apt 1 jecives file er swaying this Unit, you will bef ‘ances like high temperature Be 7 ‘The vast majority of solid subst deseribe general characteristies Of syperaonducors tach npatibe plastics, slleon chips, etc.are destined ei foplay an ever expanding role in future development af science. | distinguish between amorphous and crystalline solids: pest crystalline solids on the From our earller studies, we know that liquids and gases basis of the nature of binding are called fluids because of their ability to flow. The forces: fluidity in both of these states is due to the fact that the define exystal lattice and unit cell; molecules are free to move about. On the contrary, the explain close packing of particles: constituent particles in solids have fixed positions and describe different types of voids can only oscillate about their mean positions. This and close packed structures; explains the rigidity in solids. These properties depend calculate the packing efficiency of upon the nature of constituent particles and the binding different types of cubic unit cells; forces operating between them. The correlation between correlate the density of a structure and properties helps in the discovery of new substance with its unit cell solid materials with destred properties. For example, sacs - carbon nanotubes are new materials that have potential ead Lec eed &© to provide material that are tougher than steel, lighter 2 than aluminium and have more conductive property than Fe eet and Si Such ater may pay an expanding Hae ae orepertios of solkde andj OEP ere CPi ciate and society. Some other ee materials which are expected to play an important role in future are high temperature superconductors, magnetic materials, biodegradable polymers for packaging, biocompliant solids for surgical implants, etc. ‘Thus, the study of this state becomes more important in the present scenario. In this Unit, we shall discuss different arrangements of particles resulting in. t structures and explore why d : structural units lend different‘eneral Characteristics f Solid State ee 1.2 Amorphous and Crystalline Solids fa) Fig. 1.1: Two = (@ quartz Chemistry a * — Staley jearnt that matter can exist in ‘Under a given set of conditions am ne xryou nave (would be the most stable rand gas: a oud, taut nich of these preset pends upon the mnet effect of two cae substance lecular forco® which tend to keep the: Factorg Bry, leew the thermal enerBY ‘which tends trelesfo move faster. At sufficiently low temy Lokeep the an intermolecul: perature, incl far forces bring them so, fixed positions. These. e nave definite mass, olecular distances are short. are strong. onstituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) hay positions and can only oscillate about their mean ty) They are incompressible and rigid. al can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on the of order present in the ustaigement of their constituent ‘A crystalline solid usually consists of a large number of, Parties each of them having a definite characteristic ecometriog ae arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules rma Te arnrdered and repetitive in three dimensions, liwe cnet torte ofthe erystal, we can predict accurately the postion pati in any other region of the crystal however far they may be Sacer in any offtion. Thus, crystal has a long range order which thea, chore ie a regular pattern of arrangement of particles whichi ae periodically ver the entire crystal. Sodium chloride and =e reamples of crystalline solids. Glass, rubber and many rae farm nrystals when their liquids solidify on cooling. The oe amorphous solids. The term amorphous comes from tne eee meaning no form.The arrangement of constitaet aed fatoms, molecules or ions) in such a solid has only short vate such an arrangement, a regular periodically repeating pattern isobsens over short distances only. Regular patie are scattered and in bel arrangement is disordered. The! of quartz (crystalline) and (amorphous) are shown inF Solids b) structure of and (b) quartz glass O C C cstalline solids have a sharp melting point. AU a sue se ond temperature they melt abruptly and ‘become liquid. On the soma fempernous solids soften, melt and start eee, temperature and can be moulded and blown sntogerenay paver Janorphous solids have the same structural eae eee Amventently regarded as extremely viscouy - conventenly Fee temperature, Some ease Coop, from ancient Ghuilisations are found to become miley 1m appearance bectl crystallisation. Like liquids, amorphous solids have a tendency Pe though very slowly. Therefore, sometimes these are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. a i . Their prope! “Amorphous solids are isotropic in nature. Their FT ctivity, ett. mechanical strength, refractive index and electric are same in all directions. It is because there 1s 1° long range them and arrangement of particles is not definite along all the directions. Hence, the overall arrangement becomes equivalent ‘Therefore, value of any physical property would any direction. Crystalline solids are anisotropic in: nature, that is, some of their physical properties like electrical same yotals, This arises from different arrangement of particles in different directions. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. This figure shows a simple two- dimensional pattern of arrangement of two kinds of Stoma, Mechanical property such as resistance to Shearing stress might be quite different in two directions indicated in the figure. Deformation in CD. ‘of atoms while in AB direction rows made of one type Fig, 1.2: Anisotropy in crystals ts due of atoms are displaced. The differences between the to different arrangement of crystalline solids and amorphous solids are particles along different summarised in Table 1.1 directions. re Table 1.1: Distinction between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids eos Perera ead Petes Ce Shape Definite characteristic geometrical shape Melting point | Melt at a sharp and characteristic temperature Cleavage When cut with a sharp edged property split into two pieces generated surfaces smooth 7: Heat of fusion | They have a definite and characteristic enthalpy of fusion ‘| ropre | aa — ane Only short ri AnlsottePY | ayye sold sey ange one nature | pong range Fer, hous solids, th line and amorp! a Besides ase appear amorphous but have ,¢ Song which apP® ese are called polycrystalline solids, ny Rec Pratvidual crystals are peal - Poe tallc sample may appear to be isotropic even 4m " soa sndomly isotropic. thoug, age ear solids are useful Pee Glass, a tg, Am applications in our daily lives. rp ous steer the, Cane material available for conversion of silfcon ee talline condition. best photovoltaic Sunlight ints t ae ee a Intext_GQuestions 3 1.1 Why are solids rigid? ; 1.2. Why do solids have a definite volume? talline solids: the following as amorphous or crys : - Setcicns, benzoic acid, teflon, potassium nitrate, crop aa chloride, fibre glass, copper. i the same value along all .4 Refractive index of a solid is observed to have q 14 Remment on the nature of this solid, Would it show cleavage one 13 Classification In Section 1.2, we have learnt about amorphous substances anit: Crystalis they have only short range order. However, most of the solid subsam= of orystailine re crystalline in nature. For example, all the metallic elements! Solids copper and silver; non-metallic elements like sulphur, iodine and compounds like sodium chloride, naphthalene form crystalline solids. Crystalline solids can be classified depends on the purpose in hand, on the basis of nature of int 1.3.1 Molecular Solids Molecules are the co; further sub divided a ere (Non polar Chemistry3.4 Covalent or Network Solids lids, see a Se ‘or London forces bojecules are held by weal aispersion ue solids are soft and about which you iat: city rue jon-conductors of electricity. aati {in liquid or gaseous state at room temper (w Polar Molecular Solids: The molecule ete, are formed by polar coval Solids are held together by interactions, These solids are soft and nor ‘Their melting points are higher than We solids yet most of these are gases OF iq Hic Hy are some temperature and pressure. Solid SOs and s0) a examples of such solids. (4) Hydrogen Bonded Molecular Solids: The moled contain polar covalent bonds betw Strong hydrogen bonding binds mole (ice). They re non-conductors of electricity. Generally they are re. volatile liquids or soft solids under room temperature and presst? Jons are the constituent particles of ionic solids. Such solids are formed by the three dimensional arrangements of cations and anon bound by strong coulombic (electrostatic) forces. ‘These solids are hard and brittle in nature. They have high melting and boiling points. Since the ions are not free to move about, they are electrical insulators in the solid state. However, in the molten state or when dissolved in water, the ions become free to move about and they conduct electricity. Metals are orderly collection of positive ions surrounded by and held together by a sea of free electrons. These electrons are mobile and are evenly spread out throughout the crystal. Each metal atom contributes one or more electrons towards this sea of mobile electrons. These free ‘and mobile electrons are responsible for high electrical and thermal conductivity of metals. When an electric field is applied, these electrons flow through the network of positive ions. Similarly, when heat is supplied to one portion of a metal, the thermal energy is uniformly spread throughout by free electrons. Another important characteristic of metals is their lustre and colour in certain cases. This is also due to the presence of free electrons in them. Metals are highly malleable and ductile. A wide variety of crystalline solids of non-metals result from the — formation of covalent bonds between adjacent atoms throughout th crystal. They are also called giant molecules strong and directional in nature, therefore atoms at their positions. Such solids are very extremely high melting points and may e ‘They are insulators and do not conduct and silicon carbide are typical exa Graphite (Fig. 1.4) also belongs to this and is a conductor of electricity. Its e3i two-dimenstonal j tule and « hyper eine two-dimensional latyat’l Ia by placing mou Aiyent of lattice points Tse spacial 5 ahiows arrangement of Points iy ty di lattices. ih tat structure. Fig 1.8 shows @ mouy 1 a Lattice A - ae tg. 1.6: Arrangement of points in two different lattices Fig. 1.6: : lattice is, 2 if crystalline solids, space Z mene can of etaing sl: Sees eae ary Gral motifs with lattice points. Each repeated Sime structure and same spacial orlentation as other aa x The environment of each motif is same throughout the surface. ii Eee are the characteristics of a crystal lattice: (@) Each point in a lattice is called lattice point or lattice g Each point in a crystal lattice represents one a may ea atom, a molecule (group of atoms) or an (c) Lattice points are joined by straight lines to bring out the lattice. Shortest length and one can construct displacement of the unit cel] in e movement of unit cell of a two-dimen: entire c Chemistry 8.pig. 1-10: llustration of parameters ofa unit cell 1.4.1 Primitive Unit Cells ig. 1.8: Possible unit cells in twvo dimensions al lattice and its A portion of three-dimensional cryst: unit cell is shown in Fig. 1.9. In the three-dimensional crystal struc characterised by: {its dimensions along the three edges a, and c. These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular. (ii) angles between the edges, a (between b and 3, B (between and ¢) and + (between a and b), Thus, a unit cell 1s characterised by six parameters a, b, ¢, 0 B and 7. ‘These parameters of a typical unit cell are shown fn Fig. 1.10. ture, unit cell is Unit cells can be broadly divided into two categories, primitive and and Centred centred unit cells. (a) Primitive Unit Cells When constituent particles are present only on the corner positions of a unit cell, it is called as primitive unit cell. (b) Centred Unit Cells When a unit cell contains one or more constituent particles present at positions other than corners in addition to those at corners, it is called a centred unit cell, Centred unit cells are of three types: ( Body-Centred Unit Cells: Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle (atom, molecule or ion) at its body-centre besides the ones that are at its corners. (i) Face-Centred Unit Cells: Such a unit cell contains one constituent particle present at the centre of each face, besides the ones that are at its corners. (il). End-Centred Unit Cells: In such a unit cell, one constituent is present at the centre of any two opposite faces present at its corners.