL FRP COMPOSITE CRAFT:
The composite material most commonly used in leisure and commercial craft is GRP in the form of
a thick laminate or a sandwich composite. Over 95% of all composite marine craft are built with
GRP because of low cost. There is however a number of other reasons for the popularity of GRP
composite in marine craft, and these include –
1. Ability to easily and inexpensively mould GRP to the near net shape, even for marine structure
with complex shape, such as boat hulls thus making it suitable for mass production.
Excellent corrosion resistance
3. Light weight, resulting in reduced fuel consumption.
4. Simple to repair
5. Ability to absorb noise and dampen vibrations, which makes for a more comfortable ride on
motor powered boats.
FABRICATION METHODS
Advanced fabrication processes, such as resin transfer, resin film intrusion, or auto craving are
used in the construction of hull and decks to produce composites that are defect free, excellent
dimensional balance and high fiber content for maximum stiffness, strength and fatigue resistance.
OFFSHORE APPLICATION OF FRP COMPOSITES:
The greatest problem with using steel in an offshore structure is the poor corrosion resistance
against seawater and other highly corrosive agents, such as hydrogen chloride. It is estimated that
the oil industry spends several billion dollars each year in maintaining, repairing and replacing
corroded steel structures. Composites offer the potential to reduce these costs because of their
outstanding corrosion resistance against most types of chemicals. It is estimated that composites
provide a weight saving of 30 to 50% compared to steel for many nonstructural components. The
most common types of composites used are GRP and phenolic composites, with the latter being
used because of good fire resistance. Advanced composites containing carbon fiber, kelvar fibers,
or epoxy resins are used sparingly because of their high cost.

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Some of the current applications of FRP materials are

1. Low pressure pipes
2. Diesel Storage tanks, Lube tanks and utility tanks
3. Cable ladders and trays
DRAWBACKS OF FRP TO BE USED IN OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS
An important safety concern is that most FRP materials have poor fire resistant properties, such as
short ignition time and high rates of heat release, smoke production and flame spread, while it is
generally recognized that composites have much lower thermal conductivity than metallic
material. These factors make it difficult for composites to meet the stringent fire safety
requirements applied to offshore oil and gas platforms.
COMPOSITE PROPELLER:
The material used within the composite are commercially available, and it is the development of
the right mix of fibers, resin and laminate lay-up that provide the desired mechanical and
environmental performance for marine applications. The extensive development trials include
durability testing in the marine environment, water uptake and fouling test.
OPTIMISING PROPERTIES OF THE COMPOSITE PROPELLER:
The fundamental mechanical properties required in this application include stiffness, strength and
fatigue performance. The structure was optimized to be stiffest along the length of the blade and
strong enough to have a significant factor of safety upon the design load. On material basis the
composite was about half as stiff as NAB but had similar strength. Structural stiffness was
regained through improved design of the propeller itself. Additionally the fatigue performance of
the metal insert at the root also improved during the test, failure was initiated by flaws in the NAB
while the composite remained undamaged.
IMPROVED CAVITATION PERFORMANCE:
Theoretical models give a cavitation inception speed of 30% higher for the composite propeller
design, compared with the original NAB propeller. The use of the lighter composite materials
meant that the blades could be thicker without significantly adding to the weight of the propeller.
Thicker blades offer the potential for improved cavitation performance, so reducing vibration
underwater signatures. The composite propeller is expected to last for the lifetime of the vessel
where as a NBA propeller would be expected to suffer cavitation erosion and corrosion and needs
to be replaced periodically.

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THE USE OF POLYMER COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION (7)

Polymer composites have enjoyed widespread use in the construction industry for many years in
non-critical applications such as baths and vanities, cladding, decoration and finishing. In 1999,
the construction sector was the world’s second largest consumer of polymer composites
representing 35% of the global market [1]. In recent times fibre composite materials have been
increasingly considered for structural load bearing applications by the construction industry and
have established themselves as a viable and competitive option for rehabilitation and retrofit of
existing civil structures, as a replacement for steel in reinforced concrete and to a lesser extent new
civil structures.
Reasons to Consider FRP Composites (8)
There are many different reasons to consider using FRP composites in civil engineering
applications. The main criteria for engineers to use any material to satisfy the requirements of a job
are durability, corrosion resistance, cost, weight, material properties, and ease of construction.
Structural Considerations
Tensile strength. Their tensile strength can range from about the strength of mild reinforcing steel
to stronger than that of prestressing steels. As such, they offer good incentive for use in situations
where high tensile strength is an asset. FRP composites generally exhibit linear tensile stress strain
behavior throughout their load-carrying range and as such do not change their modulus over their
loading history. Since FRP composites are materials composed of structural fibers in a plastic
matrix, the fibers can be custom-oriented to suit individual needs.
Fatigue. Research to date indicates that FRP composites exhibit good fatigue resistance in tension
tension cycling. Research has yet to document the effects of temperature, moisture, reverse
loading, long-term and compression load cycling, and holes on fatigue resistance. Long-fiber
composites generally retain a high proportion of their short-term strength after 107 cycles.
Carbon-fiber composites exhibit the highest fatigue resistance, followed by aramid and then glass.
Low mass. Excessive structural mass is often a reason to consider alternate materials which will
provide high load-carrying capacity as well as low density. FRP composites have densities in the
range of 1,200 to 2,600 kg/m3 (75 to 162 lb/ft3) which make them attractive alternatives to
structural materials such as steel with a density around 7,850 kg/m3.
Specific strength. The specific strength of materials, defined as the yield strength divided by the
density, is often used to make comparisons between materials on the basis of strength and mass.
FRP composites, because of their high strength and their very low density, have specific strengths
which are up to 60 times that of high strength steels. The high specific strengths associated with
FRP composites are very useful in applications such as structural cladding panels, low-density
framing materials, and vehicle components. Their low weight makes the assembly and

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disassembly of temporary structures much easier and less time-consuming than similar structures
made of wood or steel. Cost of many of the FRP composites, although higher than conventional
construction materials on a pound-per-pound basis, are competitive when the specific strength of
the materials is taken into consideration.
Vibration damping. The specific modulus of FRP composites, defined as the modulus of elasticity
divided by the density, is also high and provides characteristics such as low vibration in situations
where vibration may be a problem (Grace, Bagchi, and Kennedy 1991). Steel has a high density,
high modulus, and low damping characteristics whereas composites have low densities, moderate
moduli, and high damping characteristics. Use of composites in floors and bearing pads where
damping of vibration is of concern can reduce these problems.
Repair using composites. Structural repairs of conventional materials using FRP composites can be
advantageous from the standpoint of ease of installation and reduced maintenance costs.
Conventional techniques for externally strengthening cracked concrete structures call for steel
plates or bars to be installed across the crack to carry the structural loads no longer carried by the
concrete. FRP plates can be structurally bonded across such cracks to replace the steel repair
components. The low mass of these materials makes their handling more convenient, and their
noncorrosive natwe eliminates the need to protect them from rusting deterioration.
Corrosion resistance. One of the most convincing reasons to consider the use of FRP composites is
their resistance to corrosive elements. The plastic resins that form the matrix of most composites
are resistant to deterioration from many chemicals as well as the effects of acidic, salt, and fresh
waters. Acidic, salt, and fresh waters are corrosive to ferrous metals. The benefits of composites
over steel in terms of resistance to corrosion are greatest in the areas of maintenanc and life-cycle
costs. Components in marine construction such as piling, docks, and submerged construction
would be applicable uses. Storage structures for corrosive liquids are suited to FRP composite
materials. Fiberglass tanks have been used for storage of chemicals for many years.
Production Options
a. Fabrication. The variety of fabrication techniques that are available with FRP’s provide for many
custom properties. Multiple types of fibers can be combined to produce materials with the
advantages of each component; fibers can be oriented in specified directions to better suit
specialized loading conditions; and material properties such as strength and stiffness can be
controlled to meet the user need. Special molding techniques allow complicated pieces to be
fabricated as one unit, eliminating joint conditions which can be a source of weakness. One
method of producing FRP composites is by a technique known as pultrusion, other processes that
are commonly used include filament winding, autoclave molding, and scrimp, capabilities of these
materials is demonstrated in custom fabricated sandwich panels. In these panels, load bearing,

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FRP, honeycomb core structures are sandwiched between FRP skin plates producing a very
strong, lightweight structural component.
b. Custom geometry. The length and geometry of a given pultruded cross section can be custom
designed as well. The pultrusion process lends itself to custom fabrications. The length of the
fabricated shape does not have to be a predetermined length. The designer can work with the
fabricator to produce products in lengths and shapes needed for specific applications.
c. Color and coating. Since the matrix of FRP composites consists of resins that begin in the liquid
state, many amhitectural treatments can be added before they harden. For example, custom
coloring can be added to the resins in the manufacturing process, thereby eliminating the need for
and cost of painting or other color application after the fact. Since the color is integrally mixed in
the matrix, it cannot be scraped off or abraded during its lifetime. It is also possible to embed sand
or other nonslip surface treatments as a secondary operation, and the treatment will become part
of the component. Nonslip gratings and walkways are an example of this type of application.
STRUCTURAL APPLICATION OF FRP MATERIALS (9)

Where should FRP rebar be used? (9)

1. Any concrete member susceptible to corrosion by chloride ions or chemicals
2. Any concrete member requiring non-ferrous reinforcement due to Electro-magnetic
considerations
3. As an alternative to epoxy, galvanized, or stainless steel rebars
4. Where machinery will “consume” the reinforced member ie. Mining and tunneling
5. Applications requiring Thermal non-conductivity
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR FRP MATERIALS
1. Pultrusion
2. Hand layup
3. Filament winding
4. Centrifugation
5. Resin transfer moulding (RTM)

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6. Resin infusion moulding (RIM)

7. Compression moulding
8. Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM)
9. Vacuum infusion
Pultrusion Process (commonly used)

FRP Bar Types

Materials
1. Glass/ vinylester
2. Carbon/ vinylester
Forms
1. Solid
Surface
1. Ribbed (a)
2. Sand Coated (b)
3. Wrapped and Sand Coated (c)
4. Deformed
5. Helical
6. Innovation – hollow bar - coming soon

FRP REBARS – APPLICATIONS

1. Reinforcement of bridge deck
2. Aquaculture (Acuinova, Mira)
3. Repair of maritime structures, dock and pier

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FRP STRENGTHENING SYSTEMS – TYPOLOGIES (classifications)

1. Laminates: unidirectional precured (carbon) fibre strips, adhesively bonded with epoxy
adhesive.
2. Sheets: uni/multi-directional mats of continuous (carbon) fibres, moulded and cured in
situ, impregnated and bonded with an epoxy matrix.

FRP PROFILES – GEOMETRIES AND CONSTITUTION

First generation profiles
1. Thin-walled cross-sections mimicking metallic construction - High deformability
2. Susceptibility to instability phenomena under compression

New generation profiles

Multi-cellular deck panels for new construction or rehabilitation
1. Panel-to-panel connection: adhesive bonding or snap-fit
2. Panel-to-girder connection: bolting/bonding

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 Module 6 – Applications of composites

Advantages
• Lightness
• Quick installation
• High durability
• Low maintenance

FRP PROFILES – GEOMETRIES AND CONSTITUTION

Fibre reinforcement:
- Rovings - bundles of longitudinal continuous fibres
- Mats - (non-)woven chopped or continuous fibres in several directions
- Surface veil with randomly oriented chopped fibres
Polymeric matrix:
- Resin (polyester, vinylester, epoxy)
- Fillers
- Additives

FRP PROFILES – PROPERTIES (GFRP)

Linear elastic behaviour up to failure (no ductility)
• Orthotropic behaviour
• High longitudinal strength (similar to steel)
• Low elasticity (10-20% of steel) and shear moduli
• Low density (20-25% of steel)
FRP PROFILES – APPLICATIONS

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 Module 6 – Applications of composites

Rehabilitation
FRP SANDWICH PANELS – CONSTITUTION
FRP outer skins - thin, stiff, resistant
• Core - thick, light, more flexible, less resistant (rigid foam, balsa wood, etc.)
• Adhesive

Composite materials in sports equipment (10)

Introduction
With the development of economy, people's living standards improve, more and more modern
people relaxing into all kinds of sports venues. And the development of the modern athletic sports
in the sports experts focuses on scientific training at the same time, also attaches great importance
to the improvement and development of sports equipment. Because of the fiber reinforced
composite materials with light weight, high strength, large degrees of freedom of design, easy
processing and forming characteristics, obtained widespread application in sports equipment.
The advantages of fiber reinforced composite material is applied to sports equipment.
As is known to all, before the advent of fiber reinforced composites is not, as a sports equipment
materials mainly wood, steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloy, etc. Compared with these materials,
fiber reinforced composite material has obvious advantages in the following aspects.
Light weight. Most of the sports equipment such as tennis racket, golf clubs, bikes, Skis, etc relies
on human to make the movement, lighter the weight better the performance. Fiber reinforced
composites in this aspect has the incomparable advantage.
Mechanical performance is good. Sports equipment should have good usable performance and
must have excellent mechanical properties. Fiber reinforced composite has outstanding elastic
modulus, more suitable for used in sports equipment. Composite material has good damping
absorption.
Can design. Composites has the freedom than traditional materials for design. Any complicated
design is possible with composites.
Reinforced with fiber materials and fabric structure
Fibre materials mainly include glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, etc. These fiber materials can
be processed into yarn, cloth, mat, chopped strand, etc.

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 Module 6 – Applications of composites

There are many different kinds of sports equipment, the following are common fiber reinforced
composite material sports equipment to make a simple list (see table 1), and makes detailed
introduction of some products.
Table 1Examples of fiber-reinforced composite materials application in the sports equipment
Form Application
Plate-like structure Skis, surfboards, windsurfing, table
tennis boards, slats and gliding wing
spar etc.
Tubular structures Tennis, badminton, fishing rods, golf
clubs, baseball bats, hockey sticks, pole
shaft, etc.
Sheet structure All kinds of helmets, golf club heads, the
hull structure of the various boat classes
Other structures Match with a variety of vehicles, Sword,
climbing ropes, various lines etc.
Skis
Type of Composite
1. Wet Layup Glass and Carbon Epoxy
a. Di functional epoxy with amine curing agent
b. Woven, non woven, stitched uni and braided glass and carbon
c. Process: Wet Layup Compression Molding
Design Drivers
a. Stiffness and geometry driven
b. Manufacturing driven
c. Cost driven
d. Failures typically driven by:
i. Bond Failures
ii. Imperfections in structure
Material Selection Drivers
 Cost
 Bonding- Must join many dissimilar materials
Snowboards
Type of Composite
1. Wet Lay up Glass and Carbon Epoxy
a. Di functional epoxy with amine curing agent

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 Module 6 – Applications of composites

a. Woven, non woven, stitched uni and braided glass and carbon
b. Process: Wet La yup compression molding
Design Drivers
a. Stiffness and geometry driven
b. Manufacturing driven
c. Cost driven
d. Some weight considerations
e. Failures typically driven by:
a. Core Failures
b. Imperfections in structure
c. Bond Failures
Material Selection Drivers
a. Cost
b. Weight
c. Bonding - Must join many dissimilar materials
Snowboard Bindings
Type of Composite
1. Injection molded glass nylon
Design Drivers
a. Shape complex
b. Strength
c. Weight
d. Cost
Material Selection Drivers
a. Strength
b. Low temp. high rate loadings
c. Complex shapes
d. Cost
Golf Club
A golf club is used to strike the ball in the game of golf. It has a long shaft with a grip on one end
and a weighted head on the other end. The head is affixed sideways at a sharp angle to the shaft,
and the striking face of the head is inclined to give the ball a certain amount of upward trajectory.
The rules of golf allow a player to carry up to 14 different clubs, and each one is designed for a
specific situation during the game.

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Raw Materials
Golf clubs are manufactured from a wide variety of materials, including metals, plastics, ceramics,
composites, wood, and others. Different materials are chosen for different parts of the club based
on their mechanical properties, such as strength, elasticity, formability, impact resistance, friction,
damping, density, and others.
Club heads for drivers and other woods may be made from stainless steel, titanium,
or graphite fiber-reinforced epoxy.
Face inserts may be made from zirconia ceramic or a titanium metal matrix ceramic composite.
Oversize metal woods are usually filled with synthetic polymer foam.
Club shafts may be made from chrome-plated steel, stainless steel, aluminum, carbon or graphite
fiber-reinforced epoxy, boron fiber-reinforced epoxy, or titanium.
Grips are usually made from molded synthetic rubber or wrapped leather.
References:
1. Sanjay K. Mazumdar “Composites Manufacturing, Materials, Product and Process
Engineering”, CRC press, 2002.
2. Nikhil V Nayak, “Composite Materials in Aerospace Applications”, International Journal
of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014.
3. http://www.oceanica.ufrj.br/ocean/cursosead/materiaiscompositos/compositematerials
/f_aerospace_applications.pdf
4. P, Beardmore, C.F. Johnson, and G.G. Strosberg, Ford Motor Co., entitled “Impact of New
Materials on Basic Manufacturing Industries—Case Study: Composite Automobile
Structure” 1987.
5. Composite Components for Automotive Engineering - Benteler SGL Composite
Technology GmbH
6. S.Ilaiyavel, "Applications of composites in marine industry", Journal of Engineering
Research and Studies, June,2011.
7. M. F. Humphreys, Queensland University Of Technology, Australia
8. Engineering and Design COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURES, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Washington, DC.
9. John P. Busel, Director, Composites Growth Initiative American Composites
Manufacturers Association "FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) COMPOSITES
REBAR", July 17, 2012.
10. Lei zhang, " The application of composite fiber materials in sports equipment" Wuhan
Textile University, Atlantis Press, 2015.

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