Republic of Namibia

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND CULTURE

SENIOR SECONDARY PHASE

MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 - 11

TRAINING GUIDE FOR CPD Workshop

2018
Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture

National Institute for Educational Development (NIED)

Private Bag 2034

Okahandja

Namibia
 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Forewords
2 What is a workshop
3. Goals and Objectives
4. PROGRAMME – Timetable

5. Part 3: Learning content of the syllabus

6. Part 4: Assessment Section

6.1 New changes made to Assessment section
6.2 Correlations between CA and Exam marks
6.3 Practising the assessment of specific objectives in the syllabus
6.4 Setting question papers in line with specification grid
6.5 Differentiating between topic tasks, investigations and projects
Practising the recording of CA marks into assessment record
6.6 sheets
6.7 Year Planner, Scheme of work and Lesson planning

7. Part 5: Annexes

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1. Foreword

As we all aware, The Ministry Education, Arts and Culture approved the
implementation of Mathematics for all in 2012 in all state and private schools
registered with the ministry in Namibia. This approval is clear indication that basic
mathematical knowledge and skills are no longer considered a privilege for a selected few,
but the right of every citizen of the country. The implementation of Mathematics for All
challenges teachers to provide all learners with the mathematics they need for everyday life.

Working Mathematically comprises five components:

 Communicating
 Problem Solving
 Reasoning
 Understanding
 Fluency

Every ordinary citizen has to deal mathematically with resources such as time and money.
Access to and success in economic activities, for example as a small entrepreneur, an
artisan or a sales lady, demands basic skills and understanding of mathematics. A
mathematically literate nation can compete in the increasingly global technological world of
work and information. An official unemployment rate of 51.8% coupled with an acute skills
shortage in the professional and technical fields, points to the great challenge of increasing
numeracy levels of the Namibian society to ensure progress towards achieving a knowledge-
based society as envisioned by Vision 2030 and in the new Harambee Prosperity Plan.

The revised curriculum for NSSCO Mathematics is to be implemented as from 2019,

grade 10 in 2019 and grade 11 in 2020. This implementation comes with some
notable changes to the status quo of the current curriculum in use. The following
most notable changes are worth mentioning.

1. The introduction of two new topics to the learning content which are:
(a) Set language and notations
(b) Matrices
2. The abolishment of differentiating between Core and Extended level in terms
of assessment during national examination.

The two topics to be introduced have been already part of the learning content for
Ordinary level Mathematics in the past but they were however removed from the
learning content during the process of localization in 20006 (i.e. moving from IGCSE
to NSSCO and from HIGCSE to NSSCH). Further, the practice of differentiating
between Core and Extended level in terms assessment has been only practiced in
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two subjects after the localization and these two subjects were English 2nd language
and Mathematics. A decision was then taken by the National Examination,
Assessment and Certification Board (NEACB) in 2017 to abolish such practice in
Mathematics.

This training guide was prepared with an intention of orienting all NSSCO
Mathematics teachers, in the first place, to the content of the two new topics that has
been introduced to the curriculum. Secondly the training guide was as well prepared
with an intention to equip all NSSCO Mathematics with appropriate skills for them to
be able to handle the whole content in the syllabus including the content currently
assessed at extended level. The overall intention is to ensure that all Mathematics
teachers will be able to teach the whole syllabus with confidence and comfortably.

It is further expected all NSSCO Mathematics will use the regional training as an
information sharing platform from which they can learn best practices from each other
in order for them to be able to handle the whole NSSCO Mathematics in own
classrooms. This is not a trivial task and will require revising, extending and consolidating
knowledge, skills and understanding of basic mathematics.

Some of the exercises in this Training Guide have been copied from the textbook
“Excellent Mathematics” with the permission of the authors. These exercises may not be
reproduced for commercial purposes.

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2. What is a workshop?

Workshops are occasions when people with a problem in common come together to
pool experience and find answers. The emphasis is on ‘work’. A ‘shop’ is a place for
exchanging items for something of similar worth. So a workshop depends on the
exchange of ideas between all participants who, collectively, may have far more
experience in the subject than the facilitator.
To enable participants to work seriously they may need to be away from their normal
setting. Successful workshops have an end product that has been shaped by the
participants during their time together. In these ways workshops differ from seminars
or conferences. In a seminar or conference there are teachers and an audience; a
few people do most of the talking. The others mostly listen and learn.

Your Obligation as a facilitator

As a teacher for Mathematics, your role is crucial for the success of implementing the
revised syllabus. Therefore, it is important that you fully understand the content of the
training and what desirable results should be.

Your first obligation is to fully understand several things

 The new scope and sequence of the revised Mathematics curriculum for
Senior Secondary phase,
 The content of the revised NSSCO Mathematics syllabus
 Notable changes in the revised curriculum compared to the previous one
 How cross-curricular issue are integrated in the syllabus
 The urgency of developing key skills with each learner
 How to construct teaching and learning in an integrated manner
 Important aspects and procedures to be followed with regards to assessment
in Mathematics as a subject,
 How to prepare learners to develop basic investigation skills
 The importance of learning support materials and preparations for teaching
 The significance of National Subject Policy Guide for Mathematics to support
teaching.
:

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As a selected trainer you are charged with a great responsibility and therefore you
should:
 Be willing to learn how to present all the above issues to the teachers you
are going to train;
 Be willing to make sacrifices and put real efforts into the training to make
it a success through professional commitment;
 Reach out to and show patience with all trainees, no matter how
demanding they may be;
 Act professionally all the time and focus on the task at hand as you are
guided to do; and
 “Deliver the good.”

What is the real responsibility of the trainer?

Remember, once the training starts, you will be on your own. The trainees will expect
from you to guide them to improve their skills and become better implementers of the
SS Mathematics syllabus. This could be a daunting task if you are not fully prepared
for the challenge. You will direct the training and you should view yourself as the
facilitator of the affairs.
The training manual will not guarantee a successful outcome by handing it out and
expect trainees to understand it all, but it is there to ensure consistency across
phases of the entire training. You will be in charge of your training sessions and
should arrange a conducive environment where it will be easy to transfer the content
in a convincing manner. As you know well, trainees will only learn and accept the
content if they will be involved and become owners of the skills and information they
need to have.
You may have to adapt to local circumstances or to the level or pace of the group(s)
you are working with. Your commitments, perseverance and creativity could be
challenged. You will set the standards for your groups and success will depend on
your leadership throughout the training week.

What else to know or do?

As a trainer, you are not responsible for everything. The Regional Office will arrange
logistical arrangements for accommodation, meals and transport. The training
materials will be supplied by NIED. However, you will need to ensure that everything
is done and in place for the training. You will need to take care of the specific
refinements and the layout of the training rooms and furniture to meet your needs and
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training style. The atmosphere of the training venue is never to be underestimated
and equipment and materials you are going to use should be placed in the correct
places for the training. You will consider ways to present some of the topics in an
interesting way. You already know what parts of the training programme may be
difficult to present or difficult for trainees to grasp. If you are mentally prepared for
these, you will handle the training with greater confidence and care.

Goals and Objectives

What are goals?

Goals are broader statements that indicate what the trainer would like to achieve by
the end of the training programme. It expresses the intentions of the trainer and the
training exercise.
What are objectives?
Objectives are statements, which indicate what the teachers should know and be
able to do at the end of the training. The following are the objectives that the trainer
is aiming to achieve in the training:
The goals and objectives of this training are indicated below.

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GOALS
The following are goals for this training:
1. Deliver training to all Grades 10-11 Mathematics teachers in Namibia.
2. Introduce the revised curriculum to all the Grades 10-11 Mathematics
teachers.
3. Assist all Mathematics teachers to understand and be able to implement the
revised curriculum in their teaching.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the training the participants will be able to:
● Know and understand the aims and rationale for the Senior Secondary
revised Mathematics syllabus,
● Know all the changes made to the Mathematics Senior Secondary syllabus,
● Give appropriate assistance to teachers to be able to teach new content,
● Know and use some teaching strategies appropriate for teaching SS
Mathematics content,
● Acquire basic skills essential for assessing all the competencies indicated in
the syllabus,
● Assist teachers on how to set balanced question papers that are in line with
the specification grids in the syllabus.

PROGRAMME – Timetable
The programme and activities are in a certain sequence for obvious reasons. Some
things should be learned or done before the others in order to create understanding
and help trainees to see and experience the training in the right context. Your
timetable is the pace setter to ensure that you get through the content and to allow
people to work faster and diligently. You should not spend too much time on one aspect
and rush through the next. It may well happen that you save time on some topics and
only then you can add time allocated to the next ones.

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CONTENT

What is the content of training?

These are issues selected to train teachers on. You will see that they will be exposed
to important curriculum policy documents, guided to do lesson planning, assessment
and so on. The content refers to the work to be done during the training, which
implies the covering of the entire scope of the revised curriculum and will help
teachers across the country to understand and teach in a similar manner.

ACTIVITIES
What do we mean by activities in the context of training?
The training is designed to be trainee-centred and the idea is to allow trainees to
have hand-on experience of the things they are expected to do in the real situation.
For instance, they will study the syllabus, they will prepare a lesson and they will
learn by doing how to do constructive assessment.

The Learning Content and all the activities covered in this training Guide covers the
topics listed below.

 Set Language and Notations

 Matrices
 Numbers And Operations
- Reverse percentages
- Limits of accuracy
- Direct and Indirect Variation
 Mensuration
- Arc length and area of a sector
- Surface area an volume of Sphere, Pyramid and Cone
 GEOMETRY
- Similarity
- Angle properties
 ALGEBRA
- Transforming formulae
- Algebraic manipulation
- Polynomials
- Equations and inequalities
- Indices
- Sequences
- Logarithms

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  FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
- Graphs in practical situations
- Linear programming
- Functions
- Graphs of functions
 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
 TRIGONOMETRY
 VECTORS AND TRANSFORMATION
 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

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 Set language and notations

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 SET THEORY
1. The table below gives a quick general introduction to sets. If C = {1, 2, 3, 4} and D
= {3, 4, 5}
Symbol Meaning Example
{} Set: a collection of well-organized objects. {1,2,3,4, 8}
Objects in a given set are called
elements/members of that set
A∪B Union: in A or B (or both) C ∪ D = {1,2,3,4,5}
A∩B Intersection: in both A and B C ∩ D = {3,4}
A⊆B Subset: A has some (or all) elements of B {3,4,5} ⊆ D
A⊂B Proper Subset: A has some elements of {3,5} ⊂ D
B
A⊄B Not a Subset: A is not a subset of B {1,6} ⊄ C
Complement: elements not in A D'= {1,2,6,7}
Ac , A' or Ā
When ξ = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
*A−B Difference: in A but not in B {1,2,3,4} − {3,4} = {1,2}
a∈A Element of: a is in A 3 ∈ {1,2,3,4}
b∉A Not element of: b is not in A 6 ∉ {1,2,3,4}
∅ or { } Empty/Null set: a set without members {1,2} ∩ {3,4} = Ø
ξ, or simply U Universal Set: set of all possible values If one is interested in prime
(in the area of interest) or everything that number decomposition for all
is relevant to our question integers, then ξ = all prime
numbers.
P(A) Power Set: the set of all possible subsets If A= {1, 2}. All possible subsets of A
of A are:
∅ , {1}, {2}, {1,2}
A=B Equality: both sets have the same {3,4,5} = {5,3,4}, but {1,2} ≠ {1,2,3} as
members 3∈{1,2,3} and 3∉{1,2}
|A| , n(A) or Cardinality: the number of elements in If A= {3 ,4}. Then |A| = 2, while |∅| = 0
c(A) set A
| Such that { n ∈ℕ | n > 0 } = {1,2,3,...}
: Such that { n ∈ℕ : n > 0 } = {1,2,3,...}
ℕ Natural Numbers : all counting numbers {1,2,3,...}
Integers: negative and positive whole {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
ℤ numbers including zero
Rational Numbers: fractions where both 2 22
ℤ, 3 , 7 ,…,all recurring/terminating
ℚ numerator and denominator are integers
decimals. One must recall that a
(NB the denominator cannot be zero)
terminating decimal is decimal with a
finite number of digits.
Irrational Numbers: numbers that cannot √2 , √3 , π , …,all non-terminating
ℝ−ℚ− be written as a fraction, where both the decimals
numerator and denominator are integers
Any number we make use of in our
ℝ Real Numbers daily life or any well-defined number
one can think of: e.g 1, 0.2, - π,
√3,….

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There are two main ways/formats of representing a set, namely:
 Element list format: Here the set is given by listing all the elements in the set.
e.g A={1,3,4,5,6}
 Set builder notation: Here the elements are given by membership relation. e.g.
B =all positive real numbers = {x∈ | x > 0}

Remarks and Examples

 the meaning of the dots in a set is to indicate that the set continues in the
direction of the dots. For instance ℕ={1,2,3,4,5,6,……..} and ={…..,-2,-
1,0,1,2,……}
 Also the dots can be used between elements of a given set to save time and
space when listing elements of a bigger set, for instance the set of the first 2000
natural numbers can written as {1,2,3,4,5,…….,1999,2000}or even better as
{1,2,3,……,2000}
 ∅ ⊆ A for any given set A. i.e the empty set is subset of any set.

A good way to think about it is: we can't find any elements in the empty set that
aren't in A, so it must be that all elements in the empty set are in A.

Therefore the empty set is a subset of every set, including the empty set itself.

*A set with only one element is called a Singleton. e.g. {1} and {a} are both Singletons.

*A − B ⊆ A. It must be noted that A – B ≠ B – A. For instance if A= {1,2} and B={2,3}, then A

− B ={1} and B – A={3} which are obviously different.

 A ⊆ A for any set A. This is so as every element in A belongs to A.

 A ⊆ A ∪ B, B ⊆ A ∪ B, A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.

* If a set A contains infinitely many elements, then |A| does not exists and one write |A|= ∞ for
this.

 If A is a finite set with |A|= n, then A has exactly 2𝑛 subsets. For instance, if

A = {2,3,4, 9}. Then |A| = 4 and A has exactly 24 = 16 subsets, which are:

∅, {2},{3},{4},{9},{2,3},{2,4},{2,9},{3,4},{3,9},{4,9},{2,3,4},{2,3,9},{2,4,9},{3,4,9},{2,3,4, 9}.

 To be able to tell that a given object belongs to a given set or not, just check if
that object lies between the outer brackets. For instance if A = {0,{0},{0, ∅}}.
Then

(a) A has 3 elements, namely 0,{0},{0, ∅}, as this are the only objects between the outer
brackets of A.
(b) {0} is also a subset of A, as every element of {0} is also in A.

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 (c) {0, ∅} is not a subset of A, as ∅ ∈ {0, ∅} but ∅∉A. i.e not every element of {0, ∅}
belongs to A.
(d) {0,{0, ∅}} is a subset of A, as every element of {0,{0, ∅}} also belongs to A. It must be
noted that {0,{0, ∅}} ≠ A. Also {{0},{0, ∅}} ≠ {0,{0, ∅}}, as {0}∈{{0},{0, ∅}}, but {0}∉{0,{0,
∅}}.

NB: Always when finding all possible subsets of A, try to list subsets in order
of their sizes. This will avoid confusions, especially when the set is relatively
big.
1. Start with the 0-element subset, namely the ∅.
2. Give all the 1-element subsets (the singletons)
3. Give all the 2-element subsets
4. Proceed in this way until you find all n-element subsets, namely the whole set A,
whenever A has n elements.

*A – B = A ∩ B'. For instance for a universal set ξ ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7}, A={2,5,7} and B =

{1,2,5}. Then A – B = {all elements in A, but not in B} = {7},
B' = {3,4,6,7} and A ∩ B'={2,5,7}∩ {3,4,6,7}={7}. Therefore A – B = A ∩ B'.
 If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = A, A ∪ B =B and B– A = ∅. e.g if A={2,5,7} and
B={2,5,7,8}, then A⊆ B. Now B– A = {all elements in B, but not in A} = ∅.
 (A')' = A, A ∩ A' = ∅ and A ∪ A' = U, where U is the universal set. e.g if
ξ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and A = {2,5,7}, then A' = {1,3,4,6} and (A')' =({1,3,4,6})' =
{2,5,7} = A .
Now A ∩ A' = {2,5,7}∩{1,3,4,6}=∅ and
A ∪ A' = {2,5,7}∪{1,3,4,6} = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} = ξ.
 If A⊆ B, then B is called a superset of A. i.e a superset of set is any set which
contains that set as a subset. Also a proper Superset is defined in a similar
fashion.
 If A ⊆ B, then B'⊆ A'. It must be noted that if A ⊆ B, then A' ⊄ B'. This is so, as
whatever is outside the bigger set, must be outside the smaller set. Or think of it
in the following context. Let B be a house and A to be a room within a house,
Then whoever is outside the house must be outside the room , but whoever is
outside the room is not necessarily outside the house.
 It must be noted that ∅ ≠ {0}, as the empty set has no elements, while {0}
contains exactly one element, namely 0.

DERMOGAN LAWS
If A and B are sets in the context of a universal set ξ, then
(a) (A ∪ B)' = A' ∩ B'
(b) (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B'

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 EXERCISES
1. Consider the sets A = {-1, 2, 5, 8} and B = {-2, -1, 0, 5, 3, 9}, with
ξ = {-4,-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} as the universal set. Write out the
following sets:
(a) A ∪ B
(b) (A ∪ B)'
(c) A' and B'
(d) A' ∩ B'
(e) What is the relationship between the solutions in (b) and (d)?
(f) * B– A and all possible subsets of B– A.

2. Consider the set A = {∅, 0, {∅,0}}and answer the following:

(a) How many elements does the set A have? (Hint: To find the number of elements
in a given set, just count (without repetition) the number of objects between the outer
curl brackets)
(b) With reasons, state whether each of the following is TRUE or FALSE:
(i) ∅ ⊆ A
(ii) {∅} ⊆ A
(iii) {0} ∈ A
(iv) {{∅, 0}} ⊆ A
(v) {{0},{∅, 0}} ⊆ A
(vi) {∅, 0} ⊆ A.
3. Re-write the following sets in the indicated format.
(a) Element-list form, where A= {p ∈ℕ| p is prime number between 3 and 20}
1 1 1 1
(b) Set-builder notation, where A= {….,16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 2,4,8,16,……}
4. (a) How many subsets does the empty set ∅ have? Is it true that the empty set ∅
has no subsets?
(b) Consider the sets A = {0,1,2} and B = {-1,0,2,3}. Find
(i) A ∪ B and A ∩ B
(ii) all possible subsets A i.e find P(A)
(iii) all possible subsets of B i.e find P(B)
(iv) all possible subsets of A ∪ B i.e find P(A ∪ B)
(v) all possible subsets of A ∩ B i.e find P(A∩B)

Do we have here that: (i) all possible subsets of A ∪ B = all possible subsets A
combined with all possible subsets B ? i.e is P(A ∪ B) = P(A) ∪ P(B)? (ii) all possible
subsets of A ∩ B = all sets which are common subsets of both A and B? i.e is
P(A∩B) = P(A) ∩ P(B)?

VENN DIAGRAMS
Here are some common definitions for Venn diagram:
1. A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets,
groups of objects that share something in common.
2. Venn diagrams are the principal way of showing sets diagrammatically. The
method consists primarily of entering the elements of a set into a circle or
circles.

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 3. A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of the relationships between sets.

Let us see how one can use Venn diagrams to represent all real numbers. Since our
interest is all real numbers, then our universal set ξ = ℝ.
ξ=ℝ
RATIONAL NUMBERS IRRATIONAL
NUMBERS

Integers

Whole numbers

0 Natural numbers Non-terminating decimals

Terminating
Recurring decimals decimals

Figure 1: Venn diagram of set of Real

Numbers

NB: Recall that whole numbers are all positive integers including zero. i.e whole
numbers = {0,1,2,3,…….} = {0} ∪ ℕ. Hence Negative intergers are not considered to
be whole numbers.

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 Figure 2: Set operations via Venn diagrams. NB Here U = ξ the
universal set.

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Examples
1. At a breakfast buffet, 93 people chose coffee and 47 people chose juice. 25
people chose both coffee and juice. If each person chose at least one of these
beverages, how many people visited the buffet?

Solution
Since we are interested in people coming to a breakfast buffet, then the universal set
ξ = breakfast buffet. Let C= Coffee and J = Juice.
 Total number of people who choose Coffee = |C| = 93.
 Total number of people who choose Juice = |J| = 47
 Total number of people who choose both Coffee and Juice = |C∩J| = 25
 Total number of people who choose Coffee only = 93-25=68
 Total number of people who choose Juice only = 47-25 = 22

Since each person chose at least one beverage, then we have that:
Total number of peoples who visited the buffet = Total number of people who choose
Coffee only + Total number of people who choose Juice only + Total number of
people who choose both Coffee and Juice = 68 + 22 + 25 =115

ξ = Breakfast Buffet

C J

68 25 22

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 Exercises
1. In a class of 30 students, 19 are studying French, 12 are studying Spanish and
7 are studying both French and Spanish. How many students are not taking
any foreign languages?
2. 90 students went to a school carnival. 3 had a hamburger, soft drink and ice-
cream. 24 had hamburgers. 5 had a hamburger and a soft drink. 33 had soft
drinks. 10 had a soft drink and ice-cream. 38 had ice-cream. 8 had a
hamburger and ice-cream. How many had nothing?
3. 100 students were interviewed
28 took PHYSICS, 31 took BIOLOGY, 42 took ENGLISH, 9 took PHYSICS
and BIOLOGY, 10 took PHYSICS and ENG, 6 took BIOLOGY and ENGLISH,
4 took all three subjects.
a) How many students took none of the three subjects?
b) How many students took PHYSICS but not BIOLOGY or ENGLISH?
c) How many students took BIOLOGY and ENGLISH but not ENGLISH?
4. 150 college freshmen were interviewed
85 were registered for a Math class
70 were registered for an English class
50 were registered for both Math and English
a) How many signed up only for a Math Class?
b) How many signed up only for an English Class?
c) How many signed up for Math or English?
d) How many signed up neither for Math nor English?
5. A group of 62 students were surveyed, and it was found that each of the
students surveyed liked at least one of the following three fruits: apricots,
bananas, and cantaloupes.
34 liked apricots.
30 liked bananas.
33 liked cantaloupes.
11 liked apricots and bananas.
15 liked bananas and cantaloupes.
17 liked apricots and cantaloupes.
19 liked exactly two of the following fruits: apricots, bananas, and cantaloupes

a) How many students liked apricots, but not bananas or cantaloupes?

b) How many students liked cantaloupes, but not bananas or apricots?
c) How many students liked all of the following three fruits: apricots, bananas,
and cantaloupes?
d) How many students liked apricots and cantaloupes, but not bananas?

6. Make use of a Venn diagram to solve this problem.

There are 55 students at a party. Of them, 12 are not citizens of any country in
Southern Africa. For the rest, it is known that 25 are Namibians, 18 are

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 Angolans, and 19 are Zambians. It is also known that 5 of them have
citizenship of all the three mentioned countries, 8 have citizenship of both
Namibia and Angola, and 7 have citizenship of both Angola and Zambia. Find
how many of the students have:
a) Citizenship of both Namibia and Zambia
b) Citizenship of Namibia and Zambia but not Angola
c) Citizenship of Namibia and Angola but not Zambia
d) Citizenship of Angola and Zambia but not Namibia
e) Citizenship of one country only.

Online Resources

To enhance your understanding and encourage your participation in this

topic/section, you may browse the following carefully selected websites for additional
mathematics resources in the form of:
 Video tutorials
 Text notes
 Self-test exercises

Basic Sets:
http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/maths/teaching/probability/probtheory/sets/
http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/maths/teaching/probability/probtheory/venn/
http://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/index.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/probability/independent-dependent-
probability/basic_set_operations
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/pre-algebra/fractions-pre-alg/number-sets-pre-alg
Standard sets:
http://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/number-types.html
http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/43799-maths-for-computer-sci-ff-for-
web.pdf

Venn diagrams:

https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/venn-diagram-word-problems.html

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 Matrices

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 MATRICES
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. Matrices can be used in all sorts of
circumstances, for example presenting information, solving equations and producing
transformation of vectors.

We start with a table of information. Anne, Colin and Rachel buy magazines and bars
of chocolate. The table shows how the purchases were made.

Magazines Chocolate
Anne 3 1
Colin 1 2
Rachel 0 3

If we want to do calculations involving several tables of the same form we can

3 1
dispense with the labels and write (1 2) . In this form he array is called a matrix.
0 3
1 2
The following week the information on their purchases is given by the matrix (2 3)
1 1
.
We can combine the two sets of information and write down what each of them has
4 3
bought over the fortnight, i.e. (3 5) .
1 4
3 1 1 2 4 3
Hence (1 2 ) + (2 3 ) = (3 5 ) .
0 3 1 1 1 4
Notice that, if in the second week we have no information about Rachel’s purchase
1 2
and therefore have the matrix ( ), we are unable to add the two matrices, i.e.
2 3
3 1
1 2
(1 2 ) + ( ) does not mean anything.
2 3
0 3

Rows and columns

2 3 1
The matrix ( ) has 2 rows and 3 columns.
4 1 2
We define the size of a matrix by giving the number of rows followed by the number
of columns, so the size of the matrix above is given simply as 2 × 3. (We say ‘2 by
3’.)
𝑎
A vector in the form ( ) is a 2 × 1 matrix.
𝑏
0 2
The matrix ( ) is a 2 × 2 matrix.
2 −1
It has an equal number of rows and columns and is called a square matrix.

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Addition and Subtraction
As we have seen, matrices of the same size can be added by adding elements in
corresponding positions.

By taking the numbers for the first week’s purchases from those for the fortnight and
obtaining the second week’s numbers, we can see that matrices of the same size can
also be subtracted, by subtracting elements in corresponding positions.
4 3 3 1 1 2
i.e. (3 5) - (1 2) = (2 3)
1 4 0 3 1 1

Multiples of Matrices
Now suppose that for two other weeks the purchases are identical; we get
3 1 3 1 6 2
(1 2) + (1 2) = (2 4)
0 3 0 3 0 6
3 1 6 2
This can be written 2(1 2) = (2 4)
0 3 0 6

Notation
A matrix is denoted by a capital letter in bold type or, in handwriting, a capital letter
with a line under it.
1 2
e.g. A = 𝐴 = ( )
2 3
Zero Matrices
If each element in a matrix is zero, the matrix is called a zero matrix,
0 0 0
e.g. ( ) is a zero matrix.
0 0 0
Exercise
1. Give the size of each of the following matrices.

1 2 3
(a) (4 2 −5) (b) (0 −1 3)
5 1 4
2. Find
−2 −1 3 5 2 −2 4 1 6 −1
(a) ( ) + ( ) (b) ( )− ( ) (c) -2 ( )
1 3 4 0 2 3 −3 2 3 2

Considering the purchases again, if the prices of the items are available, we can work
out the total costs.
Suppose that in shop A a magazine costs $30 and a bar of chocolate $20. Then we
have the table
Cost in shop A in $
Magazine 30
Chocolate 20

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To work out Anne’s bill we find 3 x 30 + 1 x 20 is $110 and similarly we can work out
the other bills, so
3 1 110
30
(1 2) × ( ) = ( 70 )
20
0 3 90

If the costs in shop B are $35 and $15 then the price table is

Cost in shop B in $
Magazine 35
Chocolate 15

and multiplying we get

Total: Shop A Shop B
3 1 110 120
30 35
(1 2 ) × ( ) = ( 70 65 )
20 15
0 3 90 45
Notice that a row from the First matrix is combined with a column from the second,
e.g. the 3rd row combined with the 2nd column gives the element in the 3rd row and the
2nd column of the final matrix
(0 × 35 + 3 × 15).

Compatibility for Multiplication

The number of elements in a row of the first matrix must agree with the number of
elements in a column of the second matrix,

4 3
e.g. ( 1 2 3 ) can be multiplied by (3 5) as there are 3 elements per row in the
1 4
first matrix and 3 elements per column in the second.

Exercise

2 3 2 −2 6 2
A= ( ) , B = ( ) and C = ( )
1 4 3 3 0 3

Find where possible (a) AB (b) AC (c) BC

Order of Matrices in Multiplication

The order in which the matrices are written is important e. e. AB is not in general
equal to BA.

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Unit Matrices

When we multiply ordinary numbers, multiplying by 1 leaves a number unchanged.

For multiplication of matrices, there are equivalent matrices, called unit matrices and
denoted by I , such that AI = A or IA = A.

1 0
For 2 x 2 matrices, the unit matrix is ( ).
0 1

The Detrminant of a 2 × 2 Matrix

The determinant of a matrix A is denoted by |𝐀|.

𝑎 𝑏
If A = ( ) then |𝐀| = ad – bc
𝑐 𝑑
Notice that the value of |𝐀| is a single number.

Inverse Matrices
1
With ordinary numbers, 2 × 21 = 1 where 2 is the reciprocal of 2.
If we have two matrices A and B such that AB = I then B is the inverse of A vice
versa.
The inverse of A denoted by 𝑨−𝟏 .

Exercise

2 7 8 −14 4 −7
A=( ) , B= ( ) and C = ( )
1 4 −2 4 −1 2

Find

(a) AB (b) AC

(c) Which of B and C is the inverse of A ?

(d) Find the determinant of A , B and C.
2 3 0
(e) Does the matrix ( ) have a determinant?
4 6 1

Finding the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix

𝑎 𝑏
Given ( ) , first find the determinant ad – bc.
𝑐 𝑑

(This is done first because, if the determent is 0 or 1, some of the following working
may not be necessary).

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 𝑑 …
Now interchange a and d ( )
… 𝑎

… −𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏
and change the signs of b and c ( ) . This gives us ( )
−𝑐 … −𝑐 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
Dividing this matrix by the determinant gives the inverse of ( )
𝑐 𝑑

𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
i.e. if A = ( ) then A -1 = ( )
𝑐 𝑑 |𝑨| −𝑐 𝑎

Exercise

4 6 2 3 3 2
1 Find the inverse of (a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) ( )
1 2 5 8 6 4

2 A pair of simultaneous equations

2x + y = 4
2x + 3y = 8

2 1 𝑥 4
can be written in the form ( )( ) = ( )
2 3 𝑦 8
2 1 2 1 𝑥 4
(a) If A is the inverse of ( ) , simplify A( ) (𝑦) = A ( )
2 3 2 3 8
(b) What conclusion do you draw about the values of x and y ?

3. Now solve the following pair of simultaneous equation with the same method:

(a) x – y = -3 (b) 4x – 3y = 5
2x + y = -3 3x + y = 7

 5 2
4 A = 
 4 3

Calculate A2.

 2 3 1 2 0 u  w 3
5 P  Q  R   S 
1 4 0 3 1 v   8 2

(a) Work out PQ.

(b) Find Q – 1 .
(c) If PR = RP , find the value of u and the value of v.
(d) The determinant of S of 0. Find the value w.

6 Find the value of the letters:

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 2 𝑥 4 𝑦 𝑥 9
(a) ( ) + ( ) = ( )
𝑦 7 −3 2 𝑧 0
4 0 𝑛 𝑝 20 12
(b) ( )( )= ( )
1 𝑚 −2 0 −1 𝑞
2 0 𝑚 10
(c) ( )( ) = ( )
0 −3 𝑛 1
𝑎 𝑏 2 5 1 𝑎
(d) ( )− ( ) = 2( )
𝑐 0 −3 𝑑 𝑏 −1

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 Reverse Percentage

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Reverse percentage

 Reversed percentage is about finding the original quantity of variables, in other

words it is working back to the 100%.
 Sometimes a question will ask you to work backwards and find the original
price of something after the price has increased or decreased.
 Reversed percentage is usually done if you are given a quantity after a
percentage increase or decrease has been added or removed from the original
quantity.

Examples:
1. A radio costs N$103 after a 40% increase in the cost price. Find the original
price.

Solution:
Start with the original amount as 100%.
We are told the selling price is a 40% added to the cost price
So the selling price is 100% + 40% = 140% of the cost price
We know that the selling price is N$103, so 140% = N$103
Then 140% N$103
100% x?, where x is the original price.
100 103
Hence x 
140
= N$73.57

2. A new car’s value depreciates by 30% yearly. After a year it is worth N$80 400.
Find the price of the car when it was new.
Solution:
After a year the car will cost 30% less.
Hence 70% N$80 400
100% N$x?, where x is the original price of the car.
100 80400
x
70
= N$114 857.14

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 Exercises
1. A laptop was reduced by 20% on a sale. If the sale price of the laptop is N$ 8
320.00, what was the original price?
2. Cost of a decoration at events is increased by 6% to N$ 25.00 per hour. How
much was the cost of the decoration per hour before the increase?
3. The cost of a suit is N$ 1 680 on a 30% off sale. What is the original cost of
the suit before the sale?
4. The number of grade 12 leaners taking Ordinary Level Mathematics in
Namibia increased by 65% to 20 460 in 2018. How many learners enrolled for
Ordinary Level Mathematics in 2017?
5. Selma paid N$ 5 280 for a sofa on a sale. The sale price of the sofa was
reduced by 25%. What was the original price of the sofa before the sale?
6. The number of visitors at Ongwediva trade fair in 2018 is 13% bigger than
2017 with 58 082 tickets sold. How many tickets were sold in 2017?
7. An athlete’s usual best marathon time reduced by 4% at common wealth
games, finishing in 3 hours and 36 minutes. What was the usual best finishing
time of the athlete?
8. The amount of rubbish dumped at the dumpsite in town A increases by 7%
every. Last year 25 265 696 tonnes of rubbish was dumped at the dump site.
Find the amount rubbish in tonnes that was dumped at the site the previous
year.
9. Calculate the cost price of a loaf that was sold for N$8.95 at a profit of 7.5%.
10. During one hot summer day, the amount of water in Hardap dam reduced by
1% to 26. 235 million litres. How much was in the dam at the beginning of the
day?
11. The number of learners in a school is 5.4% lower than in the previous year.
Calculate the number of learners in the previous year if the school now has
1 208 learners.
12. Calculate the cost price of a car that was sold for N$178 900 at a profit of
8.7%.
13. The height of a tree increased 7.7% over the past year. Calculate the height of
the tree at the beginning of the year if its height is now 8.45 m.

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 14. A 20% increase raises the price of a jacket to N$480. Calculate the cost price
of the jacket.
15. A nearly second hand car is sold for N$ 64 400. This represents a loss of 8 %.
Work out the original the original purchase of price of the car.
16. Calculate the cost price of a pair of shoes that was sold for N$378.99 at a
profit of 15.2%.
17. The population of a town increased by 12.8% over the past 5 years. Calculate
what the population was 5 years ago if the current population is 10 752.
18. The volume of water in a dam is now 27.3% lower than a month ago. Calculate
the volume of water for the previous month if the dam now has 238 kl of water.
19. The lion population in a game reserve is 328. The population decreased by
4.5% during the previous year. Calculate the lion population in the previous
year.
20. A town has 3 500 families who own cars. If this represents 28% of the families
in the town, how many families are in the town in total?
21. Joana scored 88% in a Mathematics test. If she failed three questions, how
many questions did pass?
22. In a Mathematics examination Saara scored 87.5%, obtaining 105 marks. How
many marks did she lose?
23. The price for a second hand car is N$ 180 000.00. If the value of the car has
depreciated by 25%, calculate its car when it is new.
24. A 5% increase raises a given temperature to 32⁰C. Calculate what the
temperature was before the increase.
25. The selling price of a television set is N$ 684.00, as a result of 20% increase
to the cost price. Calculate the cost price of the TV set.
26. Malima saves N$ 3 500 this year. This is 40% more than he saved last year.
Calculate how much he saved last year.
27. The population of Ondangwa is 45 000. This is 125% greater than it was 5
years ago. Calculate the population of Ondangwa 5 years ago.

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 Limits of accuracy

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Limits of accuracy to solutions of simple problems

Application of limits of accuracy:

 Measurements are not always exact and in some cases they may be rounded
up.
 When a number has been rounded to a certain accuracy
o for instance, the nearest 1 cm or to the nearest 10, you can work out its
highest and lowest possible values according to the limits of accuracy
provided.
 These outcomes are often referred to as an upper or lower bound.

The whole concept is about the limits of some tolerance to some degrees and hence
the answers in this section will not necessarily be rounded off to some other degrees
of accuracy it might have been indicated in some question papers.
Examples:
1. Mary’s height is given as 162 cm, correct to the nearest cm. Find the upper and
lower bound of Mary’s height.
Solution:
 *161.5 is the smallest number which rounds up to 162.

 *162.5 is the smallest number which rounds up to 163.

 Therefore, Mary’s height must be below 162.5. (But remember that it could be
162.49999999… cm)
 Then we can conclude that Mary’s height lies between 161.5 cm and 162.5 cm
BUT 162.5 will not be part of the solution since it rounds of to 163 cm.

This can be represented as 161.5 cm ≤ Mary’s height < 162.5 cm

Please note: the “<” at 162.5 cm which indicates that 162.5 cm is not part of the
solution because any number from 162.5 and above will not round off to 162 cm.
The lower bound is: 161.5 cm
The upper bound is: 162.5 cm
Alternatively (shorter method):

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  You can always take a number that comes after the word “nearest”, divide it
by 2 (because we are looking for two numbers) and the answer you get is
your absolute error to which your number has bee1n rounded off.

 This can then be used to find your lower and upper bound as follows here:

1
Hence the absolute error becomes 2 = ±0.5, the limits then becomes

162±0.5.
Therefore 162 - 0.5 = 161.5 cm
162 + 0.5 = 162.5 cm
2. Find the lower and upper bounds of the sum of 11.8 cm and 4.6 cm each correct
to 1 decimal place.
Solution:
 Sum means that we have to add the two numbers, meaning that we are finding
the upper and lower bound of 4.6 cm + 11.8 cm when each numbers rounded
off to 1 decimal place.

 In this case the absolute error is found by underlining the place value to which
the numbers has been rounded e.g if 4.8 is rounded to 1 d.p then the place
value that will give the absolute error is underlining the first decimal this way
4.8 , putting a 1 in this position and the rest zeros will yield the following
0.1.

 From this, 0.1 can now be used to find the absolute error by dividing it by 2
and be used to find the up and lower limit of each number. We divide by a 2
because we are looking for two numbers.

 NB: Always first find the upper and lower bound of the individual numbers
before you do the calculation.
0.1
The absolute error is = ±0.05
2

UB: UB:
4.6 4.65 11.8 11.85
LB: LB:
4.55 11.75

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  The lower bound is then the sum of the two lower bounds
11.75 cm + 4.55cm = 16.3 cm
 The upper bound is the sum of the upper bounds
11.85 cm + 4.65cm = 16.5 cm
3. Find the lower and upper bounds of the difference of 11.8 cm and 4.6 cm each
correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution:
 The first part is the same as the previous example and the absolute error is the
same in this case.
 Find the upper and lower bound of the individual numbers before you do the
calculation.
0.1
The absolute error is = ±0.05
2

UB: UB:
11.8 11.85 4.6 4.65
LB: LB:
11.75 4.55

 The lower bound is then the lower bound of the first number minus the upper
bound of the second number because it is the one that is giving the smallest
possible answer.
11.75 cm – 4.65 cm = 7.1 cm

 The upper bound is the upper bound of the first number minus the lower
bound of the second number as this is the only combination that is giving the
biggest value.
11.85 cm – 4.55 cm = 7.3 cm

4. If all the given numbers are correct to 2 significant figures, find the upper and lower
bound of 1300 × 45.

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Solution:
 Firstly, it clear that the two numbers given will have different absolute values
by making use the method stated in example number two. If we underline the
numbers at the stated position (2sf) we will get the following for each number;
1300 45
0100 and 01
100
This means that the absolute value for the first number is = ±50 and the
2
1
absolute value for the second number is 2 = ±0.5

 Hence the upper bound for each individual number becomes,

UB: 1350 UB: 45.5

1300 45
LB: LB: 44.5
1250

 The lower bound is the lower bound of the first number multiplied by the
lower bound of the second number.
1250 × 44.5 = 55 625

 The upper bound is the upper bounds of all numbers multiplied together.
1350 × 45.5 = 61 425

5. If all the given numbers are correct to 2 significant figures, find, correct to 2
significant figures, the upper and lower bound of 1300 ÷ 45.
Solution:
 The first part of the solution is the same as the previous example.
 Hence the upper bound for each individual number is to be worked out first,

UB: 1350 UB: 45.5

1300 45
LB: LB: 44.5
1250

 The lower bound is the lower bound of the first number divided by the upper
bound of the second number as it gives the smallest value.
1250 ÷ 45.5 = 27.4725… = 27 (2sf as instructed)

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  The upper bound is the upper bound of the first number divided by the lower
bound of the second number.
1350 ÷ 44.5 = 30.3370… = 30 (2sf as instructed)

6. All the numbers in the following calculation are rounded off to 2 significant figures.
8.3  2.5
1.2  3.4
Find the lower bound and the upper bound of the calculation.
Solution:
 We are told that each number is rounded off to the nearest second
significant figure.
 Hence the absolute value is the same for all the four numbers, in this case
absolute error is 0.1÷2= ±0.05.
 The first step is to work out the upper and lower bound for each number as
follows.

UB: UB: UB: UB:

8.3 8.35 2.5 2.55 1.2 1.25 3.4 3.45
LB: LB: LB: LB:
lower bound of a2.45
To get the8.25 fraction we need to1.15 3.35
have the biggest possible
denominator and the smallest possible numerator. And the combination that will
8.25  2.45 10.7 2
give this is   5  5.095238095 .
1.25  3.35  2.1 21
2
LB:  5
21
To get the upper bound of a fraction we need to have the biggest possible
numerator and the smallest possible denominator. And the combination that will
8.35  2.55 10.9 17
give this is   4 .
1.15  3.45  2.3 23
17
UB:  4 .
23

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Exercises
1. Calculate the lower and upper bounds for the following calculations, if all the
numbers are given to the nearest whole numbers.

40
(a) 14 × 20 (b) 135 × 25 (c) 100 × 50 (d) (e)
10
33
11
125 101 28 578 1000 44
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) 2
15 69 17  22 4  (3  8) 3
2. Calculate the lower and upper bounds for the following calculations, if all the
numbers are given to 2 s.f.

54 000
(a) 64 × 320 (b) 6.3 × 0.65 (c) 10.0 × 14.9 (d) (e)
600
4.2
0.031
100 6.8  42 1 000 125
(f) (g) (h) (i)
5 .2 120 (4.5  6.0) 15

3. If all the given numbers are correct to 2 significant figures, find the upper and
lower bound of 1300 × 45.

4. The figure shows a triangle with height 7.4 cm and base 11.1 cm. Calculate the
upper bound of the area of the triangle if both dimensions are given to the nearest
mm.

7.4 cm

11.1 cm

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5. The figure shows a trapezium with parallel sides 8.0 cm and 12.1 cm respectively.
Calculate the lower bound of the area of the trapezium if its height is 5.4 cm and
all dimensions rounded off to one decimal place.
8.0 cm

5.4 cm

12.1 cm

6. Calculate the upper bound of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of a square with
sides 3.8 m rounded to one decimal place.

7. Twenty millilitre of cool drink concentrate, rounded off to the nearest 5 ml, mixed
with water to make one glass of cool drink. Calculate the lower bound of the
number of glasses of cool drink that can be made from a 750 ml (correct to the
nearest 10 ml) bottle of concentrate.

8. A bakery uses 8 kg of flour, correct to the nearest 20 g, to bake biscuits. Calculate

the number of biscuits they can bake if they use 30 g of flour, correct to the
nearest 5 g, for each biscuit.

9. The dimensions of a rectangular piece of carpet are given as 127 cm × 68 cm.

Both lengths are correct to the nearest cm. Between what limits does the area of
the carpet lie?
10. In this right-angled triangle, both measurements are given correct to 1 decimal
place (d.p). What is the smallest possible area of the triangle?

2.4 cm

3.7 cm

11. Albertina travelled from Oshakati to Windhoek. The distance between Oshakati
and Windhoek is 800 kilometres, to the nearest 100 kilometres. The trip took her
8.8 hours, correct to 1 decimal place. Calculate her maximum speed.

12. Joe measures the side of a square correct to 1 decimal place. He calculates the
upper bound for the area of the square as 37.8225 cm2. Work out Joe’s
measurement for the side of the square.

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 Direct and indirect variation

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Proportion

Direct proportion:
If two variables (or quantities) x and y are such that their ratio is always constant,
then y is in direct proportion to x (or we can say y is proportional to x).
y
If y is directly proportional to x then  k , where k is a positive constant and so
x
y  kx . The graph y against x is a straight line through the origin.

y As x increases, y increased and as x decreases, y

decreases. If x is doubled, y is doubled. If x is halved,
y is halved.

x
Examples:
1. Natangwe walks at a steady speed. The longer he walks, the greater the
distance he travels. If he doubles his walking time, he will double the distance
he travels.
What is the relationship between the distance covered by Natangwe and the
time he travelled?

Solution:
We can say: the distance is directly proportional to the time.

2. A car uses 23.5 litres of petrol for a journey of 620 km. How many litres of
petrol does the car use for a trip of 744 km?

Solution:

We assume that the car is travelling at the same speed.

Therefore the more petrol we have the longer distance we will cover in this
case. This makes it a direct proportion situation.

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 If 23.5 litres = 620 km then how many litres does one need to drive 744km?
23.5l  620km
xl  744
23.5  744
x 
620
x  28.2l
More examples to try on your own:
3. You can paint 4.5 m2 with 1.2 litres of oil paint. How many square metres of
wall can you paint with 20 litres?
4. A pile of paper has a height of 54 mm and contains 500 sheets. Find the
height of a pile with 225 sheets.
5. Give three more examples of quantities that are directly proportional.
6. Oranges are packed into bags. 136 oranges fill 17 bags. How many oranges
can be packed into 250 bags?

Indirect proportion:
In an indirect proportion when one variable increases the other variable decreases
and vice versa. If two variables (or quantities) x and y are such that their product xy
1
is a constant then y is inversely proportional to x i.e y  . If y is inversely
x
1 k
proportional to x, then y  becomes y  where k is a constant.
x x

y As x increases, y decreases. If x doubles, y is halved

and vice versa.

x
Examples:
1. A school has enough food for 120 learners for 10 days. How long would the food
last for
a) 60 learners,
b) 240 learners?

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 Solution:
a) Hint: As can be seen from the problem, when there is too many learners the food
is expected to last only for a few days.
Hence to find the number of days that the food is going to last 60 learners we will
increase in the ratio 120 : 60 because it is expected to last longer now.
120 : 10
60 : x
10  120
x
60
= 20 days.

b) The learners are now too many. Therefore we expect the food to finish faster.
We decrease with the same ratio.
120 : 10
240 : x
10  120
x
240
= 5 days
2. If 15 men take 12 days to build a certain type of house, how long would 8 men
take to build the same type of house if they are working at the same rate? Give
your answer in days and hours.

Solution:
15 : 12
8: x
15  12
x
8
= 22 days 12 hours
Try on your own:
3. At a speed of 18 km/h, Shafa takes 30 minutes to ride his bike to school. How
long would he take at speed of
a) 9 km/h,
b) 20 km/h?

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4. Seven bricklayers can build a wall in 5 days. How long will 5 bricklayers take to
build the same wall?

Variation
Variation can be defined as a relationship between two variables that can be
expressed by an equation. A change in one variable will also cause a change in the
other. Variations can either be direct variation or indirect variation.

General variation (direct and indirect) problems that involves algebra

Exercises
1. y is directly proportional to x. If y =6 when x = 2, find:
(a) the constant of proportionality,
(b) the value of y when x = 9
(c) the value of x when y = 30.

2. It is given that x varies inversely to the square root of y. if x = 3, y = 25.

a) Find an equation connecting x and y.
b) Hence, calculate y when x = - 2.

3. The height, h, centimetres, reached by an object thrown vertically upwards is

proportional to the square of the speed, V, metres per second, with which it is
thrown. When V = 4, h = 80.
Find the height reached by the object thrown upwards at 6 metres per second.

4. The height (B) of an object varies inversely as the square of the distance (d) of
the object from a light. When d = 12, B = 2.
a) Find an equation connecting B and d.
b) Find the value of B when d = 3.

5. y is inversely proportional to x3.

y = 5 when x = 2. Find y when x = 4.

6. y varies as the cube root of (x + 3).

When x = 5, y = 1.
Find the value of y when x = 340.

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 7. If the stone is dropped off the edge of a cliff, the height (h metres) of the cliff is
proportional to the square of the time (t seconds) taken for the stone to reach
the ground.
A stone takes 5 seconds to reach the ground when dropped off a cliff 125 m
high.
(a) Write down the relationship between h and t using k as the constant of
variation.
(b) Calculate the constant of variation.
(c) Find the time taken for a stone to fall from a cliff 180 m high.
8. If S varies inversely as T2 and S = 2 when T = 3, find:
(a) k the constant of proportionality,
(b) The equation connecting S and T,
(c) The value of T when S = 16
9. Given that y varies inversely proportional to x and y = - 6 when x = - 4, find the
value of x when y = 8.
10. Given that x varies inversely as y3 and x is 16 when y is 5. Find x when y is 2.

11. The pressure P of a compressed gas is inversely proportional to the volume V. If

there is a pressure of 25 grams per square centimetre when the volume of gas
is 400 cubic centimetres, find the pressure when the gas is compressed to 200
cubic centimetres.

12. Hooke’s law states that the distance d that a spring is stretched by a hanging
object varies directly as the mass m of the object. If the distance is 20 cm when
the mass is 3 kg, what is the distance when the mass is 8 kg?

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 Arc length and area of a sector
Surface area and volume
(Sphere, Pyramid Cone)

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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Arc length and area of a sector
1. Arc length
For all
1.1 Calculate the length of each arc for all the following
shapes.
(a) (b) (c)

38 8°
O O
° 138°
O
(d) (e) (f)

45
O ° O
58
° 39
°

(g) (h)

O
45 325°
° O

1. 2. Calculate the perimeter of the following

shapes
(c) M
(a)
14 (b)
cm L
28 42 60
O 48° ° 30
K ° O ° N
← 38 cm
→ ON = 6 cm, OM = 3 cm,
OL = 2cm, OK = 6cm

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 16 cm 3. Two sectors are arranged such that they share the
same centre. Their radii are 9 cm and 12 cm
respectively. The angle at the centre of the smaller
sector is 30 and the arc length of the larger sector is
12 cm
16 cm.
Calculate:
9 (a) The arc length of the smaller sector,
cm (b) The total perimeter of the two sectors,
30
(c) The angle at the centre of the larger sector.
°

2. Area of a sector

2.1 Calculate the area of each of the following sectors.

(a) (b) (c)

38 8°
O O
° 138°
O
(d) (e) (f)

45
O ° O
58
° 39
° O

(g) (h)

O
45 325°
° O

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 2.2. Calculate the area of the following
shapes

(a) (b) (c)

6.8 cm

70
4.6 cm ← 5.3 cm →
6.8
cm

(d) (e) (f)

14 cm
4.8
cm
90 mm 135
90.5 mm

4.8 cm
11 cm
← 16 cm
→
(i) M
(g) (h)
14
cm L
28 42 60
O 48° ° 30
K ° O ° N
← 38 cm
→ ON = 6 cm, OM = 3 cm,
OL = 2cm, OK = 6cm

2.3 Calculate the shaded area

(c)
(a)
(b)
132°

25° 140 mm
O
295°

2.4 Arc AB subtends AOB = 54⁰ at the centre O. Calculate the area of sector AOB
correct to two decimal places if the radius of the circle = 13.8 cm.

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2.5. POQ is a sector of a circle. The area of sector POQ is 152.9 cm2 and the
diameter of the circle is 12.7 cm. Calculate the size of POQ correct to one
decimal place.

2.6 On the diagram, XY is a chord of length 12 cm to a circle of radius 10 cm, centre

O.

O Calculate:
(a) Angle XOY
(b) The shaded area
X M 6 cm Y
Y Y

3. Surface Area and volume (Sphere, Pyramid and Cone)

1. Calculate the surface area of the following nets.

(a) (b) ↑ (c)

17 m
↓
9.4 cm 6.8 cm 9.2 cm
12 m

↑
7.3 cm
↓

2. The diagram shows a toy which is made up of a hemisphere and a cone. The cone
has a radius of 3 cm and a slant height of 5 cm.

5 cm
h cm x cm

3 cm
(a) Calculate
(i) the vertical height, h cm, of the cone,
(ii) the height, x cm, of the toy,
(iii) the volume of the toy.
(b) The toy is painted on the surface. Calculate the total surface area that is painted.

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42
(c) A tin of paint will cover a surface of 22.5 cm2. How many tins of paint are needed
to paint the toy?

3. Calculate the surface area and the volume of the shapes below.

10 m (b)
(c)
10 cm
12 m

2.5 cm

8m

4. The soccer ball has a diameter of 0.25 m. Calculate the surface area and the
volume of the ball.

5. The figure shows a cone with height 10.3 cm and the diameter of its base 19.2 cm.

10.3 cm

19.2 cm

Calculate the total surface area of the cone.

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6. Calculate the surface areas and volumes of the following shapes.

(a) (b) (c)

7.4 m

13 cm
(f)
(d) (e)

6.9 cm
5.2 m 9.2 cm

4.3 m

7. The diagram shows a wine glass with a solid stem, formed by a hemisphere and a
cylinder.
6 cm

3
cm 6
cm

What is the volume of the amount of water that can be hold by the glass (1 cm 3 = 1
ml)?

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8. The volume of a cone with radius of 7 cm is 923.6 cm3. What is the height of the
cone?

9. The diagram shows a solid formed by a cylinder of radius 5 m and length 20 m

joined to a hemisphere of radius 5m. Calculate:
(a) The total surface area of the solid
(b) The volume of the solid.

5m

20m

5m

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 Similarity

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 SIMILARITY
Relationships between areas and volumes of similar figures
The syllabus requires learners to be able to:
 solve problems and give simple explanations involving similarity and
congruence
 use the relationships between areas of similar triangles, with corresponding
results for similar figures and extension to volumes and surface areas of similar
solids.

Definition
The concept of similar figures refers to the following conditions:
 Two or more figures that have the same shape but different sizes.
 one is an enlargement.
 Corresponding angles of similar shapes are equal.
 The ratio between corresponding sides of similar shapes are equal
AB AC BC
e.g. for ΔABC and ΔPQR   k (k is the scale factor)
QP QR PR

e.g. N B

M O
D
A
P
P
G E C
Q
F R
Similar kites Similar triangles
Kite MNOP ||| Kite GDEF ABC ||| QPR

Sometimes learners will be required to produce these reasons when answering

questions.

We need to take note of the following further information about the areas and
volumes of similar figures.

Areas of similar figures Volumes of similar figures

The ratio between the areas of similar The ratio between the volumes of similar
figures is equal to the ratio of the squares figures is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
of corresponding sides. corresponding sides.
area 1 (length 1) 2 volume1 (length 1) 3
 
area 2 (length 2) 2 volume 2 (length 2)3
NOTE: Area factor = (scale factor)2 NOTE: Volume factor = (scale factor)3
Treat mass the same way as volume

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EXAMPLES
1. The figure shows similar triangles ∆ABC and ∆PQR. The area of ΔABC is 27 cm2
and the area PQR is 12 cm2. The base side for PQR is 9 cm. Find the base side
for ΔABC.

Q
27 cm2
12 cm2
A C P 9 cm R

2. The volume of a cylinder of height 5 cm is 250 cm3. Find the volume of a similar
cylinder of height 8 cm.
Solutions
12 9 2
1.   12 x 2  27  81 (as a result of cross multiplying)
27 x 2
12 x 2  2187 NOTE: You may also use the following method. Find the
scale factor by finding the square root of the ratio
x 2  182,25 between the two areas i.e. 27 ÷ 12 = 2.25
x  182,25 2.25 = 1.5 scale factor. Multiply PR by scale factor to get
AC.
x  13,5 cm 9 × 1.5 = 13.5 cm

250 53
2.  3  125x  250  512
x 8
NOTE: You may also use the following method. Find the scale
125x  128000 factor by finding the ratio between the two given sides i.e. 8
x  1024 cm 3 ÷ 5 = 1.6
Find the cube of the scale factor and multiply it with the
given volume.
(1.6)3 × 250 = 1 024 cm3

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 Some of the common cases of similar triangles
A
C

H K

B C A B
∆AHK lll P
∆ABC ∆APC lll ∆PCB lll ∆ABC

A D E

K
A

B C B C
∆AKH lll ∆ADE lll ∆ACB
∆ABC

Exercises
1. The lengths of the sides of triangle ABC are 4 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm. The
lengths of the sides of a similar triangle RST are 10 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm. find
the ratio of;
(a) Their perimeters
(b) Their areas.

2. The figure shows ∆ABC with AC = 7.8 cm and BC = 5.2 cm. In ∆DFE, DF =
3.9 cm and EF = 2.6 cm.
B

E
5.2 cm
2.6 cm

A 7.8 cm C D 3.9 cm F

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 Determine:
(a) Whether ∆ABC /// ∆DFE.
(b) The ratio between the Area of ∆ABC: Area of ∆DFE.

3. Calculate the area of ∆RST if ∆RST ///∆DEF given that the area of DEF = 48 cm2
and RS : DE = 3:5.
4. C

9 cm 15 cm In the diagram, BD // to AE. AB = 6 cm, BC = 9 cm, CD =

8 cm 15 cm, BD = 8 cm and DE = 10 cm.
B D
(a) Show that CBD is /// to CAE.
6 cm 10 cm (b) Find x the length of AE.

A E
x

5. The diagram left is of a scale model of a house. Its

width is 4.5 cm, its length 9 cm and height of its walls
A
6 cm.
(a) if the width of the real house is 5.4 m, calculate;
6 cm

(i) the length of the real house,

(ii) the real height of the house wall.
(b) If the apex of the roof of the real house is 1.8 m
above the top of the walls, use Pythagoras’ theorem
4.5 cm to find the real slant height l.
(c) What is the actual area of the roof section marked
A?
(d) Calculate the volume of the model.
(e) Another new model of a house similar to the model
in the diagram is drawn. The model has a height of 3

6. Two cylinders A and B are similar. The ratio between their radii and heights, A : B,
is 5 : 3.
Calculate the volume of cylinder B if the volume of cylinder A = 1 500 cm 3.

15 cm The cuboid left has dimensions shown on the diagram.

7. If the cuboid shown is an image of another cuboid
enlarged by a scale factor 1.5, calculate:
(a) the total surface area of the enlarged cuboid.
6 cm

(b) the total surface area of the original cuboid.

(c) the volume of the enlarged cuboid.
(d) the volume of the original cuboid.

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 8.

The two rectangular prisms X and Y on the left are

mathematically similar. The total surface area of Y is 4
Y times that of X. Calculate:
3 (a) the dimensions of Y.
X
m (b) the mass of X if Y has a mass of 800 g.
2
1
m
m

9.

On the diagram, MN and PQ are parallel and MQ and

NP meet at O.
(a) Show that MNO and QPO are similar.
(b) OM = 4 cm and ON = 3 cm. OP = (1 – t) cm and
OQ = (2t – 1) cm. Explain why
(c) Solve the equation in part (a) (ii).
(d) Find the length of NP.

10. The diagram shows three cylinders which are mathematically similar.

The table below gives some information about the three cylinders.
Cylinders Height (cm) Area of the top of Volume (cm3)
the cylinder (cm2)
Smaller 6 X 400
Medium 12 500
Larger 18 Y

Calculate the missing values X and Y.

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11. ∆TRS and ∆XYZ are similar triangles. The area of ∆XYZ = 1 347.5 cm 2 and the
ratio between TR and XY = 12:7, where TR is a side of ∆TRS and XY the
corresponding side on ∆XYZ. Calculate the area of ∆TRS.
12. Calculate the area of parallelogram ABCD if the area of a similar parallelogram
DEFG = 7 965 cm2 and the ratio between hDEFG and hABCD = 5:8.
13. Cuboids M and N are similar solids. The surface area of cuboid N = 899.15 cm 2
and the ratio between lM and lN = 13:7. Calculate the surface area of cuboid M.
14. Calculate the volume of cone X if the volume of a similar cone Y = 1 020.6 cm3
and the ratio between their radii X:Y = 16:9.
15. Calculate (a) the surface area, and (b) the volume of square-based pyramid P if
the surface area of a similar pyramid Q = 1 348.58 cm2 and its volume = 2 916
cm3 and the ratio between height P:Q = 2:3.
16. The volumes of similar square pyramids A and B are 3 840 cm3 and 937.5 cm3
respectively. Calculate the length of the base of pyramid A if the base of pyramid
B is 15 cm.
17. On the figure below AH = 5 cm, AB = 12 cm, AK = 7 cm, BC = 14.4 cm.
A

H K

B C

(a) Find AC and HK.

(b) If on the figure above AH = 9 cm, HK = 8 cm, AK = 6 cm, KC = 2 cm.
Find BC and AB.

18. On the diagram below AC = 8 cm, CD = 4 cm, AB = 5 cm, DE = 6 cm.

(a) Find BC and CE.

A B

D E

(b) If on the diagram above AB = 3.5 cm, AC = 3 cm, CD = 5 cm, BC = 2 cm. Find
CE and DE.

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19. For the diagram below AB = 44 mm, CD = 42 mm, DE = 66 mm. Find BC.
D
A
C

B E

20. The two glasses shown in the diagram are geometrically similar.

NOT TO SCALE

The height of the smaller glass is 12 cm and the height of the larger glass is 18 cm.
(a) The top of the larger glass has a circumference of 21 cm.
Find the circumference of the top of the smaller glass.
(b) The glasses are completely filled with fruit juice. The cost of the juice in the
smaller glass is 80 cents. Find the cost of the fruit juice in the larger glass.

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 Solutions
55
1. (a)  2.5 (b) k2 = 2.52 = 6.25
22
BC AC 5.2 7.8
2. (a) ∆ABC /// ∆DFE if    2k
EF DF 2.6 3.9

(b) k2 = 22 = 4 (4 : 1)

3 x 0.36
3.  0.6 ; k2 = 0.62 = 0.36  x = 17.28 cm2
5 48 1

BC CD 9 15 9 8 15  8
4. (a)     0.6  k (b)   AE   13.3cm
AC CE 15 25 15 AE 9

5.4 x 5.4  9 5.4 x 5.4  6

5. (a) (i)   x  10.8m (ii)   x  7.2m
4.5 9 4.5 4.5 6 4.5

(b) l  (1.82 )  (2.7 2 ) l = 3.25 m (c) 3.25 m × 10.8 m = 35.1m2

(d) Volume = (6 × 4.5 × 9) + (½ × 4.5 × 1.5 × 9) = 273.375 cm3

3
 3 33 x
(e)    k 3  3   30.8cm 3
 
6 6 246.375

3
3
6.    1500  324cm 3
5

7. (a) TSA = 2(15 × 6) + 2(15 × 7.5) + 2(7.5 × 6) = 495 cm2

(b) 495 ÷ (1.5)2 = 220 cm2

(c) V = 6 × 7.5 × 15 = 675 cm3 (d) 675 cm3 ÷ (1.53) = 200 cm3

8. (a) k  4  2  2 × 3 = 6; 2 × 2 = 4; and 2 × 1 = 2 (b) 800 ÷

23 = 100 g

4 3 OP OQ 2t  1 1  t
9. (a)  and MON = QOP (b)   
2t  1 1  t ON OM 4 3

(c) 3(2t – 1) = 4(1 – 4) t = 0.7 or 7 (d) NP = 3 + (1 +

10
7 ) = 3.3 cm
10

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 2
 6 2  500 
10. X   2
  125cm 2 Y  33  400  10 800cm3
 12 
2
TR 12  12 
11.  Area =    1347.5 cm 2  3 960 cm 2
XY 7 7

64  7965
2
ABCD  8 
12.     7965 x  20 390.4 cm 2
DEFG  5  25

49  899.15
2
7
13.    899.15 x  260.7 cm 2
 13  139

163 x 4096  1020.6

14. 3
 x  5734.4 cm 3
9 1020.6 729

4  1348.58
2
2
15. (a) SA =    1348.58 x  599.37 cm 2
3 9

8  2916
3
2
(b) V =    2916 x  864 cm 3
3 27
3840
16.  4.096  k  3 4.096  1.6 and x = 1.6 × 15 = 24 cm
937.5

12 AC 12  7
17. (a) (i)   AC = = 16.8 cm
5 7 5
12 14.4 5  14.4
(ii)   HK = = 6 cm
5 HK 12

9 6 98
(b) (i)   AB = = 12 cm
AB 8 6

8 6 88
(ii)   BC = = 10.7 cm
BC 8 6

18. (a) (i)

BC 5
  BC = 4  5 = 3.33 cm
4 6 6

(ii)
8

5  CE = 8  6 = 9.6 cm
CE 6 5
3 2  CE = 3 5 =
(b) (i)  7.5 cm
CE 5 2
(ii)
3.5 2
  DE = 3.5  5 = 8.75 cm
DE 5 2

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 19.
66 42
  BC = 42  44 = 28 cm
44 BC 66

20. (a)
18 21
  c = 12  21 = 14 cm
12 c 18

2 0.8  C = 3 0.8
(b)  = N$ 1.20
3 C 2

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 Angle Properties

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Geometry: Angle properties of Polygons

Angle properties of polygons with more than 4 sides

The syllabus requires learners to be able to:
 calculate unknown angles using angle properties of regular and irregular
polygons
(reasons may be required but no formal proofs)

The formula for finding the sum of the interior angles of any regular polygon is the
same as the that of the corresponding irregular polygon. Equally we determine the
size of any exterior angle of any regular and irregular polygon in the same way.
e.g. By dividing any given polygon into triangles, we can find the sum of interior angle
for that particular polygon as shown below.

Σ of interior angles for any Δ is 180°.

3 triangles × 180° = 540°

We do the same with irregular polygons.

When a polygon has n sides, the number of triangles that can be formed is (n – 2).

Some useful ideas are summarised below.

In any n – sided polygon In any n – sided polygon

Σ of interior angles = (n – 2) × 180° (n  2) 180

one interior angle =
n – stands for the number of sides on the polygon n
n – stands for the number of sides on the polygon
In any n – sided polygon All regular polygons have the following
one exterior angles = 180° - the interior angle features:
 All sides are equal - equilateral
360  All angles are equal – equiangular
exterior  (for regular polygons)
n  A circle can be drawn through its vertices
360
n
exterior 

n – stands for the number of sides on the polygon

Σ of exterior angles = 360°

Irregular polygons are not equilateral neither equiangular.

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Example: The figure shows an irregular pentagon ABCDE with ABC = 120⁰. AC and
AD are diagonals from vertex A. Side AB is extended to P.

D Determine:
C (a) the sum of the interior angles of the irregular
pentagon
E (b) the total size of angles A, C, D and E,
(c) the size of external CBP.
120
A B P

Answers
a) Sum of internal angles = 3 ×180⁰ = 540⁰
b) A + C + D + E = 540⁰ – 120⁰ = 420⁰
c) CBP = 180⁰ – 120⁰ = 60⁰

Learners will be required to find:

 Unknown angles on a given polygon or from a given scenario
 Unknown number of sides on an incomplete polygon (diagram) or on a
polygon described in a scenario.
Exercises
1. Find the value of x.

(a) 62°
85°
(c) x
70°
80°

x
76°

(b)
58°
x
x 2x
(d)
2x x
50°
x
72°
2x

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2. The figure below shows a part of a regular polygon. Find the value of a.

135°

3. Calculate the sizes of (a) an interior angle and (b) an exterior angle for a regular
polygon with 15 sides.
4. One interior angle in a seven sided irregular polygon is 60° and all other six angles
are equal. Calculate the size of one of the six angles.
5. Three interior angles on a nine sided irregular polygon measures 130° each and all
other angles are equal. Find the size of one of the unknown angle.
6. Eight angles on a polygon are equal and measure a combined 1320°. Four other
angles on the same polygon measure a combined 480°. Find the number of sides
on the polygon.

R M
7.
87
68 The figure shows polygon PQRST with TS
S extended to M and RSM = 68⁰, QPT =
133⁰, PTS = 90⁰ and QRS = 87⁰.
Calculate, with reasons, the sizes of:
a) RST
Q b) PQR
133
P T

C
8. The figure shows polygon ABCDEF with AF
105
D
extended to Q and CD extended to P. BAF =
117, AFE = 146, FED = 96, BCD = 105
40
B
P
and EDP = 40⁰.

96
a) Write down the name of polygon ABCDEF.
E b) Calculate the size of ABC.
117 146 c) Calculate the size of EFQ and give a reason
A F Q for your answer.

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 R M
9. 87
The figure shows polygon PQRSTW with TS
S extended to M and PW extended to N. QPW =
56
133, TWN = 125, reflex WTS = 270, RST =
270 56⁰ and QRS = 87. Calculate the sizes of:
T
a) PWT
Q
b) PQR
133 125 c) minor STW
P W N

10. R The figure shows shape MNRST with NRT =

N
SRT, NRS = 2MNR, RST = 59⁰ and RTS =
59 S
46⁰. Calculate the sizes of:
a) MNR
b) NMT
46

M T

11. The diagram shows a regular 8 – sided regular polygon joined to a 10 – sided
regular polygon.

Regular 8-
sided polygon
NOT TO SCALE
Regular 10-
x
sided polygon

Calculate the size of x and y.

12. The diagram shows a regular 8 – sided polygon with triangle CDI formed by
extending lines BC and ED.
A B

H C
D
I
Calculate the angles in triangle CDI.
G D
D D
F E
D D

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 Solutions
1. (a) 180° - 65° = 115°
(b) 3x = 360° - 180° = 180°  x = (180° ÷ 3) = 60°
(c) x = 360° - 308° = 52°
(d) 8x = 540°  x = (540° ÷ 8) = 67.5°
2. a : 180° – 135° = 45°
(n  2) 180 13  180
3. (a) int erior   = = 156°
n 15
360 360
(b) exterior   = = 24°
n 15
4. (n – 2) × 180° = 900  (900° - 60°) ÷ 6 = 140°

5. (1 260° - 390°) ÷ 6 = 145°

6. 8 + 4 = 12

7. (a) RST: 180° – 68° = 112°

(b) PQR: 540° - (87° + 112° + 133° + 90°) = 118°

8. (a) Hexagon
(b) ABC: 720° - (105° + 96° + 140° + 146° + 117°) = 720° - 604° = 116°
(c) EFQ: 180° - 146° = 34°: Reason: Angles on a straight line.

9. (a) PWT: 180° - 125° = 55°

(b) PQR: 720° - (87° + 56° + 270° + 55° + 133°) = 720° - 601° = 119°
(c) STW: 360° - 270° = 90°

10. (a) MNR: 180° - (59° + 46°)= 75°

(b) NMT: 540° - (75° + 150° + 59° + 136°) = 120°

11. x : 360° – (135° + 144°)= 81°

(n  2) 180 8  180
y : = = 144°
n 10

360
12. DCI: = 45°
n
360
IDC: = 45°
n
CID: 180° - (45° + 45°) = 90°

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 Angles properties of the circle
The syllabus requires learners to be able to:
 calculate unknown angles using the following geometrical properties (reasons
may be required but no formal proofs):
- angle in a semi-circle;
- angle between tangent and radius of a circle;
- angle at t
- he centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference;
- angles in the same segment are equal; and
- angles in opposite segments are supplementary.

We use the following properties to find missing angles in diagrams involving circles.

.
1. An angle in a semi-circle is 90º

.
2. An angle at the centre is twice the angle at any point on

.
the circumference.

. . . Subtended by a chord or an arc – standing

. .
Subtended by the diameter of a circle. Meaning

. standing on the endpoints of the diameter on the endpoints of the same arc or a chord
A B

4. An angle between a tangent and a chord at the point of

. ..
3. Angles in the same segments are equal. contact is equal to an angle in an alternate segment.
D C
C
E

. .
D A
B A
B
A A
B B
Subtended by a chord or an arc – standing
on the endpoints of the same arc or chord. P T P T
C C

5. An angle between a tangent and a radius is 90º i.e. a tangent

and a radius are perpendicular at the point of contact.
6. Angles at the circumference standing
on equal chords or arcs are equal.

O
A
. .
O

A C C
B B

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The following three properties are also useful and therefore we need to know
them.
7. Two tangents from the same external point are equal. 8. Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
A

P
.
B

9. The perpendicular bisector of the chord passes through the centre of a circle

Any straight line joining the centre of a circle to the

. mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

Example

1. AOB is a diameter of the circle with centre O. Find the values of x, y and z. Give
reasons for your answers.

40°
B
z°
O.y°
A x°

2. In the figure QPO = 22 and OQR = 26 and O is the centre of the circle.

R
Write down with reasons the sizes of the
following angles:
P a) PQO
22º O
b) POQ
26º

c) PRQ
d) QPR
Q

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Answers
1. x = 40° - Angles in the same segment subtended by the same chord.
y = 40° × 2 = 80° - An angle at the centre is twice the angle at any point on the
circumference.
z = (180° - y) ÷ 2 – Base angles of isosceles triangle are equal.
= 50°

(a) PQO = 22 PQO = QPO because PO = OQ (base angles isosceles triangle).
(b) POQ = 180 - (2 × 22) = 136 Base angles of isosceles triangle are equal.
1
(c) PRQ = 2(136) = 68 Angle at the centre is twice the angle at any point on the
circumference.
(d) QPR = 128 ÷ 2 = 64Angle at the centre is twice the angle at any point on the
circumference.

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 Exercise 1
Find the unknown angles in all the diagrams below. Give reasons for your answers
where necessary. All diagrams are not given to scale.

1. 2. 3. 4.
A a A b A c A g

d e

5. 6. 7. 8.
A h A l Am A

k 37°

9. 10 11. 12.
A .A A
26° v
95°
r
47°

13.

14. PT is a tangent to the semicircle 15. POQ is a diameter of the circle

with centre O. AOBP is a straight with centre O. Find the values of x,
line. If TAO is 28° find the values y and z.
Q
of x, y and z. c A
A O.y B z P
.b
O
A
A A A a
x P
A
T
16. On theAdiagram O is the centre of the circle, OABC is a rhombus, DC
is the chord to the circle and ABC is 41°.
Find:
(a) AOC (b) OCD (c) ADC (d) OAD
D

O 41° B
A
A
A
A

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 Angle properties of Cyclic quadrilaterals
Points which lie on the circumference of the same circle are called concyclic points

A . .D Points A, B, C and D are A . .D

When the four points on a circumference
are joined by four straight lines as shown,
O. all cyclic points. O is the a cyclic quadrilateral is formed.

. .B .
centre to the circle. O
B
.C .C All the four points of a cyclic
quadrilateral should be on the
circumference.

Properties:
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral adds up to 180°.

A. .D On the diagram on the left:

.B .
O ABC + ADC = 180° – opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
BAD + BCD = 180° – opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral

.C
A . y .D
We already know that:
An angle at the centre is twice the angle on the circumference. Therefore;

b.
a a = 2x and b = 2y; yet a + b = 360° – angles at a point
B .x If 2x + 2y = 360° then x + y = 180°

.C
2. The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the
angle opposite the interior angle supplement to the same
exterior angle.
A . D
y z .
. .
a
x b
B If y + x = 180° and y + z = 180° then z = x
.C
Example
Find the angles marked with
letters a = 68° – exterior and interior opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
a + 24° = b – exterior angle of a triangle and opposite interior angles
c
a b = 24° + 68°
24° = 92°
b
68° b + c = 180° – opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
c = 180° - 92°
= 88°

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Exercise 2
1. Find the angles marked with letters.

(a) a b (b) g (c) 34º

c (d) d
26º 32º
O 36º f O e
O O
h 54º
39º
i

(e) 42º
(f) 80º (g)
A i
xº 30º
B 110º
h g
xº c
34º K d
D C

2. On the diagram, MNTS is a cyclic quadrilateral, R is the centre of the circle and
MST is 106°.
N
Calculate with reasons the sizes
of:
R T
a) MNT
b) MRT
c) MTR
M 106
d) NMS
(e) NTS
S

3. D, F, G and E are points on the circumference of circle O. EF is a diameter of the

circle, ODF = 39 and OFG = 21.

39
Calculate with reasons the sizes
of:
E F
(a) DFO
(b) DOG
O 21

(c) EOG
(d) EDO
G

4. In the figure, chord MS subtends MOS at the centre of circle O. P and T are
points on the circumference of the circle, MPS = 70, TMS = 43 and MT//PS.
P
Write down, with reasons, the sizes of the following
70
angles:
(a) MTS
M O (b) MOS
43
(c) OMS
(d) TMP
T S (e) MSP
(f) PST
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 Exercise 3
1. On the following figure, MP is a diameter of circle O. S is a point on the
circumference of the circle and OPS = 30.
S

Calculate with reasons the sizes of:

a) OSP
M O
30
P b) OSM
c) OMS
d) SOP

2. In the figure P, R and Q are points on the circumference of circle O. QPO = 19,
PRO = 25 and PO is extended to meet QR in S.
P

Calculate with reasons the sizes of:

19
a) OPR
O
b) QOR
25
c) ORS
d) PSR
R
S
Q

3. A, B and C are points on the circumference of circle M. BMC = 90 and ABM =
30.
A
Calculate with reasons the sizes of:
a) MBC
b) BAM
M
90
c) BAC
30
d) MAC
C

4. On the diagram P is the centre of the circle, QST = 44°, ST and RQ  .

R
S Calculate with reasons the sizes of:
44 a) TRQ
P
A b) TPQ
c) AQS
d) PQT
Q
T

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5. Study the figure very well before answering the questions.

B
P
Calculate with reasons the sizes of:
a) BEC
58 C b) BPC
c) EBC
E
d) BCP
32

6. On the diagram, PQ is a chord of circle O, S and T are points on the circumference

of the circle and PSQ = 50.

50 Write down, with reasons, the sizes of

T the following angles:
O
a) POQ
b) PTQ
c) OPQ
Q d) reflex POQ
P

7.On the figure, RT is a chord of circle O. S and P are points on the circumference of
the circle and RPT = 55.

P
S
55
Write down, with reasons, the sizes of the following
angles:
O a) RST
b) ROT
c) SRT
T
R
d) ROS

8. In the figure, AB is a chord of circle O, C and D are points on the circumference of

the circle, QAB = 76 and AD = BD.
D

C
Write down, with reasons, the sizes of the following
angles:
(a) ABO
O
(b) AOB
(c) ADB
76 (d) ACB
A B

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9. In the figure, chord MQ subtends MSQ at the centre of circle S. P and N are
points on the circumference of the circle and MSQ =
P 105.

S Write down, with reasons, the sizes of the following angles:

105 (a) MPQ
Q
(b) MNQ
N (c) SMQ
M
(d) SQM

10. T, M, R, P and S are points on the circumference of the circle, centre O. TR // SP,
SMP = 26 and TRP = 50.
M Write down, with reasons the sizes of the
26
following angles:
a) TSP
T O b) STP
c) SPM
d) PSM
50 R
S
P
e) TSM
f) STR

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 Solutions
Exercise 1
1. a = 48° Subtended to the same arc
2. b = 34° Subtended to equal chords
3. c = 43° Subtended to the same chord
d = 180° - (43° + 90°) = 47°
e = d = 47° Subtended to the same arc

4. f = 31° Subtended to the same chord

g = 180° - (31° + 90°) = 59° Subtended to equal chords
5. k = 43° Subtended to the same chord
j = 90° – 52° = 38° An angle in a semi-circle
h = 180° - (52° + 90°) = 38°

6. l = 70° ÷ 2 = 35° Subtended to equal chords

7. m = 180° - (32° + 90°) = 58° Subtended to the same arc
8. n = 37° Subtended to equal chords
9. q = 39° Subtended to the same chord
o = p = 180° - (39° + 90°) = 51° Subtended to the same chord

10. r = 180° - (43° + 90°) = 47°

s = 180° - (47° + 90°) = 43°

11. u = 26° Subtended to the same chord

t = 47° Subtended to the same chord

12. v = 122° ÷ 2 = 61°

13. a = 45° Alternate angles
b = ½a = 22.5°
14. x = 28° Base angles of isosceles triangle
y = 2x = 56° Two opposite interior angles of a triangle = opposite exterior
angle
15. a = 48° Subtended to the same chord
b = 2 × 48° = 96°An angle at the centre is twice an angle at the circumference
c = 180° - (48° + 90°) = 42°

16. (a) AOC = 41°

(b) OCD = 41°
(c) ADC = 20.5°
(d) OAD = 20.5°
(e) OCB = 180° - 41° = 139°

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Exercise 2
1. (a) a = 180° - (39° + 90°) = 51°; a = b = 51°
(b) g = 90° - 36° = 54°; h = 54°
(c) c = 26°
(d) d = 180° - (32° + 90°) = 58°; e = d = 58°; f = 180° - (58° + 90°) = 32°
(e) x + 42° = DAB and x + 34° = DCB
DAB + DCB = 180°  x + 42° + x + 34° = 180° and x = 52°
(f) g = 80° ÷ 2 = 40°; h = g = 40°; i = g = 40°;
(g) c = 110°; d = 180° - 100° = 80°

2. (a) MNT = 74°; (b) MRT = 148°; (c) MTR = 16°; (d) NMS = 74°;
(e) NTS = 106°;

3. (a) DFO = 39°; (b) DOG = 120°; (c) EOG = 42°; (d) EDO = 51°;

4. (a) MTS = 110°; (b) MOS = 140°; (c) OMS = 20°; (d) TMP
= 110°;
(e) MSP = 43°; (f) PST = 70°;

Exercise 3

1. (a) OSP = 30°; (b) OSM = 60°; (c) OMS = 60°; (d) SOP = 120°;

2. (a) OPR = 25°; (b) QOR = 88°; (c) ORS = 46°; (d) PSR = 84°;

3. (a) MBC = 45°; (b) BAM = 30°; (c) BAC = 45°; (d) MAC
= 15°;
4. (a) TRQ = 88°; (b) TPQ = 44°; (c) AQS = 46°; (d) PQT = 46°;

5. (a) BEC = 64°; (b) BPC = 26°; (c) EBC = 58°; (d) BCP = 122°;

6. (a) POQ = 100°; (b) PTQ = 50°; (c) OPQ = 40°;

(d) reflex POQ = 260°;

7. (a) RST = 55°; (b) ROT = 110°; (c) SRT = 90°; (d) ROS = 70°;

8. (a) ABO = 76°; (b) AOB = 28°; (c) ACB = 14°; (d) ADB = 14°;
(e) DAB = 83°; (f) DAO = 7°;

9. (a) MPQ = 52.5°; (b) MNQ = 127.5°; (c) SMQ = 37.5°; (d) SQM =
37.5°;

10. (a) TSP = 130°; (b) STP = 26°; (c) SPM = 90°; (d) PSM = 64°;
(e) TSM = 66°; (f) STR = 50°;

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 Transforming Formulae, Algebraic
manipulation, Polynomials, Equations and
Inequalities

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Algebra
Transform linear formulae and formulae involving roots, powers, fractions and
factorization
s
1. Change the subject of the formula v = (a) to s, and (b) to t.
t
2. Change the subject of the formula v = u + a t (a) to u, and (b) to a.
3. Change the subject of the formula s = ut + ½at2 to (a) to a, and (b) to u.
4. Change the subject of the formula v 2 = u 2 + 2as to (a) s, and (b) u.
5. Change the subject of the formula Q = t to t.
6. Change the subject of the formula R = V ÷  (a) to V, and (b) to 
7. Change the subject of the formula E = ½mv2 (a) to m, and (b) to v.
8. Change the subject of the formula v = √2𝑔ℎ to h.
9. Change the subject of the formula V = R + r (a) to , and (b) to r.
10. Change the subject of the formula p = (√3𝑏 2 − 𝑞) ÷ 5 (a) to q, and (b) to b

11. Make x the subject of the formula

(a) Nx = T (b) Cx =R + T (c) 9x =N + S (d) R – S2 = Nx (e) x - D =A + B
2 ax
(f) F = x - E (g) L = x + D2 (h) x(y –b) = y +d (i) 1  3 (j) b
x ax
m x y M m2
(k) r   e2 (l) 3 (m) c - dx = e - ax (n) N 0 (o) n  p
x x y xq x

12. Make a the subject of the formula

(a) a=5 (b) (a  1) = 2 (c) (a  3) = 7 (d) (c  a) = B (e) 2a = p
1 2 cd
(f) x = a (g) a2  4 = H (h) c2 = a2 – b2 (i) b 3 (j) b
2 a3 a3  c
d (o) c2 = a2 (x +
(k) c  b (l) v  w a 2  x 2 (m) a  a = c - d (n) R = b3 – a3t2
b)2
a

13. Make the letter in brackets the subject of the formula

(k  m) 1 x y
(a) ax + by + c = 0 [x] (b)  [k] (c) =7 [x]
n m x y
c 
(d) {a( y 2  b)} = e [y] (e) a  bz  z  b [z] (f)   z = e [a]
a 
d  d   (m 2  a) 
(g) t  2   [g] (h) t  2   [d] (i)   = t [m]
g g  e 
 x2  n  a2
(j) ( x  a)  2 x
2
[x] (k) (a  b  2 x
2 2 2
[a] (l) a    [x]
 m  b

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14. The formula for the volume, V cubic units, of a cylinder with height, h units, and
radius r units, is given by V =  r2h.
(a) Use the formula to find the volume of a cylinder with a height of 12 cm and radius
of 5 cm.
(b) Express the height (h) of the cylinder in terms of V,  and r.
(c) Find h when V = 120 and r = 6.25
(d) Make r the subject of the formula V =  r 2h.
(e) Use your answer in (d) to find r when V = 14 and h = 2.

Expanding products of algebraic expressions

1. Expand the following expressions
(a) p(p2 – 2p + 5) (b) q(2q2 + 3q - 6) (c) x(3x2 – 2x - 5)
(d) 3m2(2m2 – 5m) (e) 5t3(3t - 5) (f) t3(2t2 – 5t + 4)
(g) 3y2(y2 + 5y - 6) (h) 4a3(2a2 - 3a - 7) (i) 6b2(2b3 – b + 5)
(j) 7c3(4c3 2c2 + 6c) (k) 4f2(3g4 – 3f + 6) (l) 7p3(2q2 – 3p + 2)

2. Expand and simplify the following expressions

(a) x(x + 3) + 2x(x + 1) (b) 2y(y + 1) + 3y(2y + 3) (c) 3a(2a + 5) + 2a(a - 3)
(d) 4m(3m – 5) + 2m(m + (e) 15t – 3t(t - 5) (f) 12m – 2m(m + 3)
3)
(g) 13a – 2a(a + 4) (h) 10x – 3x(2x + 4) (i) 3b - 4(2b + 5)
(j) 7c(a + 2) + a(3c + 3) (k) x(x – 2) + 3x(x - 6) (l) 3y(y + 4) – x(x - 2)

3. Expand and simplify the following expressions

(a) (x + 3)(x + 1) (b) (y + 1)(2y + 3) (c) (2a + 5)(a - 3)
(d) (3m – 5)(m + 3) (e) (t - 5)2 (f) 12m – 2m(m + 3)
(g) 2a(a + 4)2 (h) 3x(2x + 4)2 (i) (2b + 5)2
(j) (a + 2)(3c + 3) (k) x(x – 2)2 + 3x(x - 6) (l) 3y(y + 4) – x(x - 2)2

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Factorising
Factorise the following expressions
Common factors Grouping like terms

(a) 4x + 4y = 4(x + y) (a) ah + ak + bh + bk (divide into pairs)

(b) 3y2 – 12y = 3y(y – 4) = (ah + ak) + (bh + bk)
(c) 3x5y – 4x3y2 = x3y(3x2 – 4y) = a(h + k) + b(h + k) (term h + k is common)
= (h + k)(a + b)

Difference of two squares Quadratic trinomials

(a) x2 – y2 = (x – y)(x + y) (a) x2 + 2x – 15 = (x + 5)(x – 3)

2 2
(b) 4a – b = (2a – b)(2a + b) two numbers multiply to give the first term(x2)
two numbers multiplying to give the last term(-15) but their
(c) 3x2 – 27y2 = 3(x2 – 9y2) sum should be the middle term(+2x)
= 3[x2 – (3y)2] (b) a2 + 6a + 8 = (a + 4)(a + 2)
= 3(x – 3y)(x + 3y)

1. Factorise the following expressions

(a) 5a + 5b (b) 7x + 7y (c) y2 + 8y
(d) 2y2 + 3y (e) 6y2 – 4y (f) x2 + xy + 3xz
(g) ma + 2bm + m2 (h) 2kx + 6ky + 4kz (i) ax2 + ay + 2ab
(j) ax2y – 2ax2z (k) 2abx + 2ab2 + 2a2b (l) ayx + yx3 – 2y2x2

2. Factorise the following expressions

(a) ax + ay + bx + by (b) ay + az + by + bz (c) xb + xc + yb + yc
(d) xs _ xt + ys - yt (e) ax – ay – bx + by (f) xs – xt – ys + yt
(g) 2mh – 2mk + nh - nk (h) 2mh + 3mk – 2nh – 3nk (i) 6ax + 2bx + 3ay + by
(j) 2ax – 2ay – bx + by (k) x2a + x2b + ya + yb (l) ms + 2mt2 – ns – 2nt2

3. Factorise the following expressions

(a) x2 + 7x + 10 (b) x2 + 7x + 12 (c) x2 + 8x + 15

(d) a2 – 3a – 10 (e) a2 – a – 12 (f) z2 + z – 6

(g) y2 – 5y + 6 (h) y2 – 3y – 28 (i) k2 – k – 20

(j) x2 – 8x – 240 (k) x2 – 26x + 165 (l) y2 + 3y – 108

(m) 2x2 + 5x + 3 (n) 3x2 + 7x + 2 (o) 6x2 – 27x + 30

(p) 4y2 – 23y + 15 (q) 15x2 + 44x – 3 (r) 64y2 + 4y – 3

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3. Factorise the following expressions
(a) x2 – 4 (b) y2 – a2 (c) m2 – n2
2
(d) a – 9 (e) a2 – 25 (f) z2 - t2
1 1
(g) y2 – (h) y2 – 1 (i) k2 –
4 25
(j) 4x2 – y2 (k) a2 – 4b2 (l) 25x2 – 4y2
y2 4 2
(m) x2 - (n) 16t2 - s (o) 12x3 – 3xy2
4 25
(p) 18m3 – 8mn2 (q) 36a3 b – 4ab3 (r) 36x3y – 225xy3

4. Factorise the following expressions:

a) a2 + 5a + 6 b) a2 – 2a – 15 c) 8x2 – 16x + 6
d) 3a2 – 5ab – 2b2 e) p2 + 2pq + q2 f) 4x2 – y2
g) 18a2 – 32b2 h) 15a2 + 2ab – 8b2 i) 2x2 – 3x
j) 5m3 – 15m2 + 20m k) 3a2 – 6ab + 2a – 4b l) 8x2 – 20xy + 14x – 35y

Algebraic manipulation
Add or subtract the following algebraic fractions
4 3 2a 3b
(a)  (b) 
p q 5b 4a
4  q 3 p 4q 3 p 4q  3 p (2a  4a)  (3b  5b) 8a 2  15b 2
=  =  = = =
pq q p pq qp pq 5b  4a 20ab
LCM = p × q = pq LCM = 5b × 4a = 20ab

a b c Sometimes you will be required to factorise the

(c) 2
  2 denominator(s) first to find LCM.
x xy y 2x  3 x
ay  bxy  cx
2 2 (d)  2
= x  x  2 x 1
2

x2 y2 2x  3 x
= 
(Divide the LCM by each denominator. Multiply the ( x  1)( x  2) ( x  1)( x  1)
answer by each numerator). The same way we do
with fractions of numbers.
LCM = (x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 1)
2 2
LCM = x y (x and y are common to both
terms) (2 x  3)( x  1)  x( x  2)
=
Take x and y with the biggest power. ( x  1)( x  2)( x  1)

2x 2  x  3  x 2  2x
= expand only the numerator
( x  1)( x  2)( x  1)

x 2  3x  3
= collecting like terms above
( x  1)( x  2)( x  1)

The numerator cannot factorise, so that is the final answer

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1. Express the following as single fractions in simplest form.
a b 4a 3a 4 3
(a)  (b)  (c) 
bc ac 5 4 p q
3 4 1 1 1 3b 4
(d)  (e) 2
 2 2 2 (f) 
x y a b a b ab xy yz
4 3 3 2 a b c
(g)  (h)  (i)  
3de 2ef a b bc ac ab
p q r 1 2 2a  1 a  1
(j)   (k)  (l) 
qr pr pq p  3 2 p 1 2a  3 a  1
1 1 2p  q 2p q 2 3
(m)  (n)  (o) 
p2 p2 2p q q 2p 2d  4e 3d  6e

2. Express the following as single fractions in simplest form.

3 p  2q 2 3 2ab b
(a)  (b)  (c) 
p  q ( p  2q ) 2 3a  6b 4a  8b a b a b
2 2

3 2 4a  4 2a  6 2p 2q
(d) 2  2 (e)  2 (f) 2  2
a  a  6 a  a  12 a a2 a a6
2
p q 2
q  p2
5 1 4ab 3ab a(a  2b) 2a
(g) 2  2 (h)  2 (i) 2 
x  x  6 x  3x  2 5a  5b
2 2
3a  3ab a b 2
ab
3 2 a4 a 1 3x 3y
(j) 2  2 (k)  2 (l) 2  2
b  b  6 b  5b  6 a  2a  3 a  5a  6
2
x y 2
y  x2
2x x 1 3 2 c 1 c3
(m)  2 (n)  2 (o) 2  2
2x  7x  6 x  4
2
p  pq p  q 2
2
c c2 c c6

Simplify the following algebraic fractions

4 3
 ab x 2 x 2  2x x 3
(a) (b)  (c) 2  2
p q xy bc x  6x  9 x  4
43 12 ab x x x( x  2) x 3
= =  = 
pq pq x y bc ( x  3)( x  3) ( x  2)( x  2)
ab x x x( x  2) x 3
= = 
x y bc ( x  3)( x  3) ( x  2)( x  2)
ax x
= =
cy ( x  3)( x  2)

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 4 3

2x  4 x2 2x  4 x2  1
(c) (d)  = 
p q x 2  x  2 x 2 1 x 2  x  2 x  2
4 q 2( x  2) ( x  1)( x  1) 2( x  2) ( x  1)( x  1)
=  =  = 
p 3 ( x  2)( x  1) x2 ( x  2)( x  1) x2
4q 4q 2( x  1)
= = =
p 3 3p ( x  2)

1. Simplify the following expressions

𝑎 3𝑎−4 2𝑏 3−2𝑏 3 𝑎2 −5𝑎
a) + b) − c) ×
2 4 3 2 𝑎−5 2
2 2𝑥+3 3𝑎2 −4𝑎 2𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
d)  e) f)
2𝑥−7 6𝑥−21 3𝑎2 −𝑎−4 6𝑥 2 −𝑥−12
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 2𝑝2 +5𝑝𝑞−3𝑞 2 4𝑥 2 −8𝑥−21
g) h) i)
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 𝑝2 −9𝑞 2 4𝑥 2 −9
2𝑝 𝑝−3 7𝑥 2𝑥−1 3+5𝑥 2𝑥 2 +9𝑥−5
j) + k) + − l)
5 2 3 2 6 3𝑥 2 +13𝑥−10
3𝑎2 −10𝑎−8 𝑎2 −3𝑎 2𝑎2 +7𝑎+3
m) n) × o)
6𝑎2 +𝑎−2 2𝑎2 −𝑎−1 𝑎2 −9
3𝑎2 +5𝑎−2 6𝑎2 −17𝑎+5

2𝑎2 +𝑎−10 4𝑎2 −25

2. Simplify the following algebraic expressions

4ab 2 12ab 3 pqr 2 20 p 2 q 5 x 2 y 20 yz 2
(a)  (b)  (c) 
3a 2b 16b 2 c 5q 2 r 12qr 2 5 y 2 z 12 xy 2
5abc 2 15ab 2 c a2  b2 4ab m 2  mn m  n
(d)  (e)  (f) 
6a 2bc 2abc b 2a  2b mn  n 2 m 2  n 2
3m  6mn 2mn  8n 2
2
a  ab a 2  2ab  b 2
2
3a 2  4a
(g)  (h)  (i)
6mn 12n 2 2b a2  b2 3a 2  a  4
p 2  pq pq  pr x 2  16 2x  6 x2  x  6 x3
(j) 2  (k)  (l) 
q  qr pq  q 2 x  x  12 3x  12
2
2 x  3x  2 2 x  1
2

2x2  x  6 2x  3 x 2  xy x 2  2 xy  y 2 a 2  2a a 2  5a a5
(m)  (n)  (o)  2  2
6 x 2  x  12 3x  4 x 2  xy x 2  2 xy  y 2 2a  6 a  a  6 3a  6a
2 p 2  5 pq  3q 2 3a 2  10a  8 2x 2  9x  5
(p) (q) (r)
p 2  9q 2 6a 2  a  2 3x 2  13x  10

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Write quadratic expressions in the form a(x + p)2 + q
The case when a = 1
Method 1 Method 2
Write x2 + 2x – 3 in the form (x + p)2 + q Write x2 + 2x – 3 in the form (x + p)2 + q
Answer Answer
In the expression; a = 1, b = 2 and c = - In the expression; a = 1, b = 2 and c = -
3. 3.
Follow the following steps: In any expression of this kind the
following is true.
1. Re-write the expression leaving a gap
between the second and third term. b
Put the first and second terms in p=
2a
brackets as shown.
Follow the following steps:
(x2 + 2x ) -3
1. Substituting a and b values gives us;
2. take the b value, divide it by 2 and
square the answer. Add your answer 2 2
p= = =-1
in the brackets and subtract it to the 2(1) 2
right of c as shown.
2. Write the expression as a function in
2 terms of y and make x = 0 to find y
 1 , then (1)2 = 1
2 when x = 0.
(x2 + 2x + 1) – 3 – 1 y = x2 + 2x – 3
3. Factorise the bracket and simplify the y = (0)2 + 2(0) – 3
two values outside the brackets as y=-3
shown.
3. Rewrite (x + p)2 + q as y = (x + p)2 + q
(x + 1)(x + 1) – 4 and substitute the values of x = 0, y= -
You will find that the two brackets can be 3 and p = - 1 to find the value of q
written as a square since it is a number y = (x + p)2 + q
multiplying itself as shown.
- 3 = (0 – 1)2 + q
(x +1)2 – 4 (That is your answer).
- 3 = 1+ q
In short:
-3–1=q
1. (x2 + 2x ) -3
q=-4
2
2.  1 , then (1)2 = 1 4. Rewrite the expression with the values
2
of p and q only.
= (x2 + 2x + 1) – 3 – 1
(x -1)2 – 4 (That is your answer)
3. (x + 1 )(x + 1) – 4
= (x + 1)2 – 4

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1. Write the following expressions in the form of a(x +p)2 + q

(a) x 2  4 x  3 (b) x 2  2 x  3 (c) x 2  6 x

(d) x 2  6 x  8 (e) x 2  4 x  5 (f) x 2  2 x  1

(g) x 2  x  6 (h) x 2  x (i) x 2  7 x  12

(j) x 2  3x  5 (k) x 2  6 x  4 (l) x 2  3x  2

(m) x 2  2 x  5 (n) x 2  6 x  3 (o) x 2  6 x  1

(p) x 2  6 x  8 (q) x 2  4 x  7 (r) x 2  10 x  2

2. Show that the following expressions can be written as given.

(a) x 2  4 x  1  ( x  2) 2  5 (b) x 2  2 x  3  ( x  1) 2  2 (c) x 2  8x  ( x  4) 2  16

(d) x 2  4 x  1  ( x  2) 2  3 (e) x 2  10 x  1  ( x  5) 2  26 (f) x 2  12 x  ( x  6) 2  36

1 1 3 1 5 25
(g) x 2  x  7  ( x  ) 2  7 (h) x 2  3x  1  ( x  ) 2  1 (i) x 2  5 x  ( x  ) 2 
2 4 2 4 2 4
9 1 1 1
(j) x 2  9 x  20  ( x  ) 2  (k) x 2  2 x  1  ( x  1) 2  0 (l) x 2  x  ( x  ) 2 
2 4 2 4

Write ax2 + bx + c where a > 1 in the form a(x + p)2 + q

Write -2x2 + 3x – 2 in the form a(x + p)2 + q
Answer
Step 1: First take out -2 as a common factor so that the coefficient of x2 becomes 1.
3
-2x2 + 3x – 2 = -2(x2 - 2x + 1)
Step 2: Write down the values of a, b and c for the expression in the brackets: a = 1,
3
b = − 2 and c = 1

Re-write the expression leaving a gap between the second and third term. Put the
first and second terms in brackets as shown.
3
-2[(x2 - 2x ] + 1)
Step 3: Divide the value of b by 2 and square the answer.
𝑏 2 3 3
(2) = (-  2)2 = (- )2
2 4

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Step 4: Add answer in step 3 in the brackets and subtract it to the right as shown.
3 3 3
-2[(x2 - 2x + (- 4)2 ] - (- 4)2 + 1)
3. Factorise the bracket and simplify the two values outside the brackets as shown.
3 9
-2(x - 4)2 - 16 + 1
3 7
= -2(x - 4)2 - 8

In short:
3
-2x2 + 3x – 2 = -2(x2 - 2x + 1)
3
= -2[(x2 - 2x ] + 1)
3 3 3
= -2[(x2 - 2x + (- 4)2 ] - (- 4)2 + 1)
3 9
= -2(x - 4)2 - 16 + 1
3 2 7
= -2(x - ) -
4 8
1. Write 3x + 3x – 6 in the form a(x + p)2 + q
2

5 1
2. Write -6(x – 6)2 + 6 in the form ax2 + bx + c
Answers
1. 3x2 + 3x – 6
= 3(x2 + x) – 6
= 3[(x2 + x + (1/2)2 - (1/2)2] – 6
= 3[(x + 1/2)2 – 1/4] – 6
= 3(x + 1/2)2 - 3/4 – 6
= 3(x + 1/2)2 - 63/4

5 1
2. -6(x – 6)2 + 6
5 5 1
= -6(x2 - 3x + (− 6)2) + 6
25 1
= -6x2 + 10x - +6
6

= -6x2 + 10x – 4

1. Write the following expressions in the form a(x + p)2 + q:

a) x2 – 2x – 3 b) x2 + x – 2 c) x2 – 3x – 4 d) x2 + 3x – 10

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e) x2 + 3x + 6 f) x2 – 4 g) 2x2 – 3x – 2 h) 2x2 + 7x – 4

i) 3x2 + x – 2 j) -2x2 + 7x – 3 k) 3x2 + 11x + 6 l) -4x2 + 5x – 1

2. Write the following expressions in the form ax2 + bx + c:

a) (x – 3)2 + 5 b) (x + 2)2 - 7 c) (x + 1)2 + 3 d) 2(x – 1)2 - 5

e) -(x – 5)2 - 7 f) 2(x + 4)2 + 3 g) -3(x – 1)2 - 6 h) 5(x + 3)2 + 2

3 7 3 2 3 7 5 1
i) (x – 2)2 + 4 j) 2(x – 5)2 + 25 k) -2(x – 4)2 + 8 l) -3(x - 6)2 + 12

3. Write the following expressions in the form a(x + p)2 + q:

a) 2x2 – 4x – 6 b) 3x2 + 3x – 6 c) 4x2 – 12x – 16 d) 2x2 + 6x – 20

e) 3x2 + 9x + 18 f) 4x2 – 16 g) 2x2 – 3x – 2 h) 2x2 + 7x – 4

i) 3x2 + x – 2 j) -2x2 + 7x – 3 k) 3x2 + 11x + 6 l) -4x2 + 5x – 1

Manipulating Polynomials
Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials
1. (3x2 – 5x + 7y – 2xy) + ( – x2 – 2x – y + 2. (7a3 – 3ab + 2b2) + (5a2 + 8ab – 3b +
5xy) 4b2)
= 3x2 – 5x + 7y – 2xy – x2 – 2x – y + 5xy = 7a3 – 3ab + 2b2 + 5a2 + 8ab – 3b +
4b2
= 2x2 – 7x + 6y + 3xy
= 7a3 + 5a2 + 5ab – 3b + 6b2
2 2
3. (5x + 2xy + 2x) – (2x + 4xy - 3x) 4. 3x(2x – 6)(x2 – x – 1)
= 5x2 + 2xy + 2x – 2x2 – 4xy + 3x = 3x[2x(x2 – x – 1) – 6x(x2 – x – 1)]
= 3x2 – 2xy + 5x = 3x[2x3 – 2x2 – 2x – 6x3 – 6x2 – 6x]
= 6x4 – 6x3 – 6x2 – 18x4 – 18x3 – 18x2
= 6x4 – 18x4 – 6x3 – 18x3 – 6x2 – 18x2
= – 12x4 – 12x3 – 12x2
= 12x2 (– x2 – x – 1)

1. Simplify the following polynomials.

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(a) Add - 2x4 + 3x3 – 14; x2 + 4x – 9; 17 – 4x + 14x2 + 3x4
(b) subtract 5p4 – 2p3 + p2 from 17p4 + 6p3 – 2p2 + 4p – 9
(c) add 9x2 – 3x – 2; 18x2 – 14x – 15; - 6x2 + 6x + 10
(d) subtract x3 - 2x2 – x + 2 from x3 – x2 – 4x + 4
(e) add 36m3 – 11m2 – 12 m; - 24m3 + 26m2 – 15m + 4; 60m3 – 3m2 – 36
(f) Add 2a2 – 5ab + 3b2 + 8 and 7ab – 9 + 3b2 – a2
(g) Multiply 4x2 + 3x + 2 by x2 + 2x – 4
(h) Multiply x4 – 3x2 + 2 by x5 + 2x3 – x
(i) Multiply p2 – 3p – 4 by 2p3 + 6p2 – 7p
(j) Multiply and simplify _- (b – 2)b2 – b(2b + 1) + (3b + 2)(b2)

(k) Given that: P = (2y – 4); Q = (y2 – 4y + 3); and R = (9y – 6), find

(i) PR – Q (ii) Q – PR (iii) 2Q – 4PR (iv) 3P +

2RQ

2. Simplify the following

(a) (3x2 + 5x – 9) + (2x2 – 7x + 13) (b) (8p2 – 7pq + 3q2) – (5p2 + 4pq – 2q2)

(c) (17a2 + 5ab – 7b2) – (9a2 + 7ab – (d) (-15x2 – 9x + 12) + (8x2 – 3x - 4)
14b2)

(e) (-7x – 8)(4x2 – 3x + 5)(2x -1) (f) (3x2 – 5) x (3 - 2x3 + 2x)

6. Simplify:
a) 5a2 – 3a + 7 plus 3a2 + 5a – 3 plus – 3a2 + 6
b) 17x2 + 8x + 19 plus -10x2 + 4x + 7 minus 9x2 + 15
c) 23 + 10p2 minus 18 + p – 2p2 plus 7 – 3p – 3p2
d) 7a2 – 10 + 5a minus 12 – 3a2 minus -5a – 8a2 - 17

7. Simplify the following polynomials.

(a) Add - 2x4 + 3x3 – 14; x2 + 4x – 9; 17 – 4x + 14x2 + 3x4
(b) subtract 5p4 – 2p3 + p2 from 17p4 + 6p3 – 2p2 + 4p – 9
(c) add 9x2 – 3x – 2; 18x2 – 14x – 15; - 6x2 + 6x + 10
(d) subtract x3 - 2x2 – x + 2 from x3 – x2 – 4x + 4
(e) add 36m3 – 11m2 – 12 m; - 24m3 + 26m2 – 15m + 4; 60m3 – 3m2 – 36

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(f) Add 2a2 – 5ab + 3b2 + 8 and 7ab – 9 + 3b2 – a2
(g) Add 9p2 – 8pq + 3q2 and -4p2 + 5pq – 7q2
(h) subtract 7p3 – 5p2 + 17 from 11p3 – 3p2 + 20
(i) Add 6x4 – 11xy3 – 3x2 + 5y2 + 3y4 – 17; -12x4 + 8xy3 – 7y4 + x3 + 12 –
2y2

Division of a polynomial by a binomial

1. Divide 7x3 – 2x2 – 61x + 12 by x – 3

2. Divide x4 – 3x3 + 5x2 – 8x – 7 by x – 2
Answer
1. (7x3 – 2x2 – 61x + 12)  (x – 3) 2. (x4 – 3x3 + 5x2 – 8x – 7)  (x – 2)
7x 2 + 19x - 4
x  3 7x 3 - 2x 2 - 61x + 12 x 3 - x 2 + 3x - 2
x  2 x 4 - 3x 3 + 5x 2 - 8x - 7
7x3– 21x2
19x2 – 61x x4 – 2x3
19x2 – 57x – x3 + 5x2
– 4x + 12 – x3 + 2x2
– 4x + 12 3x2 – 8x
0 (reminder) 3x2 – 6x
– 2x – 7
(7x3 – 2x2 – 61x + 12)  (x – 3) = 7x2 + 19x – – 2x + 4
4 – 11 (the reminder)
In this case the quotient is 7x2 + 19x – 4 and
the remainder is 0. (x4 – 3x3 + 5x2 – 8x – 7)  (x – 2) = x3 – x2 + 3x
– 2 remainder -11

1. Divide 6p2 – 7p – 24 by 3x - 8
2. Divide 2x3 – 7x2 + 13x – 5 by 2x – 1
3. Divide 3x2 + 12x – 3 by 3x – 2
4. Simplify (2x3 + 3x2 – x + 2)  (x + 3)

5. Determine the quotient and a reminder.

(a) 2x3 + 3x2 – x + 2  x + 3 (b) 16p3 + 8p2 + 5p + 1  4p – 1
(c) 2m3 + 3m2 – m + 1  2m – 1 (d) x4 - 5x3 + 5x2 + 5x – 2  x + 3
(e) 3p2 + p3 + + 2p - 1  p + 1 (f) 2x4 – 11x3 + 25x2 – 39x + 50  2x – 5
(g) 2x3 – 2x2 – 8x + 4  x2 – 4 (h) x4 - 5x3 + 5x + 5x2 – 6  x – 3

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(i) – m4 + 2m3 – m + 1  m + 1 (j) 6x3 + 7x2 – 15x + 4  x – 1
(k) 2y3 – 3y2 + 5y + 3  y + 1 (l) x3 – 7x2 + 6x + 1  x – 3
(m) 5 + 6x + 7x2 – x3  x + 2 (n) b4 - 3b3 + 2b2 + 5  b – 1
(m)8x3 – 10x2 + 7x + 3  x – 1 (n) x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 8  x + 1
(q) (3a – 7)(-3a3 + 5a2 – 8a – 7)  (a – 3) (r) (2x2 -5x + 2)(3x2 -11x - 4)  (-6x2 + x + 1)

6. Simplify 2x4 – 11x3 + 25x2 – 39x + 50 divided by 2x – 5

7. Simplify (3a – 7)(-3a3 + 5a2 – 8a – 7)  (a – 3)
8. Simplify (2x2 -5x + 2)(3x2 -11x - 4)  (-6x2 + x + 1)
9. Simplify (3x2 +5x - 1)(2x2 -3x - 9)  (6x2 + 7x - 3)

Solving Equations with fractions

NOTE: If two fractions are equal and they are truly equal, then the product of their
cross multiply should be equal. See the following examples.

1 2 1 2
If  and the two are truly equal, then  →(1 ×4) = (2 × 2)
2 4 2 4
x 2
If  then x × 5 = 5 × 2 therefore 5x = 10 and x = 2.
5 5
Whenever fractional equations are given use this method to solve such equations.
Sometimes you will be required to find the LCM first before cross multiplying.

Exercise 16
1. Solve the following equations
b y x
(a) 7 (b)  13 (c) 7 
5 10 2
b 1 3a 3 3x
(d)  (e) 6 (f)  
2 3 5 4 5
a b q
(g)  7  12 (h)  10  20 (i)  6  2
2 100 5
p 1 6 x x
(j)  1   (k)  x (l) 4  5
2 4 10 5 2
2 12t 2 n
(m) 4 (n) 6  (o) 
m 1 t 1 3 5n

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2. Solve the following equations
3x  5 x  1 2m  5 m  7 3m  5 m  2
(a)  (b)  (c) 
4 2 3 2 3 6
3a  5 a  3 5m  1 3m  1 1 2y  3 y  3
(d)  7 (e)   (f) 1  
2 4 4 6 3 5 3
5t  1 t  8 3(b  2) 3  y y 1
(g)  7 1 (h)  4b  8 (i) 
3 9 4 2 4
7  2m 9 m  1 2x  3 4x  2 7m 3m 1
(j)  (k)  (l) 2 
3 7 4 6 5 10 5
q3 x4 2a 3a 2 3b  1 2b  5
(m)  2 (n)   0 (o)  2
2 5 5 7 5 2 3

Word problems involving linear equations

Sometimes the equations are given in word problems. You need to study the word
problem carefully and then form an equation to be able to solve it.

Exercise 17
1. Leona is 5 years older that Petrus. The sum of their ages is 21 years. Find the age
of each of them.
2. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm more than its breadth. The perimeter of the
rectangle is 46 cm. Find the length and breadth of the rectangle.
3. In a parallelogram one angle is 30° less than twice another angle. What are the
sizes of the angles of the parallelogram.
4. Saima has four more bananas than Betty. Betty has twice as many bananas as
John. In total, they have 34 bananas. How many bananas does each have?
5. The five angles of a pentagon are x°, x°, 2x°, 3x° and 5x°. Find the value of x and
the size of each of the five angles.
6. There are 66 passengers in a bus. The number of male passengers is double the
number of female passengers. Find the number of:
(a) male passengers,
(b) female passengers.
7. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 276. Find the three numbers.
8. The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is 177. Find the numbers.
9. Find the three consecutive even numbers that add up to 1 524.
10. The father is 4 years older than the wife. The wife is three times older than the
daughter. The son is 10 years younger than the sister. The sum of their ages is 90.
Find the ages of the father, wife, daughter and son.

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11. The man is 30 years older than the son. In 10 years the man will be 3 times as
old as his son. Find the age of the man and for his son in 10 years.
12. The man is 7 years older than his wife. She was 23 years old when the son was
born. The son is 2 years older than the sister. In three years time, the man will be 3
times as old as his son. Find the age of the man, wife, son and daughter.
13 MTC has two systems, contract and tango. For contract, a customer pays a
fixed amount of N$180/month plus N$ 1,00 /minute of talking time. Tango
charges N$ 2, 50 /minute of talking time. In how many minutes will the cost be the
same for the two systems?
14. The total number of learners in school A is three times less than the total number
of learners in school B. There are (6y + 12) learners in school B. How many
learners are there in school A and in school B if the total for both schools is 1 016
15. The number of bakkies in the a town is three times more than the number of
sedans. There are (y – 4) sedans in the town. How many bakkies and sedans are
there in the town if the total sedans and bakkies is 484?
16.The age of Maria’s grandmother is four times her age. Maria is (x + 5) years.
The sum of their ages is 80 years. How old is maria and her grandy?
17. The sum of the ages of Diina and her sister Loide is 22 years. Diina was 6 years
old when Loide was born. How old are the two girls now?

Solving Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is an equation where the highest power of the unknown is 2. We
solve quadratic equations by

 factorisation,
 completing the square or
 using a formula.

The solution of any quadratic equation is based on the fact that when the product of
two numbers is zero one or both the numbers must be zero. For example, if ab = 0
then a = 0 or b = 0 or both a and b are equal to zero. The solutions of algebraic
quadratic equations are called the roots of the equation.

1. Solve quadratic equations by factorisation

First write the equation in standard form as ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are
rational numbers. In the second step, we use the fact that when the product of the
factors of an equation is zero, one of the factors or both are equal to zero to find the
value of the unknown.

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 Solve for x in each case.
1. x2 - 3x + 10 = 0 2. x2 = 6 - x
x2 - 3x + 10 = 0 x2 = 6 – x
(x - 5)(x + 2) = 0  x2 + x – 6 = 0
x – 5 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 (x + 3)(x - 2) = 0
x = 5 or x = -2 x + 3 = 0 or x - 2 = 0
x = -3 or x = 2
3. 2x(x + 2) = 5(2 – x) 4. 9x2 – 1 = 0
 2x2 + 4x = 10 – 5x  (3x - 1)(3x + 1) = 0
2
2x + 4x – 5x – 10 = 0 3x – 1 = 0 or 3x + 1 = 0
2x2 - x – 10 = 0 x = 1/3 or x = -1/3
(2x - 5)(x + 2) = 0
2x – 5 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
x = 5/2 or x = -2

1. Factorise and solve the following quadratic equations.

(a) x2 + x – 12 = 0 (b) x2 + 2x – 3 = (c) x2 - 2x – 8 = 0 (d) x2 - x - 6 = 0
0
(e) x2 – 4 (f) 2x2 = 6 - x (g) 3x + 5 = 2x2 (h) 3x2 – 11x = 6
(i) 4 + 6x2 = 10x (j) 4x2 – 1 = 0 (k) x(8 + 3x) = 2(4 - (l) 6x2 = 9(1 – x) –
x) 4x2
(m) 3x(2x – 1) = x + 7(x + 1) (n) 2x(3x + 1) + 11 = 3(9x - 1)

2. Factorise and solve the following quadratic equations.

(a) 25 = 4a2 (b) x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 (c) y2 - 3y - 4 = 0 (d) x2 + 3x - 10 = 0
(e) x2 + 3x - 18 = 0 (f) x2 – 9 = 0 (g) 2x2 + 5x - 3 = 0 (h) 3x2 - 17x + 10 =
0
(i) 8x2 + 10x - 3 = 0 (j) 3x2 + 2x - 8 = 0 (k) 16 - m2 = 0 (l) 3x2 - 7x + 2 = 0
(m) 4x2 - 12x - 7 = 0 (n) 3x2 - 13x - 10 = (o) 10x2 + 13x - 3 = (p) 3x(x - 5) = 5x + 7
0 0
(q) 2x(4x - 1) = 3(8x + 1) – 8 (r) 4x(2x - 3) + 1 = 2(x + 8)

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3. Solve the following quadratic equations.
(a) x2 – 2x - 3 = 0 (b) 2x2 = x +10 (c) 6x2 = 13x – (d) 2x2 + x =15
6
(e) 2x2 – 3x = 0 (f) 4x2 = 25 (g) 3x2 = 4x (h) x2 + x - 6 = 0
(i) 2x2 = x + 3 (j) 6x2 = 17x - (k) 2x2 – 3x = (l) 3x2 - 5x = 0
12 14
(m) x2 - 16 = 0 (n) 4x2 - 9 = 0 (o) 4x2 – 5x = 0 (p) (x - 2) (x + 3)(x - 4) = 0
x 2x  9 2x 1  x x x 2
(q)  (r)  (s) 3x  4 (t) 
5 x4 3 x2 x 1 x 1 x  3
x4 1
(u)  (v) 6x3 = 5x2 + 6x (w) 9x3 + 6x2 = 8x (x) a(a – 1) = a + 3
x6 x

2. Solve quadratic equations by completing the square

We also solve quadratic equations by using a method called completion of a square.
In this method we use the properties of algebraic expressions such as the following:
(x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1
(x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x + 4
(x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
(x + 4)2 = x2 + 8x + 16
(x + 5)2 = x2 + 10x + 25
In the above expressions the last term equals the square of half the coefficient of the
middle term.
2
2 2 2 2
(x + 1) = x + 2x + 1 = x + 2x +  
2
2
2 2 2 4
(x + 2) = x + 4x + 4 = x + 2x +  
2
2
6
(x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9 = x2 + 6x +  
2
2
 8
(x - 4) = x - 8x + 16 = x + 6x +   
2 2 2

 2
2
 10 
(x - 5) = x - 10x + 25 = x - 10x +   
2 2 2

 2
When the third term of an algebraic expression equals the square of half the
coefficient of the second term we can write the expression as a complete square. For
example, in x2 – 18x + 81 the third term 81 is equal to (-18/2)2 = (-9)2 therefore x2 –
18x + 81 = (x - 9)2.

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Example
Complete the squares for each of the following expressions
1. x2 + 14x + 49
2. x2 – 24x + 144
Answers
2
  14  
1. x + 14x + 49 =  x     = (x + 7)2
2

  2 
2
  24  
2. x – 24x + 144 =  x      = (x + (-12))2 = (x – 12)2
2

  2 
The following example shows how we use completing the square to determine the
roots of quadratic equations. The roots of an algebraic equation are the values of the
variable for which the value of the expression is zero.
Example
Solve for x in the following equations:
1. x2 – 8x + 9 = 0
2. 3x2 = 5x + 18

Answers
1. x2 – 8x + 9 = 0
 x2 – 8x = -9 Subtract 9 on both sides.
2 2
 8  8
x – 8x +    = -9 +   
2
Add the square of half the coefficient of x on both
 2  2
sides.
x2 – 4x + 16 = -9 + 16
(x – 4)2 = -9 + 16 Write left hand side as a complete square by
factorising.
(x – 4)2 = 7 Simplify right hand side
x – 4 = + √7 Take square root on both sides.
x – 4 = +2.65 Use calculator to determine √7.
x = 4 + 2.65 or 4 – 2.65 Add 4 on both sides.
x = 6.65 or x = -1.35 Simplify

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2. 3x2 = 5x + 18
 3x2 – 5x – 18 = 0 Write in standard form.
5x
x2 – –6=0 Divide all terms by 3.
3
5x
x2 – =6 Add 6 to both sides.
3
2 2
5x  5  5
2
x – +   = 6 +   Add the square of half the coefficient of x on both
3  6  6
sides.
2
 5 25
x  = 6 + Write left hand side as a complete square.
 6 36

216  25
2
 5
x  = Simplify right-hand side.
 6 36
2
 5 241
x  =
 6 36

5 241
x– = Take square root on both sides.
6 36
x = 0.833 + 2.59 Calculate the answers.
x= 3.42 or x = -1.76

Exercise 21
Solve for x by completing the square. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) x2 – 3x - 5 = 0 (b) x2 + x – 3 = 0 (c) x2 – 8 = 0 (d) x2 + 2x – 7 = 0
(e) -x2 = 5x - 8 (f) x2 – 35 = 0 (g) x2 + 7x – 4 = 0 (h) x2 – 3x + 1 = 0
(i) x2 + 9x – 3 = 0 (j) x2 = 3x + 2 (k) x2 – 3x – 4 = 0 (l) x2 +2x – 5 = 0
(m) 5x2 – 8x +1 = 0 (n) – 2x2 – 5x – 2 = (o) 3x2 – 4x – 2 = 0 (p) – 7x2 – x + 15 =
0 0
(q) 2x2 – 6x – 1 = 0 (r) 3x2 + 6x – 2 = 0 (s) 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 (t) 3x2 + 5x + 1 = 0
(u) 5x2 – 2x – 4 = 0 (v) 5x2 – 3x – 3 = 0 (w) 2x2 – 4x – 3 = 0 (x) 3a2 – 6a – 2 = 0

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3. Solve quadratic equations by use of the formula
We can also solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula. We derive the
formula by completing the square of a quadratic equation written in its general form
as ax2 + bx + c = 0.

ax2 + bx + c = 0
𝑏 𝑐
 x2 + x + =0 Divide each term by the coefficient of x2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
x2 + x = - Subtract on both sides of the equation.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 2 𝑏 2
x2 + x + ( )2 =- +( ) Add ( ) to both sides of the equation to complete the
𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
square.
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
(x + ) =- + Write left-hand side as a square.
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎2
𝑏 2 𝑏2 – 4ac
(x + ) = Simplify
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 b2 – 4ac
x+ =+√ Take the square root on both sides.
2𝑎 4𝑎2

√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
=+ Simplify
2𝑎
𝑏 √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏
x=- + Subtract on both sides of the equation.
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x= Simplify
2𝑎

Formula for solving a quadratic equation

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x= ,
2𝑎
where a and b are the coefficients of x2 and x respectively and c the constant term.
−𝑏+ √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
The two roots of the equation are x = and x = .
2𝑎 2𝑎

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Example
Use the formula to solve for x:
1. x 2 + 2 x – 35 = 0
2. 2 x 2 – 3 = 8 x
Answers
1. x2 + 2x – 35 = 0 2. 2x2 – 3 = 8x
a = ; b = 2 and c = - 35 2x2 – 8x – 3 = 0 in standard form
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 a = 2; b = - 8 and c = -3
x= 2𝑎
−(−8) ± √(−8)2 −4(2)(−3)
−2 ± √22 −4(1)(−35) x=
= 2(2)
2(1)
8 ± √64+ 24
−2 ± √4+140 =
= 4
2
8 ± √88
−2 ± 12 =
= 4
2
8 ± 9.38
10 −14 =
= or 4
2 2
17.38 −1.38
= 5 or -7 = or
4 4

= 4.35 or -0.35

Exercise 22
1. Use the quadratic formula to solve the following quadratic equations. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) x2 – 7x + 2 = 0 (b) x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 (c) x2 + 3x - 5 = 0 (d) x2 – 2x - 8 = 0
(e) x2 + 6x + 1 = 0 (f) x2 +2x – 4 = 0 (g) x2 + 3x – 2 = 0 (h) x2 + 4 = 3x
(i) 2- 5x – x2 = 0 (j) x2 – x – 1 = 0 (k) x2 – 3x + 1 = 0 (l) x2 – 3x – 1 = 0
(m) 5x2 – 8x +1 = 0 (n) – 2x2 – 5x – 2 = 0 (o) 3x2 – 4x – 2 = 0 (p) – 7x2 – x + 15 = 0
(q) 2x2 – 6x – 1 = 0 (r) 3x2 + 6x – 2 = 0 (s) 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 (t) 3x2 + 5x + 1 = 0
(u) 5x2 – 2x – 4 = 0 (v) 5x2 – 3x – 3 = 0 (w) 2x2 – 4x – 3 = 0 (x) 3a2 – 6a – 2 = 0

2. Use the quadratic formula to solve the following quadratic equations. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) x2 – 3x - 1 = 0 (b) x2 + 2x - 7 = 0 (c) x2 + 8x + 9 = 0 (d) x2 – 9x + 3 = 0
(e) -3x2 – 2x + 5 = 0 (f) -5x2 + 3x + 7 = 0 (g) 2x2 – 8x - 11 = 0 (h) 7x2 – x - 4 = 0
(i) 2x2 + 13x - 6 = 0 (j) -12x2 + 31x - 5 = 0 (k) 4x2 – 3x + 1 = 0 (l) 5x2 – 3x – 1 = 0
x 4 x3 3 x 2 2x 2  x
(m)  (n)  2 (o)  (p) 
x3 x2 x x2 x2 x4 3 x2

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 Quadratic Equations in fractions
We solve equations containing fractions by first multiplying each term by the lowest
common multiple (LCM) of the denominators of the fractions and secondly solving the
equation by factorisation or using the formula.

Example
Solve for x:
2𝑥−7 𝑥+3
1. 2 − = 𝑥+2
𝑥−5
𝑥−5 4
2. (𝑥+3)(𝑥−3) = 2𝑥−1

Answers
2𝑥−7 𝑥+3 𝑥−5 4
1. 2 − = 𝑥+2 2. (𝑥+3)(𝑥−3) = 2𝑥−1
𝑥−5

2(x - 5)(x + 2) – (2x - 7)(x + 2) = (x + 3)(x - 𝑥−5

 𝑥 2 −9 = 2𝑥−1
4
5) Multiply each term by (x - 5)(x + 2)
2(x2 - 3x - 10) – (2x2 – 3x – 14) = x2 – 2x - 4(x2 - 9) = (x - 5)(2x - 1) Use cross
15 multiplication.

2x2 - 6x - 20 – 2x2 + 3x + 14 = x2 – 2x - 15 4x2 – 36 = 2x2 – 11x + 5

-x2 - x + 9 = 0 2x2 + 11x – 41 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x =
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 x = 2𝑎
2𝑎
−(11) ± √(11)2 −4(2)(−41)
−(−1) ± √(−1)2 −4(−1)(9) =
= 2(2)
2(−1)
−11 ± √121+328
1 ± √1+36 =
= 4
−2
−11 ± 21.19
1 ±6.08 =
= 4
−2
10.19 −32.19
7.08 −5.08 = or
= or 4 4
−2 −2

= -3.54 or 2.54 = 2.55 or -8.05

3. Factorise where possible or use the quadratic formula to solve for x.

5 2 2𝑥−7 3𝑥 𝑥+2 2𝑥+3 2𝑥−3 𝑥+7
(a) 3𝑥 = (b) = (c) 3𝑥−1 = (d) =
2𝑥 5𝑥 2 3𝑥+1 𝑥+5 3𝑥−2

3 2𝑥 2𝑥+1 𝑥−3 𝑥+1 2𝑥−1 3𝑥−2 2𝑥+3

(e) 𝑥−3 + 𝑥+1 = 2 (f) − =3 (g) + =1 (h) = +3
𝑥+1 𝑥−1 2𝑥−3 𝑥−3 2𝑥+1 𝑥+5

5𝑥−3 2𝑥+7 𝑥−4 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥−1 3𝑥−4 𝑥+2

(i) 3𝑥+5 − 2 = (j) =2− (k) 1 + 𝑥−2 = (l) 2𝑥+1 − 5 =
𝑥−2 𝑥+3 2𝑥+1 𝑥+1 5𝑥−1

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 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 2𝑥−3 𝑥+2 2𝑥+3 3−2𝑥 𝑥+4 𝑥−3
(m) + =1 (n) - =2 (o) = +3 (p) +2=
𝑥−1 2𝑥−3 𝑥+1 3𝑥−1 𝑥−4 𝑥+5 𝑥−2 𝑥+1

2𝑥−1 𝑥+1 2−3𝑥 4𝑥−1

(q) 1 + = (r) 3 − = +5
𝑥+4 2𝑥+1 𝑥+4 2𝑥−3

Simultaneous equations, one linear and one quadratic

We have already learned how to solve simultaneous linear equations in two
unknowns. We use our knowledge of solving simultaneous linear equations and of
quadratic equations to solve simultaneous equations where one equation is linear
and the other quadratic.
Example
1. Solve for x and y if y - 3x – 2 = 0 and 2. Solve for x and y if y - 5 = 2x and
y = 2x2 – 5x + 8. y + 3xy = 2x2 – x + 7.
y – 3x - 2 = 0 y = 2x + 5
 y = 3x + 2 Substitute y = 2x + 5 in y + 3xy = 2x2 – x
+ 7.
Substitute y with 3x + 2in y = 2x2 – 5x + 8
 2x + 5 + 3x(2x + 5) = 2x2 – x + 7
 3x + 2= 2x2 – 5x + 8
2x + 5 + 6x2 + 15x – 2x2 + x – 7 = 0
3x + 2 – 2x2 + 5x – 8 = 0
2 4x2 + 18x – 2 = 0
–2x + 8x – 6 = 0
2x2 + 9x – 1 = 0 it cannot factorise so use
x2 – 4x + 3 = 0 Divide each
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
term by -2. the formula x = 2𝑎
(x - 3)(x - 1)= 0 −9 ± √92 −4(2)(−1)
= 2(2)
x = 3 or x = 1
−9 ± √89
Substitute x = 3 in y = 3x + 2 = 4
 y = 3(3) + 2 =
−9 ±9.43
4
= 11 0.43 −18.43
= or
Substitute x = 1 in y = 3x + 2. 4 4

 y = 3(1) + 2 = 0.11 or -4.61

=5 Substitute x = 0.11 in y = 2x + 5.

The solutions are  y = 2(0.11) + 5

When x = 3; y = 11 and when x = 1; y = 5 = 5.22
Substitute x = -4.61 in y = 3x + 2.
 y = 2(-4.61) + 2
= -7.22
The solutions are when x = 0.11, y = 522
and when x = -4.61;y = -7.22

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 Exercises
Solve for x and y.
(a) y = x + 1 and (b) y = 3x and (c) 3x + y = -7 and (d) 3x – y = 2x2 – 17
y = x2 + 2x + y = 4x2 – 2x – 6 y + 7 = 2x2 + 5x and 5x + y = 7
1
(e) 2x - y = 3 and (f) y + 3x = 5 and (g) y = 3x + 2 and (h) 2x + y = 1 and
y + 6 = x(x – y + 13x2 + 4xy = 8x – 3 6x – y = 2x2 - 7 x2 + 5x = y + 3
1)

(i) y + 4x = 12 (j) y + x = 3 and (k) y – x = 1 and (l) 2y = x - 2 and

and x2 + 2x + 3y2 = 2 y2 + x2 = 4x + 6y - x2 + xy – 5x + 3y = 3
2
y = 4x – 8x - 5
3
(m) y + x = -7 (n) 2xy – 5y = 3x2 – 17x + (o) y + 2x – 3 = 0 (p) y + 6 = x and
and 2 and 3y – 5x = 2xy – 6x2 + 7
y + 7x = 1 – and x + y = 4
2 x2 – y + 7xy = 5x +
2x
2

Solving linear inequalities

We use the same methods as for equations to solve linear inequalities. The only
difference is that when we multiply or divide the terms in an inequality by a negative
number, the direction of the inequality changes, i.e. smaller than (<) changes to
bigger than (>), and vice versa.
Example
Solve for x in the following inequalities.
1. 5x – 17 > 18 2. 2x + 25 > 13
 5x – 17 + 17 > 18 + 17 Add 17 to both  2x + 25 - 25 > 13 – 25 Subtract 25 on
sides. both sides.
5x > 35 Simplify 2x > -12 Simplify
x>7 Divide by 5 on both sides. x > -6 Divide by 2 on both sides.

3. 19 – ¾p < 49 4. 35 < 7x < 91

 19 – ¾p – 19 < 49 – 19 Subtract 19 on  5 < x < 13 dividing each term by 7
both sides.
The value of x is 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12
-¾p < 30 Simplify
-¾p x (-4/3) < 30 x (-4/3) Multiply both
sides by the multiplication inverse of -¾.
p > -40

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1. Solve for x.
(a) 4x – 5 > 3 (b) 1 + 3x < 4 (c) 7 > 3 + 2x (d) 1+ 2x > 0
(e) 5 < 7 + x (f) 3> 4 - x (g) 4x – 1 ≥ 3 (h) 2 + 3x ≤ 11
(i) 3 – 5x ≥ 18 (j) 3(x – 2) ≥ 4 (k) 2(3x – 1) ≤ 3 (l) 3(2 – x) > 5

2. Solve the following inequalities.

(a) 2x < 34 (b) 3x < 21 (c) x + 18 > 30 (d) x – 12 > 28
(e) 2x – 10 > 14 (f) 15 + 3x < 45 (g) -3x + 4 < 16 (h) 9 – 2x > 29
(i) 2x + 11 < 23 (j) 2p - 20 > 32 (k) -2x + 15 > 29 (l) -3p + 32 < 47
(m) -24 < 3x < 15 (n) 20x + 50 > 90 (o) 3x - 18 < 49 (p) -51x - 50 > 103
(q) -13x + 14 > 92 (r) 19 < x + 3 < 41 (s) 5(x – 7) + 4 < 2x + (t) 3(14 – x) – 8 > 2x –
5 9
2 3 2 7
(u) 17 - 3(x – 19) > 3x (v) 4(15 – 3x) < 3(5 + 3x) - 12
+4

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 Sequences, Indices and Logarithm

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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Two types of number sequences
A number sequence is a set of numbers in which each successive number is
determined according to a fixed rule. We distinguish between.
 arithmetic number sequences and
 geometric number sequences.

Arithmetic number sequence Geometric number sequence

We add or subtract the same number to get the We multiply or divide by the same number to get
next term the next term
also called an Arithmetic Progression (AP) There is a constant ratio (common ratio, r)
There is a fixed constant (common difference, d) also called a Geometric Progression (GP)

Formula for nth term: Tn = a + d(n – 1) or Formula for nth term: Tn = arn – 1
Tn = d × n + (a – d) a = T1 (the first term)
a = T1 (the first term)

Example
1. Find the nth term for each of the following sequences
(a) 1, 4, 7, 10, ... (b) 1, 5, 9, 13, … (c) 1, 3, 9, 27, …
First find the rule (pattern) to First find the rule (pattern) to First find the rule (pattern) to
know if it is an AP or GP know if it is an AP or GP know if it is an AP or GP
The rule is + 3 (AP) The rule is + 4 (AP) The rule is × 3 (GP)
a = 1; d = 3 a = 1; d = 4 a = 1; r = 3
Tn = a + d(n – 1) Tn = a + d(n – 1) Tn = arn – 1
= 1 + 3(n – 1) = 1 + 4(n – 1) = 1 × 3n – 1
= 1 + 3n – 3 = 1 + 4n – 4 Tn = 3n – 1
Tn = 3n – 2 Tn = 4n – 3
2. Find the next three terms for each sequence.
(a) 1, 4, 7, 10, ... (b) 1, 5, 9, 13, … (c) 1, 3, 9, 27, …
The next three are T5, T6, T7 The next three are T5, T6, T7 The next three are T5, T6, T7
T5 = a + d(n – 1) T5 = a + d(n – 1) T5 = a × 3n-1
= 1 + 3(5 – 1) = 1 + 4(5 – 1) = 1 × 35-1
= 1 + 15 – 3 = 13 = 1 + 20 – 4 = 17 = 1 × 34
T6 = a + d(n – 1) T6 = a + d(n – 1) = 1 × 34 = 1 × 81 = 81
= 1 + 3(6 – 1) = 1 + 4(6 – 1) T6 = a × 3n-1
= 1 + 18 – 3 = 16 = 1 + 24 – 4 = 21 = 1 × 36-1
T7 = a + d(n – 1) T7 = a + d(n – 1) = 1 × 35
= 1 + 3(7 – 1) = 1 + 4(7 – 1) = 1 × 35 = 1 × 243 = 243
= 1 + 21 – 3 = 19 = 1 + 28 – 4 = 24 T7 = a × 3n-1
= 1 × 37-1
 13, 16, and 19  17, 21, and 24 = 1 × 36
= 1 × 36 = 1 × 729 = 729
 81, 243, and 729

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Exercises
1. Write down the nth term and the next three terms for each sequence.
(a) 1, 4, 7, 10, ... (b) 9, 17, 25, 33, ... (c) -15, -9, -3, 3, ...
(d) 17, 8, -1, -10, ... (e) 2, 8, 14, 20, ... (f) 24, 17, 10, 3, ...
(g) -2, -6, -10, -14, ... (h) 56, 33, 10, -13, ... (i) 1, 8, 15, 22, ...
(j) 87, 78, 69, 60, ... (k) 3, 9, 15, 21, ... (l) 4, 17, 30, 43, ...
(m) 411, 440, 469, 498, ... (n) -313, -330, -347, -364, (o) -27, -19, -11, -3, ...
...

2. The sequence 3, 11, 19, 27, …, is given.

(a) Determine the formula for the nth term of the sequence. Show all your work.
(b) Use your formula and calculate the 8th term of the sequence and show all your
work.
(c) Use your formula and calculate the 20th term of the sequence and show all
your work.
3. Write down the first three terms in the sequence with the nth term of Tn = 3n + 2.
4. Determine the first four terms of a sequence with nth term = 7 – 2n.
2
5. Write down the first three terms of the sequence Tn = 5 – 3n.
6. Determine which term of a sequence Tn = -3n + 7 is equal to - 47.
7. Study the sequence in the table and answer the questions.
Position
1 2 3 4 …
(n)
Term (Tn) 1 5 9 13 …

(a) Determine the formula for the nth term of the sequence. Show all your work.
(b) Use your formula and calculate the 18th term of the sequence. Show all your
work.
(c) Use your formula and calculate the 200th term of the sequence. Show all your
work.
8. Solve for x if the sequence 2x + 1, 3x + 3, 7x – 1, … is an Arithmetic Progression.
9. How many terms are in the A.P. 4, 7, 10, 13, … 91?
10. Determine the number of the term of the sequence 1, -3, 9, -27, … that is equal to
-19 683.
11. Solve for x if the sequence 2x - 1, 3x + 1, 7x – 1, … is a Geometric Progression.
12. How many terms are in the G.P. 3, 6, 12, … 3 072?

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FINDING n, a and d or r
EXAMPLES:
1. The 6th term of a GP is 486 and the 3rd term is 18. Calculate the common ratio
and the first term.
2. In an AP, the 8th term is 31, the 16th term is 63 and the last term is 79. Find the
first term, common difference and the number of terms in the sequence.
3. The 4th term of a geometric progression is 53 x5 and the 7th term is 56 x8 . Find
the common ratio and first term
4. The 19th term of an AP is 20.8 and the 4th term is 17.8. Find:
(i) the common difference and first term.
(ii) the first three terms of the sequence.
3 3
5. The 6th term of a geometric progression is  and the 9th term is . Find
16 128
the common ratio and first term.

Sum of first n terms for arithmetic and geometric sequence

We use the formulae in the table below to determine the sum of the first n-terms of
either arithmetic sequence or geometric sequence.

Arithmetic sequence (AP) Geometric sequence (GP)

n a(1  r n )
S n  [2a  (n  1)d ] or Sn  if r < 1 or
2 1 r

Sn 
n
a  l  a(r n  1)
l is the given last Sn  if r > 1
2 r 1
term
Example
Example
Calculate the sum of the first 9 terms of
Determine the sum of the first 20 terms the sequence 2, 8, 32, 128, …
of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, …
a = 2, r = 4 and n = 9
n = 20, a = 1 and d = 2 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑛 S=
S = 2{2a + (n-1)d} 1−𝑟
2(1−49 )
20 =
= {2(1) + (20-1)(2)} 1−(4)
2

= 10(2 + 38) = 174 762

= 10 x 40
= 400

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Exercises
1. Calculate the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 1, 5, 9, 13, …
2. Calculate the sum of the first 20 terms of the series 2, 9, 16, 23, …
3. Calculate the sum of the first 18 terms of the series 23, 30, 37, 44, …
4. Calculate the sum of the first 30 terms of the series -8, 13, 18, 23, …
5. Calculate the sum of the first 50 terms of the series 19, 12, 5, -2, …
6. Determine the number of terms of the series 3, 10, 17, 24, …. that must be added
to get a total of 4 518.
7. Write down the formula to calculate the sum of the first n terms of a geometric
series.
8. Use your formula to calculate the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 1, 2, 4, 8,
…
9. Determine the sum of the first 4 terms of the sequence 7, 49, 343, 2 401, …
10. Determine the sum of the first 6 terms of the sequence 8, 24, 72, 216, …
11. Determine the sum of the first 11 terms of the sequence 13, 26, 52, 104, …
12. Determine the sum of the first 7 terms of the sequence 3, 18, 108, 648, …
13. Determine the sum of the first 10 terms of the sequence 2, -6, 18, -54, …
14. Determine the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence 48, 16, 16/3, 16/9, …
correct to two decimal places.
15. A sequence of numbers is given by 25; 30, 35, …, 300.
(a) find the number of terms in the sequence,
(b) Find the sum of the sequence.

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Indices
It is very important to know the terminologies used in the diagram below whenever you have
to work with indices.

term the power

2 Exponent or

coefficient
3a index

base

Sometimes we have to work with very large or very small numbers. Using indices can
therefore be very useful to make it easier.
e.g. 100 000 000 000 × 0. 000 000 001
= 1011 × 10-9
= 102
The laws of indices
1. am × an = am+n 2. am ÷ an = am-n 3. (b2)4 = b8
When you multiply and the bases When you divide and the bases are The outside index multiplies the
are the same, add the indices the same, subtract the indices. inside index
7 4
together
5 3
e.g. a ÷ a e.g.(a4)3
e.g. a × a aaaaaaa = a4×a4×a4
= (a×a×a×a×a) × (a×a×a) = a4+4+4
= a×a×a×a×a×a×a×a
aaaa
= a×a×a = a12
= a8
= a3
1 5. (ab)m = a3b3 𝑎 𝑎𝑚
4. (a)-m = 6. (𝑏)m = 𝑏𝑚
am The outside index is for all numbers
inside the brackets The outside index is for all numbers
The reciprocal will makes the index in the fraction
positive 𝑎 𝑎4
e.g. (𝑏)4 = 𝑏4
3 3 3
e.g. (2b) = 2 b
-3 1 = 2 × 2 × 2 ×b × b × b
e.g. (a) = 3
a3 = 8b

𝑎 𝑏 𝑚 𝑏𝑚
and (𝑏)-m = (𝑎) = 𝑎𝑚
1 n NOTE: a0 = 1
7. m
a a m
8. m
a an m
Any number raised to the power of
1 2 zero is 1
e.g. 3
a a 3
e.g. 3
a2  a 3 (a  0 )

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expressions involving indices
We use the laws of indices to simplify expressions involving indices.
Example
Write as rational numbers:
(a) 43 (b) 5-2
=4x4x4 Write in extended notation. 1
= (5)2
= 64 Write as a single number. 1 1
=5x5 Write in extended notation.
= 1
Write as a rational number.
25
2
(c) 70 = 1 (d) 643
72 72 2
= 1 and 72 = 72-2 = 70, = (43 )3 Write 64 in index notation as a
72
power of 4.
so a number raised to the power 0 is equal to 1.
2 2
=4 Multiply the two indices, i.e. 3 x3
= 2.

Exercises
1. Use the laws of indices to simplify the following expressions
(a) m4 x m6 (b) 23 x 22 (c) (- 3a2)3
(d) (a2b × ab2 (e) 3a2 × 2b3 (f) a4 ÷ a
(g) a5b2 ÷ a2b (h) 6a5 ÷ 2a2 (i) 12x3y ÷ 3xy
(j) 21x4y2 ÷ 3x2 (k) (x3)3 (l) (2x3)2
(m) 3(a4)2 (n) (2a2)2 × 2(a)2 (o) (3a3)3 ÷ (3a2)2
(p) (6a2b3)2 (q) a3x × a2x (r) a2x+y ×a3x+2y

We do the same when simplifying the expressions with algebraic indices.

2. Simplify the following expressions

1 3
1

 3a 2 
(b) a  a  b (c)  3 
3 5x x 3y
(a)  
8  2b 
( x 2 y 2 ) 2c  ( xy 3 ) 3c a 2 b  c  a 3b  2 c ( a 2 ) 2 b  3c  ( a 3 ) b c
(d) (e) (f)
( x 3 y 3 ) 3c a 2b 2 c a 3b  c  a b  2 c
3
8  4 81 43  23 (ab 2 ) 4  (a 2b 2 ) 2
(g) (h) (i)
3
64 8 2  16 a 3b  (ab) 4

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 3
x 2  x 7  x 3  3a 2 
(j) (k)  3  (l) 4
81 16
x4  x2  2b 
3 3
1 ( a 3 ) 2 x 3 y  ( a 2 ) x  y  xy 
(m)   (n) (o)  2 
 16  a x y  a 0  xy  
2
(a 3b 3 ) 2  (3a 2b 1 ) 3  a 6 x b  a  x b 6 x  (a 2 b 2 ) 6
4
(p) (q)   (r)
ab  (ab) 0  a 5b 7  a 2 b 4
2 1 3 14
5 3 1 1 (t) (𝑎4 𝑏 3 )2 x (𝑎7 𝑏 0 ) 9  1 2 1 3
(s) (𝑎 ) x (𝑏 )6 x (𝑎𝑏)
8 5 3 2 2 (u) (𝑎3 + 𝑏)3 x (𝑎3 + 𝑏)−4
(𝑎𝑏) 3

3. Simplify the following expressions.

3 x 3  2a 4  b  6 x y    2 xy 
9 2
m4 n 2 4 3
(a) 2 (b)
x  2a 3  2b 2 mn3 (c)
12 x6 y8

3a 2b3 (e) 5
32a10 8a  4 81b3
3
(d) (f)
6a 6 b 3 3
64b
  (h) a2 x y  a3 x2 y 2b  c
(g) 2a 2  2(a)2
2
a  a 3b  2 c
(i)
a 2b  2 c

    ab 
3 2c 3c 3
 1 (k) a 2b2 3
 a 3b 
(j)   (l)  
 16   ab 

m
(m) a2m

Solve simple exponential equations

We solve exponential equations by converting both sides of the equation to an
expression having the same base. When the expressions on the two sides of the
equation have the same base, their indices are equal. We then write a new equation
to show that the indices are equal and solve for the unknown.

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Example
Solve for x:
1. 3x = 81 1
2. 5x-4 = 25
 3x = 34
 5x-4 = 5−2
x=4
x – 4 = -2
x=2
2 3
3. 95-x = 273 4. 𝑎 𝑥−3 = √𝑎
1
2
2 5-x
 (3 ) = (33 )3  𝑎 𝑥−3 = 𝑎3
1
2
x–3=
310-2x = 33𝑥3 3
1
10 – 2x = 2 x = 33
-2x = -8
x=4

Exercises
1. Solve the following exponential equations.
(a) 2x = 16 (b) 5x-3 = 25 (c) 𝑝3𝑥 = √𝑝
1 (e) 7x+2 = 49 (f) 32x-7 = 27
(d) 3x = 9
(g) 43x = 256 1 (i) 3b2 = 147
(h) 53-x = 25
2
(j) b3 = 125 (k) 𝑎𝑏+5 = √𝑎
5
(l) 22b-1 = 83
(m) 4a3 = 108 (n) 3 x 23a = 384 (o) 5 x √𝑎 = 53
2 3 3
(p) 𝑎3 = √64
3 (q) 2 x √𝑥 + 10 = 14 (r) 𝑝2𝑥−9 = 𝑝2−𝑥
3
2 3 4  1
(s) 15𝑥 + 38 = 578
3 (t) √𝑎2 = √𝑎3𝑥 (u) x 4

8

2. Solve the following exponential equations.

2x
1
(a)    16 (b) 3x  92 x  310  315 (c) 3x  9 2 x  27
2
42 x
(d) x  32 (e) 30  3x 2  27 (f) 4 x 2  64
8

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 64 2 x1
(g) 64 2 x1  256 (h)  256 (i) 2 x 2  32
16 x2
2 x 6

(j) 81 2 x 3 1
  
1 1
(k) x 2  3    
(l) a x a x a 5 x 
1
9 9 2 a4
3
(m) x  27
4 (n) 16  x  2 (o) 83 x4  4 2 x
2 x4
1
4
 1 1
x2 2 x 3
(p) 3  81 (q) x 3
 (r) 81   
16 9 9 5

3. Solve for x in 4x + 1 = 18.

4. Solve for t in 3t - 1 = 11.
5. Solve for x in x⅔ = 16.
3 n  2  9 n 1
6. Simplify n
 3 k and find k in terms of n.
2
81
7. Solve 32x = 5, correct to 1 decimal place.

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Logarithm
Relationship between indices and logarithms
A logarithm is the power to which a base number must be raised to get a given
number. For example, in log39 = 2, the base number 3 must be raised to the power 2
to get 9. The base number of a logarithm must be positive and not equal to 1. We can
only determine logarithms for positive numbers. Logarithms for negative numbers do
not exist.

In Logarithm In index form

Log39 = 2 32 = 9
Log 1 000 = 3 103 = 1 000
(when the base is not given it is 10)

In general, if logab = x, then ax = b. The power of a that gives b

We read logab = x as ‘the logarithm of b to base a is equal to x’.
Take note that: a > 0, a  1 and x > 0.
A logarithm is the inverse of an index. When we write a number in index notation, e.g.
b = ax, x is the power to which a must be raised to get. The expressions b = ax and
logab = x are equivalent. In both cases x is the power to which a must be raised to get
b.
b = ax  logab = x
The examples show how to convert between index notation and logarithmic notation.
Example
1. Write in logarithmic notation.
a) b = ax b) 25 = 52
2. Write in index notation.
a) logmp = x b) log101000 = 3
Answers
1. a) logab = x b) log525 = 2
2. a) p = mx b) 1000 = 103

Exercises
1. Determine the value of x in each case:
(a) x = log10100 (b) x = log327 (c) log7x = 2 (d) logx16 = 4
2. Write the following expressions as logarithmic.
(a) m = an (b) 81 = 92 (c) 64 = 26 (d) 216 = 63 (e) y = ax (f) 100 = 102
(g) 81 = 34 (h) 625 = 54
3. Write in index notation.

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(a) lognm = p (b) log39 = 2 (c) log864 = 2 (d) log7343 = 3
4. Write in index notation and calculate the value of x:
(a) log2x = 3 (b) logx27 = 3 (c) log4x = 4 (d) logx3125 = 5

Laws of logarithms
Law 1: logax + logay = logaxy 𝑥
Law 2: log 𝑦 = log x – log y.
e.g. log3 5 + log3 6 = log3 (5 × 6) = log3
30 2
e.g. log5 = log5 2 - log5 3
3
log c b
Law 4: logab =
Law 3: logbxn = nlogb x log c a
e.g. log3 52 = 2 log3 5 log 5
e.g. log3 5 =
log 3
Special cases of logarithms
1. logaa = 1 because a1 = a
Law 5: logbb = 1 2. loga1 = 0 because a0 = 1
1 1
3. loga𝑎 = -1 because a-1 = 𝑎

In summary
1. log xy = log x + log y
𝑥
2. log 𝑦 = log x – log y

3. log bn = nlog b
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃
4. logab = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂

We use the laws of logarithms to simplify expressions and calculations involving

logarithms. Take note that when the base of a logarithm is 10, it is not written down.
Example
Simplify the following expressions.
(a) log 4 + log 25 (b) log 2 + log 80 – log 16 (c) log 5 + 3log 20 – log 40
(d) log 2000 – (log 4 + log 5)
Answers
(a) log 4 + log 25 (b) log 2 + log 80 – log 16 (c) log 5 + 3log 20 – log 40
2 𝑥 80
= log (4x25) = log ( ) = log 5 + log 8 000 – log 40
16

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 5 𝑥 8 000
= log 100 = log 10 = log ( )
40

=2 =1 = log 1 000
=3
d) log 2000 – (log 4 + log 5)
= log 2000 – log (4 x 5)
= log 2000 – log 20
2000
= log ( )
20

= log 100
=2
Exercises
Simplify:
1 1
(a) log66 (b) log31 (c) log88 (d) log77 (e) log55 (f) log21
1 1 1 1 1
(g) log44 (h) log66 (i) log33 (j) log41 (k) log22 (l) log55
1
(m) log44 (n) log31 (o) log88 (p) log99

Logarithms of base 10
Logarithms of base 10 include examples such as log1010, log10100, log101 000 and
log1010 000. When we work with logarithms to base 10 we do not write the base in
the log expression, e.g. instead of log10100 we just write log100.

You will only be required to work with the logarithm of base 10 by the syllabus for
NSSCO.
Example
Determine the logarithm in each case:
(a) log 10 (b) log 100 (c) log 1 000 (d) log 10 000

Answers
(a) log 10 = 1 (b) log 100 = 2 (c) log 1 000 = 3 (d) log 10 000 = 4

Exercise 31
1. Simplify the following expressions.

(a) log8 + log125 (b) log5 + log200 (c) log5 000 – log5 (d) a) log4 - log400

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(e) log8 + log125 – log10 (f) log5 000 - log5 + log10 (g) 2log1025 + log1016

(h) 2log10 + log50 – log1 000 (i) 2log9 – 2log3 (j) 3log6 + log18
– log16

(k) log32 + log8 + 3log2 (l) log18 + 3log12 – log24

(m) log25 + log125 (n) log100 + log1 000 – log 100 000

3. Write the following as single logarithm.

(a) log12 + log9 (b) log18b – log3 (c) log3 + log10 – log5

(d) 2log4 + 3log2 (e) logz + logy - logx (f) log10 – log5 – log2

(g) log 25 + 1 (h) log(x + y) – log(x – y) (i) log(x + y) + log(x – y)

(j) log(x + y) – log(x + y) (k) 2log5 + 3log2 (l) 3 – 2log5

(m) 2logx – 3logy – 4logz

(n) 2loga – 3logb + 2 (o) 2log5 + 3log2 – log2
+2

4. Simplify the following expressions.

(a) log9324 – log94 (b) log1075 + log1040 (c) log3324 - 2log36 (d) 2log69 +
log616

(e) log2108 – log227 (f) log832 + log816 + log88 (g) log318 + 2log36 – log38

(h) 4log82 + log84 + 3log82 (i) 3log105 + 2log104 – log102

Solving exponential equations using logarithm

We can use logarithms to solve exponential equations such as 10 x = 1 000 and 5x =
125.
Example
Solve for x:
1. 100x = 100 000 2. 5x = 3 125
Answers
1. 100x = 100 000
 log 100x = log 100 000
xlog 100 = log 100 000
log 100 000
x= log 100

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 5
x=2 log 100 000 = 5 and log 100 = 2

2. 5x = 125
Method 1: Work with base 5
log55x = log5 125
xlog55 = log5125
𝑙𝑜𝑔5 125
x=
𝑙𝑜𝑔5 5
𝑙𝑜𝑔5 125
= log5125 = log5125
𝑙𝑜𝑔5 5
=3 53 = 125
Method 2: Work with base 10
We use a calculator to determine the logarithm to base 10 of any number.
log 5x = log 125
xlog 5 = log 125
log 125
x= log 5

=3

Exercises
1. Solve for x in each case:

a) logx 1000 = 3 b) log x = 4 c) 3log x = 9

d) log x2 = 4 e) 2x = 32 f) 3x = 81

g) 4x = 64 h) 7x = 343 i) 3x = 4

j) 0.7x = 0.3 k) 10x = 49 l) 10x = 1 001

m) 5x - 1 = 15 n) 12 × 6x = 60 o) 4(1 021)x = 8

p) 5x + 2 = 500 q) 12 (3)x = 240 r) 3 (5)x - 2 = 162

2. 8x = 4 096
3. Solve for x in 8 x 6x = 10 368
4. Determine the value of x for which the sequence
log 3, log33, and log3x … is
(a) arithmetic,
(b) geometric.

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 Graphs and Functions

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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Speed-time graph

The graph represents the journey made by a car between two sets of traffic lights.

6
Speed (m/s)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (s)

(a) What is the acceleration of the car?

(b) Find the deceleration of the car.
(c) What is the steady speed between the accelerating and decelerating?
(d) What distance does it cover while
(i) Accelerating
(ii) decelerating
(e) How far is it between the traffic lights?

Distance – time graphs

1. Jennifer left her house and drove to school in the morning, as shown in the
accompanying graph. On her drive to school she realized that she forgot her book
bag and had to return home before driving back to school for a 3 hour class.
Explain what is happening during each part of the graph below

(a) AB
(b) BC
(c) CD
(d) DF

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2. John left his home and walked 3 blocks to his school, as shown in the
accompanying graph.

What is one possible interpretation of the section of the graph from point B to point
C?

(1) John arrived at school and stayed throughout the day.

(2) John waited before crossing a busy street.
(3) John returned home to get his mathematics homework.
(4) John reached the top of a hill and began walking on level ground.

3. The accompanying graph shows Marie’s distance from home (A) to work (F) at
various times during her drive.

(a) Marie left her briefcase at home and had to return to get it. State wh4ich point
represents when she turned back around to go home.

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(b) Marie also had to wait at the railroad tracks for a train to pass. How long did she
wait?

4.

Naomi left home and walked at a constant speed to a church 2 000 m away.
She arrived after 30 min. She spent 50 min at the church before she returned
home.
She arrived back home after 20 min.
(a) Use this information to draw a travel graph on the grid above.
(b) Calculate Naomi’s walking speed, in kilometres per hour, when she returned
home.
5. An object accelerates evenly from rest to a speed of 15 m/s in 3 seconds.
(a) Draw a sketch graph to represent the movement of the object.
(b) Use shading to indicate the area under the graph that represents the distance
travelled by the object.
(c) Calculate the distance travelled by the object during the 3 seconds.

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 Linear Programming
Be familiar with inequalities signs: ≤ 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧𝐬 less than or equal to
≥ 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧𝐬 greater than or equal to
< 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧𝐬 less than
> 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧𝐬 greater than

Represent linear inequalities

graphically ≤ 𝑂𝑅 ≥ 𝐼𝑁𝐶𝐿𝑈𝑆𝐼𝑉𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝐼𝐷 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸

< 𝑂𝑅 > 𝐸𝑋𝐶𝐿𝑈𝑆𝐼𝑉𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝐷𝑂𝑇𝑇𝐸𝐷 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸

𝑦 ≤ −5
𝑥>3
𝑦<𝑥
𝑥+𝑦 ≥ 2
𝑦 ≤𝑥+2

Draw one inequality at a time

label the line drawn with an
equation but not with the inequality

Shade the unwanted region before

drawing the next inequality.  Choose a point (x, y) on one side of the line.

 Substitute the x and y values of a chosen point

into an inequality

 Simplify the inequality and see if the inequality is

satisfied:

 ‘If yes’ then shade on the other side of

the line and
 ‘If not’ then shade on the side where
you took the point

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Key words to look out for in a statement:

Key word Meaning

‘at most’ ‘maximum’
‘does not exceed’ ≤
‘less than or equal to ’
‘at least’ ‘minimum’
‘more than or equal to’ ≥
‘exceed’. etc

Linear Programming:
 an optimization method widely used in engineering practice, design, manufacturing,
business, personnel planning, investment management, statistics, public health,
financial institutions, planning and development, national public policy, etc.
 in business line is used to find maximum profit or minimum cost.
 enables us to practice problem formulation and result analysis including inequality
constraints and variable bounds.
 gives insights to the power of optimization.
 builds a foundation for other major categories of optimization algorithms
(https://learnche.org).

NB:
 When drawing systems of inequalities for linear programming, use only the first
quadrant of the Cartesian plane.
 The solution to the system of inequalities is called a feasible region.
 Most of the time, the maximum or minimum solution to the linear programming
problems is at the vertices of the feasible region.

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Exercises
1. A carpenter makes tables and chairs. Each table can be sold for a profit of £30 and
each chair for a profit of £10.
The carpenter can afford to spend up to 40 hours per week working and takes five
hours to make a table and four hours to make a chair.
Customer demand requires that he makes at least two times as many chairs as
tables.
Tables take up two times as much storage space as chairs and there is room for at
𝒚
least four tables each week that gives (𝟐) + x ≥ 4.

(a) Given that all variables are positive, write down two further inequalities.
(b) Represent all three inequalities on the grid below and shade the unwanted
region.

(c) Use your graph to find the possible maximum profit that a carpenter
can make where 30x +10y gives the maximum profit.

2. A calculator company produces a scientific calculator and a graphing calculator.

Long-term projections indicate an expected demand of at least 100 scientific
and 80 graphing calculators each day.

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Because of limitations on production capacity, no more than 200 scientific and 170
graphing calculators can be made daily. To satisfy a shipping contract, a total of at
least 200 calculators much be shipped each day.

(a) Write down all 5 inequalities from the statement above

(b) Use the grid provided to represent the 5 inequalities graphically to show the
feasible region.

(c) If each scientific calculator sold results in a $2 loss, but each graphing calculator
produces a $5 profit, how many of each type should be made daily to maximize net
profits?

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2. On the graph below,R is the region of feasible solutions defined by inequalities
y > 2, y = x + 1 and 5y + 8x < 92.

Find the greatest value of 2y + x which satisfies the set of inequalities, where x and y are
integers.

4. A company that manufactures two kinds of bicycles produces at least 200 bicycles
each month. The company has a contract with one customer to supply 100 road
bicycles per month. Due to limitations in the work place the company cannot produce
more than 140 road bicycles and 120 mountain bikes per month. The company’s
profit on road bicycles is N$1 000 and on mountain bikes N$800. Determine the
maximum profit the company can make.
5. An artist and his family carve lions and buffalo from wood and sell it at the local
market for N$50 and N$60 respectively. When they sell three times as many lions
than buffalo per month their income is at most N$400. When they sell twice as many
buffalo than lions per month, their income is at least N$300. They always sell at least
40 lions per month. Determine
(a) the family’s maximum monthly income,
(b) the number of each kind of animal they must sell to obtain this income.

6. A farmer keeps a number of sheep and a number of goats on his farm. The
maximum number of sheep and goats he can keep is 170. The number of goats must
always be less than half the number of sheep. The farmer has to keep at least 32
sheep and 8 goats to provide for his family. Determine the maximum yearly income of
the farmer if his income per sheep is N$720 and his income per goat is N$850.

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7. A bakery bakes daily at most three times as many loaves of brown bread than
loafs of white bread. They bake a maximum of 300 loafs of bread per day and make
N$5 profit on a loaf of brown bread and N$8 profit on a loaf of white bread. Due to
contracts they have to bake at least 100 loafs of brown bread per day. Determine the
maximum profit the bakery can make in one day.
8. A transport company uses a 5 t truck and a 8 t truck to transport cargo from Walvis
Bay to Windhoek. Their income amounts to N$2 350 per trip for the smaller truck and
N$3 500 per trip for the bigger truck. The maximum number of trips per month is 140
and the small truck is used at least three times more per month than the big truck.
The big truck is used at most for 35 trips per month and the small truck for at least 50
trips per month. Determine:
(a) the maximum monthly income of the company,
(b) the number of trips needed per truck to achieve the maximum income,
(c) the profit of the company if 60% of the income covers expenditures such as
salaries, fuel, insurance and maintenance of the trucks.
9. A company produces two kinds of cell phones. Research shown that the market
needs at least 200 type A cell phones and 150 type B cell phones each day. Due to
limitations in its production capacity the company can produce a maximum of 300
type A cell phones and 250 type B cell phones each day. The main distributor of the
company’s cell phones requires that at least 400 cell phones be delivered daily. Type
A cell phones are sold for N$800 and type B cell phones are sold for N$1000.
Determine the maximum profit the company make in one day.

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 Functions

Function is a one-to-one or many-to-one relationship between the

elements of two sets; for any value in the domain, the value in
the range is uniquely determined.

One-to-one function is a function for which every element of the range of the function
corresponds to exactly one element of the domain.

Notation f(x) = 5x -2 or f: x → 5x – 2

Inverse function a function , f −1(x) that reverse another function, f(x).

f(x) = y if and only if g(y) = x.

Notation f −1(x)

Finding the inverse of the

function f
e. g. find the inverse function of f(x) = 5 x -2

y = 5 x – 2 Substitute the function notation f(x) by y

x = 5y – 2 Interchange the variables

x + 2 = 5y Make y the subject of the formula

𝑥+2
y= 5

𝑥+2
f-1(x)= Equate the inverse function to the part of the formula that contains
5
variable x.

Composite function When two or more functions are combined, so that the output
from the first function becomes the input to the second function.

Notation gf(x) or g (f(x)) or g∘f(x)

How to find a composite  Functions are always given

function of two given f(x) = 3x - 2 and g(x) = x2 + 3
functions
gf = g (3x - 2) Apply f first then g
= (3x - 2)2 + 3
= 9x2 – 12x + 4 + 3
= 9x2 – 12x + 7 Always simplify

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Exercises (inverse function)
1. Find the inverse of each of the following functions.

(a) f(x) = x + 3 (b) f(x) = x + 6 (c) f(x) = x - 5

x
(d) g(x) = x (e) h(x) = 2x (f) p(x) =
3
(g) f(x) = 4x (i) f(x) = 2x + 5 (j) f(x) = 3x - 6
3x  2 x4 8x  7
(k) f(x) = (l) g(x) = (m) g(x) =
4 2 2
(n) f(x) = ½x + 3 (o) h(x) = 4(3x – 6) (p) g(x) = - 2(- 3x + 2)

2. Find the inverse of the following functions

(a) f: x → 5x – 2 (b) f: x → 5(x – 2) (c) f: x →3(2x + 4)

2x  1 3( x  1)
(d) g : x  (e) f : x  (f) g:x → 2(3x + 4) – 6
3 4
12  5 x
(g) h:x → ½(4 + 5x) + 10 (h) k:x → -7x + 3 (i) j : x 
3

3x  5 x2
3. Given that f(x) = and h(x) = , find:
3 6

(a) f-1(x) (b) h-1(x) (c) the value of x such that f-1(x) = h-1(x)

2a  3
4. The inverse of f(a) is given as f-1(a) = and the inverse of h(a) is given as
4
4a  2
h-1(a) = . Find the value of a such that f-1(a) = h-1(a).
6

x2 x3
5. Given that f-1(x) = g-1(x) is given by the equation  , find the value of x.
x 1 x 1

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Exercises (Composite function)
1. The functions f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 3x – 7 is given. Determine:

(a) f(5) (b) f  g(x) (c) f (g(2)) (d) gf(x)

2. Find f(g(x)) for each of the following pairs of functions.

(a) f(x) = x – 5 and g(x) = x + 3 (b) f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 3x – 1

1 1
2
(d) f(x) = x + and g(x) = x + 1
(c) f(x) = 2x + 2 and g(x) = x – 1 3 2

3. Given that f(x) = x - 2 and g(x) = 2x + 1, determine;

(a) f(g(x)) (b) f(g(-2)) (c) g(f(x)) (d) g(f(5))

2x  3 x 1
4. Given that f(g(x)) = and h(k(x)) = , find the value of x such that
5 2
f(g(x)) = h(k(x)).

5. If f(x) = x – 1 and h(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 8, find h(f(x)).

Graphs of functions

Determining the gradient and equation of a straight line

Exercises
1. Determine in each case the gradient of a straight line graph through the points:

(a) (-4;-5) and (-2;-2).

(b) (-3;4) and (2;2).
(c) (-4;-5) and (-2;-2).
(d) (-3;4) and (2;2).

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2. Three linear graphs A, B and C are given on the diagram below.

C A
6 Q

B
4
S

R
2
P

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

-2

-4

-6

(a) Write down the coordinates of points P and Q and use the points to determine
the gradient of line A.
(b) Write down the coordinates of points R and S and use the points to determine
the gradient of line B.
(c) Write down the y – intercept for line B.
(d) Select any two points for graph C and mark them. Write down the coordinates
of the points and use the coordinates to determine the gradient of line C.
(e) Write down the y – intercept for line C.
(f) Write down the co-ordinates of the point of intersection for line B and C.

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3. On the diagram, three linear graphs A, B and C are given.
y - axis

x - axis
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2
A
-4

-6
B C
-8

(a) Determine the gradient of line A first and find the equation of A.

(b) Find the equation of line B.

(c) Find the equation of line C

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4. On the diagram, four linear graphs D, E, F and G are given.
y - axis

6
G
4

x - axis
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-2

-4

-6 F

-8
D E
-10

(a) Use the graphs to find the equations of;

(i) line D,
(ii) line E,
(iii) line F,
(iv) line G.
5. The graphs of four linear graphs A, B, C and D are given on the diagram.

B A
6

4
C
2
D

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

-2

-4

-6

(a) Determine the equations of;

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 (i) line A,
(ii) line B,
(iii) line C,
(iv) line D.

4. Determine the equations of the following lines:

(a) (b) (d) (c)
(4;4) (3;8)
4
4 (8;2)

8
-2
-7

5. Determine the equations of the following lines:

(a) (b) (d) (c) (10;15)
7
(-9;6)
3 4 5

-7

(8;-12)

6. Determine the equations of the following straight lines:

a) The line that cuts the y-axis in (0;3) and is parallel to the line y = 3x – 7.
b) The line parallel to y = -2x + 3 with y-intercept -5.
c) The line that is perpendicular to y = -½x + 3 and cuts the y-axis in (0;3).
d) The line parallel to the line 3y – 2x = 6 through the point (3;5).

Solving simultaneous linear equations graphically

Example
1. Draw the graphs of y = x + 4 and y = -2x + 1 on the same grid
2. Use the graph to solve y = x + 4 and y = -2x + 1 simultaneously.

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 Answers
1. (a) First construct the table of values for y = x + 4 and y = -2x + 1.

x -3 0 2 x -4 0 2
y=x+4 y = -2x + 1
y 7 1 -3 y 0 1 -3

(b) Use the table of values to draw the graphs on the grid.
y - axis

x - axis
-6 -4 -2 0 2
-2

2. Find the x – value and the y – value at point where the two graphs intersect each
other.

Answer: x = -1; y = 3
NOTE: Sometimes you will be given graphs and you can be asked to solve the
graphs simultaneously.
Exercises
1. Draw each of the following pairs of linear graphs on the same grid and solve them
graphically.
(a) x + y = 6; x – y = 2 (b) x + y = 11; x–y–1 (c) x – y = 7; x+y=9
=0
x
(d) x + 2y = 2; x – y = 13 (e) 2x + y = 16; x + 2y = 2 (f) + y = 2; x – 3y = 18
3
(g) 3x + 2y = - 5; 5x – 3y = -21 (h) 4x – 5y = -16; 5x + 2y = (i) 5x + 2y = 34; 8x – 3y = 11
13
(j) 2x – 9y = 16; 7x + 5y = - (k) 3x + 2y = 50; -2x + 3y = (l) 7x + 3y = -8; 5x – 8y = -
17 23 97

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 2. Solve the following pairs of linear equations graphically

1 3 1 2
(a) y = x + 1; y = x - 1 (b) y = x – 1; y = x + 1 (c) y = x – 3; y = x–2
3 4 4 3

(f) 2y – 4x = 4; y = 8y – 1 = 2x –
(d) 2y + x = 3; 3y + 4x = -3 (e) 4y = 3x + 3; 2y = x
13

3 3 4 2 4
(g) 4y = - x; -2y = x + 2 (h) 3y + 3 = 6x; 2x = 2y - 2 (i) y = - x + 3; y= x-
2 8 3 3 3

3. On the diagram, the graph of y = -2x + 4 is given.

y - axis

x - axis
-6 -4 -2 0 2
-2

4
(a) On the same grid draw the graph of y = x + 4.
3
4
(b) Use the graphs to solve for y = -2x + 4 and y = x + 4.
3
4. (a) Draw the graphs of 2y + 6x = 12 on the grid.
(b) On the same grid, draw the graph of – 12x + 3y = – 24.
(c) Use the two graphs to solve 2y + 6x = 12 and – 12x + 3y = – 24 simultaneously.

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Graphs of functions for y = ± ax2 + bx + c
The equation y = ± mx2 + bx + c is called a quadratic equation and its graph is called a
parabola. We construct the table of values first, determine the corresponding values
of x and y, plot the points on the Cartesian plane and then join them to draw a
smooth curve through the plotted points.

The graph of y = ±ax2 + bx + c is called a parabola and it has the following forms.

When a is When a is -
+ve ve

NOTE:
 When drawing a curve: use a free hand to draw a smooth curve.
 A sharp pencil should be used when drawing graphs
 When plotting the points, use crosses or a visible dot

Exercises

1. (a) Construct a table of values and draw a graph of the function y = -2x2 + 9x + 5.
1
(b) Use your graph to determine the approximate value of y for x = 1 2. Show on the
graph where to find the value of y.
(c) Use your graph to determine the value of x for y = -6. Show on the graph where
to find the values of x.
(d) Estimate the gradient of the parabola at the point (3;14)

2. (a) Construct a table of values and draw a graph of the function y = ½x2 + 2½x – 3.
(b) Use your graph to determine the value of y for x = -9. Show on the graph where
to find the value of y.
(c) Use your graph to determine the value of x for y = 15. Show on the graph
where to find the values of x.
(d) Estimate the gradient of the parabola at the point (-4;-5).

3. (a) Construct a table of values and draw a graph of the function y = -2/3x2 – 4x +
14/3.
(b) Use your graph to determine an approximate value for y for which x = -7.5.
Show on the graph where to find the value of y.

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 (c) Use your graph to determine approximate values of x for which y = -10. Show
on the graph where to find the values of x.
(d) Estimate the gradient of the parabola at the point (-5;-8).

4. (a) A function is described by the equation y = -5x2 + 2x + 7.

The table represents some of the corresponding x and y values that satisfy the
equation.
Copy the table and fill in the missing values.
x -1.6 -1 0 0.2 2
y 0 7.2 4 -9

(b) Draw a graph of y = -5x2 + 2x + 7.

(c) Draw a tangent and estimate the gradient of the curve at (0.6, 6.5).
(d) The points of intersection of the graph of y = -4x2 – 2x + 5 and the line y = k are
the solutions of the equation 5x2 – 2x – 3 = 0. Find the value of k.
(e) Draw the line y = k on your graph and find the solutions of 5x2 – 2x – 3 = 0.

5. (a) The table gives the values of x and y for the function y = f(x).

X -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Y -16 -4.4 3 6.9 8 7.1 5 2.4 0 -1.4 -1 1.9 8

(b) Using 2 cm to represent 1 unit on the x – axis and 2 cm to represent 5 unit on the
y – axis, draw this graph for – 2 ≤ x ≤ 4.

(c) Use the graph to solve f(x) = 0, giving your answers to 1 decimal point.

(d)Write down the negative value of k such that the equation f(x) = k has three
solutions.

(e) By drawing a suitable tangent, estimate the gradient of the curve at (-1, 3).

Drawing the sketch of a parabola

To sketch the quadratic graph (parabola) we need the following critical points:
(a) The x-intercepts (roots of the parabola),
(b) The axis of symmetry,
(c) The turning point (coordinates),
(d) The y – intercept.

We use the Cartesian plane without numbering because we are sketching not
drawing. We only label the axis.
y

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It is very important to know the following points on the graph.
Axis of symmetry
Maximum point
x-intercept
(Turning point/vertex)
(roots)
y-intercept

Minimum point (Turning point/vertex) x-intercept

y-intercept
Axis of symmetry (roots)

NOTE: The axis of symmetry gives the x – value (coordinate) at the maximum or
minimum point (turning point) of the graph.
The discriminant indicates in how many points the curve cuts the x-axis.

b
Axis of symmetry is x = 
2a
For the completed-square form 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑝)2 + 𝑞
 The turning point (vertex) is at (-p, q).
 The axis of symmetry is x = -p.

Substitute the value of the axis of symmetry into the equation in order to find the
corresponding y – value (coordinate) at the turning point.

1. The numbering of the Cartesian plane is not necessary since we are not
drawing to scale but we are just required to sketch.
2. You may also write y = x2 + 3x – 4 in the form 𝒚 = 𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒑)𝟐 + 𝒒 to find the
value of p (the x-coordinate) and q (the y-coordinate), the coordinates of x and y
at the turning point.

Example
1. Given the function y = x2 + 3x – 4, find;
(a) The roots of the function,
(b) The axis of symmetry of the graph for the function,
(c) The coordinates of the the turning point,
(d) The y – intercept.

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2. Use the values in (1) above to sketch the graph of y = x2 + 3x – 4.
Answers
1. (a) (x – 1)(x + 4) = 0 Factorising the y = x2 + 3x – 4, equating it to 0
x – 1 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
x = 1 or x = - 4
b
(b) x = 
2a
a = 1; b = 3
3 3 1
x=  =  or =  1
2(1) 2 2

2
3  3
(c) y =    + 3    - 4
2  2
9 9 4
=  
4 2 1
9  18  16
=
4
1
= 6
4
 1 1
The coordinates of the turning point of the parabola is   1 ,  6 
 2 4
2
(d) y – intercept (make x = 0 in y = x + 3x – 4)
y = (0)2 + 3(0) – 4
=-4

2. The sketch the graph of y = x2 + 3x – 4

y

.
(-4, 0)
.(1, 0) x

.(0,-4)
.

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Exercises
1. The following functions are given. For each function find;
(i) The roots of the function,
(ii) The axis of symmetry of the graph for the function,
(iii)The coordinates of the turning point,
(iv) The y – intercept.
(v) the maximum or minimum value
(a) y = x2 + x – 6 (b) y = x2- 2x – 8
(c) y = x2 – 9 (d) y = - x2 + 6x + 5
2
(e) y = x – 6x + 8 (f) y = x2 – 4x + 4
(g) y = - x2 + 2x – 3 (h) y = - x2 – 2x – 8

2. Use the values in (1) above to sketch the graph of each function.

3. The following functions are given. For each function find;

(i) The roots of the function,
(ii) The axis of symmetry of the graph for the function,
(iii) The coordinates of the turning point,
(iv) The y – intercept.

(a) y = x2 – 6 (b) y = 3x2 – 2x + 7

2
(c) y = x + 3x – 10 (d) y = x2 – x – 12
(e) y = 2x2 – 2 (f) y = 2x2 – 2x – 4
(g) y = x2 + 2x – 15 (h) y = x2 – 10x + 21
4. Use the values in (3) above to sketch the graph of each function.

5. (a) Express the equation y = 2x2 – 8x in the form y = a(x + p)2 + q.

(b) Write down the coordinates of the turning point of the graph.
(c) Determine the roots of the parabola.
(d) Write down the equation of the symmetry axis of the parabola.
(e) Draw a rough sketch of the parabola.

6. (a) Express the equation y = -x2 + 5x + 6 in the form y = a(x + p)2 + q.

(b) Write down the coordinates of the turning point of the graph.
(c) Determine the roots of the graph of y = x2 – 5x – 6.
(d) Write down the equation of the symmetry axis of the parabola.
(e) Draw a rough sketch of graph of the function y = x2 – 5x – 6.
1
7. (a) Determine the equation of a parabola with turning point (-2; -83) and y-intercept
-7

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(b) Determine the roots of the parabola.
(c) Draw a rough sketch of the parabola.

8. a) Draw a rough sketch of a parabola with roots 2 and 5 and y-intercept 5.

(b) Determine the equation of the parabola.
(c) Determine the turning point of the parabola.
(d) Determine the value of f(x) for which x = 6
(e) Determine the value(s) of x for which f(x)= 9.

8. (a) Draw a rough sketch of the graph of y = -3(x – 4)2 + 7.

(b) Determine the roots of the parabola.
(c) Write down the value(s) of x for which y = 4
(d) Write down the y-intercept of the parabola.
(e) Write down the formula of a parabola which is symmetrical to y = -3(x-4)2 + 7
about the x-axis.

Solve simultaneous linear and quadratic equations graphically

1. Draw the graph of y = x2 – 2 and y – 2x = 1 on the same grid.

Use the graph to solve for y = x2 – 2 and y – 2x = 1 simultaneously.

Solutions
When x = - 1; y = -1 and when x = 3; y = 7

If you are required to give coordinates then your answer will be

(-1, -1) and (3, 7)

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Exercises
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations graphically.
(a) y = x – 3 and y = x2 – 6x (b) x + 2 = 0 and x2 – x – 6 = 0
(c) x2 + 9x + 8 = 0 and 3x + 8 = 0 (d) -3x - 5 = 0 and x2 – x –
12 = 0
(e) 3x = 0 and -2x2 + x + 10 = (f) -2x + 8 = 0 and -x2 +
0 7x – 6 = 0
(g) y = x2 – 5x + 4 and y = –x + 1 (h) y = x2 + x – 12 and y = 4x – 2
2 2
(i) y = x – x – 6 and y = 2x – 6 (j) y = x + 2x – 3 and y=x–1
2 2
(k) y = x – 4 and y=–x–2 (l) y = x + x – 2 and y = 2x + 4
2 2
(m) y = x + 6x + 5 and y=x+5 (n) y = x + 4x – 5 and y = – 2x – 10
1 (p) ½x2 – 4x = 0 and –x + 8 = 0
(o) -2x2 + 4x + 10 = 0 and x+4=0

2. Determine the values of b for which the simultaneous equations x + b = 0 and y =

x2 + 5x – 14 has
(a) two solutions,
(b) one solution,
(c) no solution

Functions of the form y = axn , where n = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

Exercises
1. Draw the graphs of the functions y = 2x-1 and y = 5x-1 on the same system of axes.

2. Draw the graphs of the functions y = 3x0 and y = 3x1 on the same system of axes.

3. Construct a table of values for each of the following functions draw the graphs of
the functions on the same system of axes.
(a) y = 2x2
(b) y = 2x3

4. Draw the graphs of the functions y = x2 and y = x3 on the same system of axes.
Use your graph and determine: The values of x for which x2 = x3.

5. Draw the graphs of the functions y = 2x-2 and y = 6x2 on the same system of axes.

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Functions of the form y = ax where a is a positive integer

Exercises
1. The graph of y = kax, where a > 0, passes through the points (-2,1) and (1,8).

10 y

(1,8)

(−2,1)
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

Determine:
(a) The value of a.
(b) The value of k.
(c) The value of m if the graph passes through the point (m,128).

2. (a) Construct tables of values for the functions (i) y = 2 x, and (ii) y = 4x.
(b) Draw the graphs of the functions on the same system of axes.

3. (a) Construct tables of values for the functions (i) y = 3x, and (ii) y = 5x.
(b) Draw the graphs of the functions on the same system of axes.

3. (a) Construct a table of values for each of the following functions draw the graphs
of the functions on the same system of axes.
(i) y = 2x
(ii) y = 5x
(b) Write down the solution of the equation 2x = 5x.

4. (a) Draw the graphs of the functions y = 3x and y = 4x on the same system of axes.
(b) Write down the solution of the equation 3x = 4x.

6. (a) Draw graphs of the functions y = 2x and y = 4x on the same system of axes.
(b) Write down the value of x for which 2x = 4x.

7. The graph of y = ax goes through points (1,3) and (2,9).

(a) Determine the equation of the graph.
(b) Draw the graph of the function for - 4 < x < 4.
(c) Use your graph and estimate the value of x for which 3x = 15.

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 Coordinate Geometry

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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 Coordinate Geometry

Straight line joining two points

We are required to use coordinates of two points (A and B) on a straight line joining
them to produce the following.

1. Distance between the two points: Given by AB  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2

y1  y 2
2. Gradient of the line joining the two points (y = mx + c): Given by m 
x1  x2
y

x
3. Coordinates of the midpoint (M) on the line joining the two points:
 x  x y  y2 
Given by M =  1 2 , 1 
 2 2 
NOTE:
 Sometimes you will be given the coordinates of the two points or of more than
two points.
 Sometimes you will be given a graph with the two points or with more points
labelled.

Example
1. Given that the coordinates of the two points P and Q are P(-3;5) and Q(7;11),
calculate;
(a) The distance between the two points,
(b) The gradient of the line joining the two points,
(c) The coordinates of the midpoint on the line joining A and B.

2. The positions of two points A and B with their coordinates on the Cartesian
plane is given.

y - axis

.
B (7, 5)

.
A (1, 2)

x-
axis

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Use the coordinates of the two points to find;
(a) The distance between the two points,
(b) The gradient of the line joining the two points,
(c) The coordinates of the midpoint on the line joining A and B.

Answers

1. (a) PQ  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2 Using Pythagoras’ theorem

= (3  7) 2  (5  11) 2
= (10) 2  (6) 2
= 136
PQ = 11.7 units 3 s.f.
y1  y 2
(b) m 
x1  x2
5  11
=
37
3
m =
5
 x  x2 y1  y 2 
(c) M =  1 , 
 2 2 

  3  7 5  11 
=  , 
 2 2 
 4 16 
= , 
2 2 

M = (2, 8)

2. (a) AB  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2
= (1  7) 2  (2  5) 2
= (6) 2  (3) 2
= 45

AB = 6.71 units 3 s.f.

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 y1  y 2
(b) m 
x1  x2
25
=
1 7
1
m =
2

 x  x2 y1  y 2 
(c) M =  1 , 
 2 2 
1 7 2  5 
=  , 
 2 2 
8 7
= , 
2 2

 1
M =  4, 3 
 2

NOTE:
We use the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the distance between two points in a
Cartesian plane when the coordinates of the points are given.
If the answer is not exact always give your answer correct to three significant figures
unless it has been specified.

Exercises
1. For each pair of the following points calculate;
(i) The distance between the two points,
(ii) The gradient of the line joining the two points,
(iii) The coordinates of the midpoint on the line joining the two points.
(a) P(1;2) and Q(7;9).
(b) E(-8;-6) and F(5;9).
(c) M(-7;0) and N(8;0).
(d) R(0;-5) and S(0;7).
(e) R(9;0) and S(0;8).

2. For each pair of the following points calculate;

(i) The distance between the two points,
(ii) The gradient of the line joining the two points,
(iii) The coordinates of the midpoint on the line joining the two points.

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a) R(8;6) and T(4;3).
b) P(-8;2) and S(3;10).
c) A(6;-4) and B(-7;3).
d) D(-8;0) and E(2;0).
e) M(-12;0) and P(0;9).
3. The point A, B.C and D have the following coordinates (2,7); (4,1) ; (2,3) and
(6,0) respectively. Find
(a) The gradient of the line joining;
(i) AB (ii) BC (iii) DB (iv) AC.

(b) The coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining;

(i) AB (ii) BC (iii) DB (iv) AC.
(c) The length of the line joining;
(i) AD (ii) BD (iii) AC (iv) BC.

3. The points P, Q, R and S are given with their coordinates. P and Q are joined by a
straight line.
y - axis

.
Q(4, 5)

.
R(-1, 4)

.
S(5, 1)
x-
.
P(-2, -1)
axis

(a) Use the given coordinates to calculate the gradients for;

(i) PQ (ii) RS (iii) RQ (iv) PS

(b) Calculate the lengths of the lines joining;

(i) PQ (ii) RS (iii) RQ (iv) PR

(c) Calculate the midpoints of the lines joining

(i) QS (ii) PS (iii) PQ (iv) RS
4. (a) Plot points P(-3,6) and Q(6,-3) on a Cartesian plane and draw line PQ.
(b) Determine the length of PQ.
(c) Determine the gradient of PQ.
(d) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining PQ.

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5. P(-2;-10) and Q(x;6) are two points in a Cartesian plane. Calculate the value of x if
PQ = 20 cm and x >0.
6. A(-3;y) and B(5;5) are two points in a Cartesian plane. Calculate two possible
values for y if AB = 10 cm.
7. M(6,x) and N(1;-7) are two points in a Cartesian plane. Determine two possible
values for x if the length of MN = 13 cm.
8. M(2,4) is a point in a Cartesian plane.
(a) Write down the coordinates of points P, Q, R and S if MP = 6, MQ = 6, MR = 6
and MS = 6 with Q in the first quadrant, P in the second quadrant, S in the fourth
quadrant and R in the first quadrant.
(b) Calculate the length of PS.
9. (a) Plot points A(-6,2) and B(6,-4) and C(3,5) in a Cartesian plane.
(b) Calculate the lengths of each side of the triangle.
(c) State whether ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle and give a reason for your answer.
10. Determine the value of x if the gradient of the line through (-6;6) and (x;1) equals -
1/3.
11. Determine the value of x if the gradient of the line through (-1,-5) and (x,1) equals 3/4.

12. Determine the value of y if the gradient of the line through (3;y) and (-4,6) equals -2.

13. Determine the coordinates of point Q if the coordinates of point P is (-5; 7) and
the coordinates of the midpoint M to PQ is (-1; -½).
14. The figure shows ∆ABC with A(-4,-3), B(1,6) and C(6,-3) on a Cartesian plane.

y
6 B

x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

-2

A C
-4

(a) Determine the lengths of;

(i) AB, (ii) AC, (iii) BC.
b) What is the special name for triangle is ∆ABC? Give a reason for your answer.
c) Determine the coordinates of the midpoint for;
(i) AC and (ii) AB
d) Determine the gradients for;
(i) AB and (ii) BC

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Equation of a straight line
We can find the equation of a straight line when sufficient information is given. Take
note that in order to determine the equation of any straight line of the form y  mx  c
we need the following information.
 The value of m (the gradient of the line),
 The value of c (the y – intercept of the line)
The following information should be given for you to determine the equation of the
line.
 the coordinates of two points on the line or,
 one point on the line and the gradient of the line.

Example
1. Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the points A(1;-1)
and B(5;7).
2. Determine the equation of the straight line with gradient -3 that passes through
point M(5;-11).

Answers
y1  y 2
1. m  (When the coordinates of two points are given.)
x1  x2
7−(−1) 8
= =4=2
5−1

m =2
Substitute m = 2 in y = mx + c
 The equation is y = 2x + c But we need to find the value of c.
Substitute the coordinates of A(1;-1) in y = 2x + c to find c (1 for x and -1 for y)
-1 = 2(1) + c
 c = -1 – 2
c = -3
m = 2 and c = -3
 The equation is y = 2x – 3
2. y – y1 = m(x – x1), (When the gradient and the coordinates of one point is
given)
Substitute m = -3 and the coordinates of point M(5;-11) in the equation. (5 for x1
and -11 for y1)
y – (-11) = -3(x – 5)
y + 11 = -3x + 15
 The equation is y = -3x + 4
We can also write the answer in standard form as 3x – y = 4.
IF required we may also write the answer in the form 3x – y – 4 = 0

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Exercises
1. Determine in each case the equation of the straight line passing through points:
(a) P(-2;2) and Q(3;7). (b) R(-1;11) and S(3;-5).
(c) D(-3;-3) and E(2;7). (d) T(-1;9) and R(2;0).

2. Determine in each case the equation of the straight line through:

(a) Point E(6;-2).with gradient 1/3 (b) Point A(6;1) with gradient -2/3.
(c) Point P(-5;-3) with gradient 2/5 (d) Point S(6;-2½) with gradient -3/4.

3. Determine the value of b if the y-intercept of a line is -3, the gradient is ¾ and the
line passes through A(8;b).
4. P(3,7) and Q(-5,1) is two points on a Cartesian plane.
(a) Calculate the length of PQ (b) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of
PQ.
(c) Determine the gradient of line PQ (d) Determine the equation of line PQ.
5. a) Draw line AB with A(8,5) and B(-3,-4) on a Cartesian plane.
b) Calculate midpoint M of line AB.
c) Determine the gradient of line AB.
d) Write down the equation of line AB.
6. P is the point 3,4 and Q is the point (5,0) .
(a) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of PQ.
(b) Calculate the length of PQ.
(c) Find the equation of PQ

7. Find the equation of the line that passes through point A (  6,0) with a gradient of
1
in the form ax  by  c  0.
3
8. Find the equation of line passing through B(0,4) and C (3,0) in the form y  mx  c .
9. Points A (3, 4) and B (7, 1) are two point on the Cartesian plane, find the equation
of line AB.

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10. The diagram shows the points P(1, 2), Q(4, 6) and S(5.2)

.
Q(4, 6)

.
S(-5, 2) .
P(1, 2)

(a) Calculate the length of the line PQ. x

(b) Find the length of QS.
(c) Find the coordinates of the midpoints of QS
(d) Calculate the gradient of the line PQ
(e) Calculate the gradient of the line QS.
(f) Find the equation of the line PQ.
(g) Find the equation of the line QS in the form ax + by + c = 0.
(h) The triangle PQR has line of symmetry x = 4.
Find the coordinates of R.
(i) Write down the gradient of line PR.

Equations of the form ax + by + c = 0

When the equation of a straight line is given in the form ax + by + c = 0, we must
remember that in this form c is not the y-intercept and that a and b cannot both be
zero. When given in this form we write the equation in any one of the following forms:
 Standard form: ax + by = c (also called “two intercept form
where a, b and c are real numbers with a and b are both not equal to zero.
 Slope-intercept from: y = mx – c
𝒙 𝒚
 Two intercept form: 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟏,
where a is the x-intercept and b is the y-intercept of the graph of the straight
line.

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NOTE:
For every standard form ax + by = c

c constant term
x – intercept = =
a coeffficie nt of x

c constant term
y – intercept = =
b coeffficie nt of y

Some equations look awkward when written in the form y = mx – c and therefore they
4 16
can be simplified in the form ax + by = c or ax + by + c = 0 e. g. y =   can be
9 9
written as:
4x + 9y – 16 = 0 or 4x + 9y = 16

We can use x – intercept and y – intercept as a short cut to draw straight line graphs
since we only need at least two points on the linear graph to be able to draw it.

(0,
.bintercept
- Two intercept
b) diagram
.a-
(a, intercept
0)

Example
1. Express 2x + 3y – 21 = 0 in standard form.
2. (a) Express 4x – 3y + 12 = 0 in double intercept form, and (b) write down (i) the x-
intercept, and (ii) the y-intercept of the line.
Answers
1. 2x + 3y – 21 = 0
 2x + 3y = 21 add 21 on both sides
2. a) 4x - 3y + 12 = 0
 4x – 3y = -12 Subtract 12 on both sides
4𝑥 3𝑦 −12
- −12 = −12 divide by -12 on both sides
−12
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
−3 4

b) (i) x - intercept = -3 (ii) y - intercept = 4

In this particular case the coordinates of x intercept and y intercept are:
x – intercept (-3, 0) and y – intercept (0, 4)

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Exercises
1. Write each of the following equations in two intercept form and determine the x and
y intercept for each equation.
(a) y = -2x + 2 (b) 2(x – 3) = -3y (c) -5y – 20 = -4x (d) 12(x – 2) = 2y
(e) x + 2 = y + 3 (f) 3x = 8 – 4y (g) 9x + 35 = -5y (h) 2y – 6 -6x
(i) 56 – 7y = 11x (j) -2(2x + y) = 28 (k) 2x + 15 = -3(3y + 1)
5 8 x  48 3( x  y )
(l) 5(6 – x) = 5(1 + y) (m) y = -(x – 5) (n) 12y = (o) =9
3 3 2
2 3( y  14) x2  y6
(p) x + 4(y – 2) = 0 (q) x = - (r)  (s)
3 14 4 12
 4  2x 9  2 y

4 3

Parallel and perpendicular lines

Take note of the following:
 The gradients of parallel lines are equal.
 The product of the gradients of perpendicular lines equals -1.
y = ax + b and y = ax + c are parallel lines cutting the y-axis at points (0;b) and (0;c)
respectively.
1 1
y = mx + c and y = − 𝑚 + d are perpendicular lines because m × (− 𝑚) = -1.
From the above information it follows that:
 Parallel lines have the same gradient i.e. m1  m2  l1 // l2 .
 If m1 and m2 are the gradients of two perpendicular lines, then m1  m2  1 or
1
m1  ( m2  0) .
m2

For example, for the equations 3x – 5y = 7 and 3x – 5y = 12.

We write the two equations in slope-intercept form and we get:
3x – 5y = -7  -5y = -3x - 7  y = 3/5x + 7/5
3x – 5y = 12  -5y = -3x + 12  y = 3/5x - 12/5
The slope-intercept form shows that the two graphs have the same slope. Therefore
the two lines are parallel.

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Example
1. Write down the equations of the lines on the following list that is parallel:
2x + 5y = 8; 4x + 8y = 5; 5y + 2x = 3; 8 + 2x = 5y; 2x + 5y – 10 = 0
2. Write down the equation of the straight line which is parallel to the line 4x – 7y = 12
and which passes through P(5;-3).
3. State whether the following pairs of lines are perpendicular and give a reason for
your answer:
(a) 5x – 3y = 17 and 5x + 3y = 8 (b) 2x + 7y = 5 and 7x + 2y = 13
4. Copy and fill in the missing coefficients to make each set of lines perpendicular:
(a) 4x + 5y = 8 and …x - …y = 9 (b) …x + 3y = 2 and …x - 2y = 5
(c) 7x - …y = 9 and 4x + …y = 4
5. Write down the equations of the perpendicular lines in the list:
3x + 2y = 6; 2x + 3y = 8; 3y – 2x = 15; -3x – 2y = 7
Answers
1. 2x + 5y = 8, 5y + 2x = 8, and 2x + 5y – 8 = 0
2. 4x – 7y = k The parallel line has the same coefficients for x and y.
 4(5) – 7(-3) = k Substitute the coordinates of point P into the equation.
k = 41 simplify
The equation of the line is 4x – 7y = 41
3. a) The lines are perpendicular because the coefficients of x and y change places
and the coefficient of y changes its sign.
b) The lines are not perpendicular because the signs of the coefficients are
unchanged.
4. (a) 4x + 5y = 8 and 5x - 4y = 9 (b) 2x + 3y = 2 and 3x - 2y = 5
(c) 7x - 4y = 9 and 4x + 7y = 4
5. 3x + 2y = 6 and 3y – 2x = 15

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Exercises
1. Write down the equations of the lines in the list that are perpendicular to 2x – 7y =
5:
2x + 7y = 15; -7x -2y = 2; 7x – 2y = 3; -7x + 2y = 8; 7x + 2y = 9
2. Write down the equations of the lines in the list that are parallel:
3x – 2y = 7; 2x + 3y = 10; 3x – 2y = 12; 2y – 3x = 4
3. Write down the equation of the straight line which is parallel to the line 2x + 3y = 8
and which passes through P(-3;4).
4. State whether the following pairs of lines are perpendicular and give a reason for
your answer:
(a) 2x + 5y = 7 and 5x + 2y = 10 (b) 3x - 2y = 4 and 2x + 3y = 5
(c) -5x + 7y = -8 and -7x - 5y = 11
5. Write down the equations of the lines in the list that are perpendicular to 5x – 3y =
8:
3x – 5y = 7; 3x + 5y = 10; -3x + 5y = 12; -3x -5y = 5
6. The points A, B, C and D have the following coordinates respectively:
(-2, 7), (4, 1), (2, -3) and (-6, 0). Find:
(a) The equation of the line L 1 which passes through point C and is parallel to the
line AB.
(b) The equation of the line L 2 which passes through point D and is perpendicular
to the line AB.
(c) The coordinates of the point of intersection of lines L 1 and L 2 .

7. The two points A (3, 4) and B (7, 1) are given. Find:

(a) the equation of AB,
(b) the equation of a line through A, perpendicular to AB,
(c) the equation of a line through the origin, parallel to AB.
8. The equations of four straight lines are given below.
Line 1: y = 2x + 4; Line 2: y = 2 – x; Line 3: y = 2x – 1; line 4: 2y – 8 = 3x
Write down;
(a) two equations that are parallel,
(b) two equations of the lines that intersect y – axis at the same point,
(c) the equation of the line that passes through the points (1, 1) and (-3, 5),
(d) the midpoint of the line segment joining (1, 1) and (-3, 5).

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9. On the diagram, the line y = 4 meets the line x + 2y = 6 at point A and the line 3x +
y = 12 meets the x axis at point B.

x + 2y =
6 y=4
A

B x
3x + y = 12

(a) Find the coordinates of A.

(b) Find the coordinates of B.
(c) Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line joining AB.
(d) Determine the equation of the line passing through M and perpendicular to 3x
+ y = 9.

10. The diagram shows a right-angled triangle ABC with line CB perpendicular to line
AB. Triangle ABC has vertices A(2, 4), B(11, 16) and C(x, 19) on the Cartesian
plane.
y (x, 19)
C

B
(11, 16)
A
(2, 4)
x

(a) Determine the slope of AB.

(b) Hence, write down the gradient of BC.

(c) Find the value of x.

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11. The diagram shows line AB. The coordinates of A are (4, 0) and the coordinates
of B are (0, -6).

y
A (4, 0)
x

B (0, -6)

(a) Determine the equation of line AB in the form ax + by = c.

(b) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of line AB.
(c) Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of line AB.

12. The triangle R has vertices (-2, -1), (2, 1) and (4, -1). The gradients of the sides of
triangle R are 0, -1 and k. Find k.y - axis

x - axis
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
R
-1

-2

13. The two parallel lines AB and PQ intersect the parabola y = x2 – 4 at the points
A(-3, 5), P(-1, -3), Q(2, 0) and B.
y

.B
A(-3, 5).
.Q(2, 0) x
.
P(-1, -3)

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 (a) Calculate the distance between P and Q.
(b) Find the coordinates of B.
(c) Calculate the distance between line AB and PQ.

14. A perpendicular AB is drawn meeting line l with equation y  4 x  5 at A.

y

B(12, 2)

A x

l
(a) Find the equation of line AB.
(b) Find the coordinates of A.
(c) Calculate the length of AB.

15. The diagram shows triangle ABC in which A is (3, -2) and B is (15, 22).

The gradient of AB, AC and BC are 2m, -2m and m respectively, where m is a
positive constant.

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 (a) Find the gradient of AB and deduce the value of m.
(b) Find the coordinates of C.
(c) The perpendicular bisectors of AB meet BC at D. Find the coordinates of D.

16. The equation of the straight line l1 is x  3 y  33  0 . The point R is (3, 0) and S is
(6, 9). The straight line l 2 is parallel to l 1 and passes through R.
(a) Find the equation of l 2 . Write the equation in the form of ax  by  c  0
(b) Prove that S lies on l1
(c) Show that the line RS is perpendicular to l1 .

17. (a) Draw a straight line on a Cartesian plane at an angle of about 30 with the x-
axis.
(b) Write down the y-intercept of the line.
(c) Select any two points P and Q on the line and draw right-angled PQS.
(d) Use the sides of the right-angled triangle to determine the gradient of the line.
(e) Write the equation of the line (i) in gradient y-intercept form, and (ii) in
standard form.
(f) Draw a line parallel to the line in (a) with y-intercept 5 less than that of the line
in (a).
(g) Write the equation of the parallel line (i) in gradient y-intercept form, and (ii) in
standard form.
(h) Calculate the gradient of a line perpendicular to the line in (a).
(i) Use the gradient in (h) to draw a line through point P perpendicular to the line in
(a).
(j) Write down the y-intercept of the line in (i).
(k) Write the equation of the perpendicular line (i) in gradient y-intercept form, and
(ii) in standard form.

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NOTE:
 All lines with equation y=k, cut the y-axis at k and are parallel to the x-axis.
 All lines with equation x=k, cut the x-axis at k and are parallel to the y-axis.

Exercises
1. Write down the equations of the following linear graphs.
y - axis y - axis
(a) (b)
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x - axis x - axis
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3
-1 -1
-2 -2

-3 -3

y - axis y - axis
(c) (d)
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x - axis x - axis
0 1 3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1 2
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

(e) y - axis y - axis

(f)
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x - axis x - axis
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3
-1 -1
-2 -2

-3 -3

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 y - axis y - axis
(g) (h)
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x - axis x - axis
0 3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

2. Draw the graphs of the following equations on a graph paper.

(a) y = 6; (b) x = -½; (c) y = -½; (d) x = -4; (e) y = ½ (f) x = ½
(g) y = 3½ (h) x = 3½ (i) y = 2.5 (j) x = 3.5
3. The graph of y = k passes through the point A(0, 6). Write down;
(a) the value of k,
(b) the gradient of the graph,
(c) the coordinates of B on the line y = k where x = -2½.
4. The graph of x = k passes through the point D(-2, 0). Write down;
(a) the value of k,
(b) the gradient of the graph,
(c) the coordinates of point E on the line x = k where y = 4.

Quadrilaterals in a Cartesian plane

We can apply our knowledge of coordinate geometry to determine the type of quadrilateral
formed by four given points on a Cartesian plane.

We make use of the following formulae to verify various properties of quadrilaterals

Formulae and the coordinate plane
Formula When to use it
Distance formula To determine whether
d  ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2  Sides are equal
 Diagonals are equal
Midpoint formula To determine
 x  x2 y1  y 2   The Coordinates of the midpoint of a
M=  1 ,  side or a diagonal
 2 2 
 Whether diagonals bisect each other
Slope/gradient formula To determine whether
y  y2  Opposite sides are parallel
m 1  Diagonals are perpendicular
x1  x2
 Sides are perpendicular

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NOTE:
The diagonals of every parallelogram bisect each other and therefore their point of
intersection is the midpoint of all the diagonals.

Example
A quadrilateral ABCD has vertices A(-2, 0), B(-1, 4), C(3, 5) and D(2, 1). Use the
slope formula to show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
y1  y 2 40 4
Gradient of AB = = = =4
x1  x 2  1  (2) 1

y1  y 2 1 5 4
Gradient of CD = = = =4
x1  x 2 23 1

y1  y 2 54 1
Gradient of BC = = =
x1  x 2 3  (1) 4

y1  y 2 1 0 1
Gradient of AD = = =
x1  x 2 2  (2) 4
AB // CD and BC // AD and therefore ABCD is a parallelogram.

Further information about quadrilaterals that are parallelogram

Proofing that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle or square
Parallelogram Rhombus
 Show that the midpoints of diagonals  First Show that the midpoints of
have the same coordinates diagonals have the same
coordinates.
 Show that diagonals are
perpendicular or
 Show that a pair of adjacent sides
are equal in length.
Rectangle Square
 First Show that the gradients of pair  Show that the midpoints of
of opposite sides are equal and diagonals have the same
therefore opposite sides are parallel. coordinates.
 Show that a pair of adjacent sides  Show that a pair of adjacent sides
are perpendicular and the angle are equal in length.
between the sides is 90°.  Show that a pair of adjacent sides
are perpendicular and the angle
between the sides is 90°.

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Exercise 6 (1.6)
1. In the diagram below, D(-3, 3), E(3, -5) and F(-1, k) are three points on the
Cartesian plane.
y

.
D(-3, 3)

. E(3, -5)
.
F(-1, k)

(a) Calculate the length of DE.

(b) Calculate the gradient of DE.
(c) Determine the value of k if DEF = 90°.
(d) If k = -8, determine the coordinates of M, the midpoint of DF.
(e) Determine the coordinates of G such that the quadrilateral DEFG is a rectangle.

2. The diagram shows a rhombus DRCS on a Cartesian plane with points R(-2, 10), R(-2, 2),
C(4, -6) and S(4, 4).
y

.
D(-2, 10)

.S(4, 4)
R(-2, 2).
x

.
C(4, -10)
(a) Find the equation of line joining CD.
(b) Show that RS and CD are perpendicular.
(c) Determine whether the point E(0, 7) lies on CD.

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10. The points A(-3, 2), B(3, 2), C(8, -1) and D(-7, -1) are four vertices of the
quadrilateral ABCD.
y

. 2)
A(-3, . 2)
B(3,
.
F

x
. .
D(-7, -1) C(8, -1)

Find;
(a) The equation of the diagonal AC,
(b) The equation of the diagonal BD,
(c) The coordinates of F, the point of intersection for the diagonals.

11. On the diagram, KLMN is a square. K is the point (0, 7), L is the point (2, 1) and M is the
point (8, 3). y
.
N

. .
K(0, 7) M(8, 3)

L(2, 1)
x

Calculate
(a) The coordinates of N,
(b) The equation of KM,
(c) The equation of LN,
(d) The area of KLMN.

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12. On the diagram, The rhombus PQRS is shown. The coordinates of P are (-1, -1)
and the coordinates of R are (6, 6). PQ has the equation 3x – 4y - 1 = 0 and QR
has the equation 4x – 3y – 6 = 0.

.R
S .
.Q
x
P
.
(a) Calculate;
(a) the coordinates of point Q,
(b) the length of each side of the rhombus,
(c) the coordinates of the midpoint of PR,
(d) the coordinates of vertex S.

(b) Find the equation of PS.

13. The rectangle ABCD is shown on the diagram
y

. 6)
R(4,

S(1,
. 4) .
Q

P(2, 1)
x

(a) Calculate the gradient of line PQ.

(b) Find the equation of line QR.
(c) Find the equation of line BC.
(d) Calculate the coordinates of point Q.

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14. The diagram shows a rhombus PQRS. The coordinates of P and R are (-2, -1)
and (5, 6) respectively. The diagonals PR and QS intersect at M.
y
.
R(5, 6)

S.
M
.
Q

x
.
P(-2, -1)

(a) Find the equation of the line PR.

3 5
(b) Show that the coordinates of M are  ,  .
2 2
(c) Find the equation of line QS

The coordinates of Q are (2, 2).

(d) Find the coordinates of S.
(e) Calculate the perimeter of the rhombus.

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 Trigonometry

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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3-DTrigonometry

Worked Example1
Given a cuboid of sides 5cm x 4cm x 3cm, as shown in the diagram below,

G
F

H 3cm
E
D
C

A 4cm
5cm B
Find
(a) the length of AC

(b) the angle that AF makes with the horizontal plane ABCD

(c) the length of AF

Solution

0(a). AC 2  52  4 2 by Pythagoras
AC  41 theorem
The answer can be left as 41 . There is no need of writing it in decimal form
in this case since the answer will be used in the next steps.
(b). The horizontal plane can be represented by the line AC in the diagram.
Considering that ∆ACF is a right-angled triangle:
3
Tan 
41
3
  Tan 1 ( ) Give full calculator value before rounding off your answer to 3 s.f.
41
  25.10409025 (c). the length of AF can be calculated by Pythagoras theorem or
   25.1 by using trigonometric ratios.
AF 2  ( 41) 2  3 2
AF 2  41  9 OR
AF  50
 AF  7.07cm

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 41
Cos 
AF
41
AF 
Cos 25.104
AF  7.07cm

Worked Example2

Find the angle that the line CH makes with the horizontal plane HEFG
G

6cm
H
E
D
C

5cm
A
5cm
B
HF  5  5
2 2 2

HF  50
∆HFC is a right-angled triangle, so the angle
required is  FHC.
6
Tan 
50
6
  Tan 1 ( )
50
   40.3 *Hint: First find HF and use it to find the required angle
Exercises
1. The diagram shows a square-based pyramid of base length 10cm, P is the mid-
point of side BC.
The line AE =12cm. a
E
A

12cm
D

A C
F
10cm P
B
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 Find
(a). the lengths of AC and AF (b). EAˆ F (c). length of side EF
(d). EPˆ F
Solutions
Solution
(a). (b)
AC 2  10 2  10 2
5 2
AC  200 CosA 
12
 AC  10 2 5 2 
A  Cos 1  

 12 
1
AF   10 2 A  53.89579529
2
EAF  53.9
 AF  5 2
(c). OR
EF 2  (5 2 ) 2  12 2
EF
EF 2  12 2  25(2) Sin53.9 
12
EF  94 EF  12  Sin53.9
EF  9.695359715 EF  9.695878607
EF  9.70cm  EF  9.70cm

(d)
5
Tan 
94
 5 
  Tan 1  
 94 
  27.280638
  27.3

2. Find the angle between the planes EBC and ABCD. E

Solution
The required angle is  EGF
5
Tan 
3 5cm
5 D
  Tan 1  
3
  59.0 A F C
3cm
6cm G 8cm
B

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3. The diagram shows a cuboid with sides 4cm x 3cm x 2cm.

G
x
D
H F
2cm
A C

3cm 4cm

Find
(a). the angle between the diagonal of the cuboid and the largest face of the cuboid
(b). the angle between the planes ABFG and CDGF.

Solution
*Hint: Find the length of AC first by Pythagoras theorem.

AC  3 2  4 2
AC  5cm
2
Tan 
5
2
  Tan 1  
5
  21.8
(b). The angle between the plane ABFG and CDGF is same as the angle x in the
diagram. First calculate AG by Pythagoras, then use trigonometry to find the angle x .
AG  2 2  4 2
AG  20
2
Cosx 
20
 2 
x  Cos 1  
 20 
x  63.43494882
 x  63.4

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ANGLES MORE THAN 90˚AND LESS THAN 360˚
The figure shows the signs of x- and y-coordinates in the four quadrants of a
Cartesian plane. XOP = θ is an angle in the second quadrant where x is negative
and y positive.

y Sin θ =
Sin θ =

Cos θ = Cos θ =
I I
Tan θ =
I Tan θ =

P (- . .P (x;y)
x;y) r y
θ θ x
θ θ
x
Sin θ =
. .P (x;- Sin θ =

P (-x;-
Cos θ =
y) y) Cos θ =
II IV
Tan θ = I Tan θ =

CAST diagram
We use a diagram to help us remember the signs of the three trigonometric ratios in different
quadrants. All trigonometric ratios are positive in the first quadrant, sin is positive in the
second quadrant, tan is positive in the third quadrant and cos is positive in the fourth
quadrant. The other ratios are negative in the different quadrants. The acronym CAST
starting with C in the fourth quadrant and read anti-clockwise shows which ratios (and their
reciprocals) are positive in the different quadrants.

y
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
sin is positive All ratios
are positive
180° - θ θ
S A
x
O
T C 360° - θ
180° +
3 θquadrant
rd 4th quadrant
tan is positive cos is positive

*Hint:
The values of x and y can be positive or negative depending on the quadrant. In the 1st
quadrant P(+x, +y); in the 2nd quadrant P(-x, +y); in the 3rd quadrant P(-x, -y) and in the 4th
quadrant P(+x, -y). Since the value r represents the length of line OP, it is always
positive.

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For 90 ≤ θ ≤ 360 the following results can be derived:

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽) e.g. sin 45 = 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 (180 − 45) = sin 135

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟑𝟔𝟎 − 𝜽) e.g. cos 45 = cos(360 − 45) = cos 315
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽) e.g.tan 45 = tan(180 + 45) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 225

The relationship between the angles below 90° and the angles between 90°and 360°
can be further explored graphically. The graphs of trigonometric functions and the
CAST diagram should be looked as one thing since there is a close relationship
between the two.

Graphical Representation of Trigonometric functions

y  sin x 

0.707

0.707

Worked Examples
Find x in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360 for which
(a) sin 𝑥 = 0.5
(b) cos 𝑥 = 0.5
(c) tan 𝑥 = 1
(d) cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥

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Solutions
(a). 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑥 = sin−1 0.5
𝑥 = 30° [Key angle]
𝑥 = 30 𝑜𝑟 180 − 30
𝑥 = 30° 𝑜𝑟 150°
(b). 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑥 = cos−1 0.5
𝑥 = 60° [key angle]
𝑥 = 60° 𝑜𝑟 360° − 60°
𝑥 = 60 𝑜𝑟 330

(c). 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 = 𝟏
𝑥 = tan−1 1
𝑥 = 45 [key angle]
𝑥 = 45 𝑜𝑟 180 + 45
𝑥 = 45 𝑜𝑟 225

(d). 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙

Method 1: by dividing both sides by cos x, this will give the trigonometric ratio
tan x.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
−1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
𝑥 = tan 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑥 = 45 𝑜𝑟 225
Method 2: By observing the point of intersection of the graphs of 𝒚 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙

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As seen from the diagram above, the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 intersect at the
points where 𝑥 = 45 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 225, which are the solutions to the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

THE COSINE RULE:

How to derive the Cosine Rule
B
Consider ΔADB.
𝑥
cos 𝐴 = ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴 … … … … . (1)
𝑐
By Pythagoras theorem
𝑐 2 = 𝑥 2 + ℎ2 … … … … … … … … … … (2)
Now consider ΔBDC:
a
By Pythagoras c
𝑎2 = (𝑏 − 𝑥)2 + ℎ2
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ℎ2
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑥 2 + ℎ2 − 2𝑏𝑥 … … … . . (3)
Substituting equation (1) and (2) into equation (3):
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃𝒄𝑪𝒐𝒔𝑨 h

HINT: The Cosine Rule is used when given

two sides and an included angle; that is the C
A x D b-x
angle subtended by the two given sides.
b

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Worked examples A
Find the length of side BC 125°
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴 15cm c
b
17cm
𝑎2 = 172 + 152 − 2(17)(15)𝐶𝑜𝑠125°
𝑎2 = 806.52398253
B C
𝑎 = √806.52398253 a
𝑎 = 28.39936588 Advise learners to enter the whole expression in
𝑎 = 28.4 𝑐𝑚 (3 s.f.) the formula and get the value at once especially
considering that 𝐶𝑜𝑠125 is a negative number.
Some learners do not realise that
−2(17)(15)𝐶𝑜𝑠125° is one term and should not try
to separate them.

Write full calculator value to avoid losing

Finding angle using the Cosine Rule: accuracy marks. Only the final answer
should be rounded to 3 s.f.

The formula 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴 can be rearranged to obtain the formula for

calculating the angle as shown below.
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴
2𝑏𝑐𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 Subtract the side opposite the required angle and divide by
𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 the two sides adjacent to the required angle.
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝑨 =
𝟐𝒃𝒄

Worked Examples
B
1.
15cm a 17cm
c

A b21cm C

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 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐

212 + 152 − 172

=
2(21)(15)
𝐴 = cos−1 (0.598412698)
𝐴 = 53.24370007
𝐴 = 53.2° B
2. Find the length of side BC
11cm
𝐵𝐶 2 = 122 + 112 − 2(12)(11) cos 35
𝐵𝐶 = √48.74386031 35°
𝐵𝐶 = 6.981680336 A
𝐵𝐶 = 6.98𝑐𝑚 (3 𝑠. 𝑓. ) 12cm C

THE SINE RULE

Given a ΔABC, with corresponding sides a, b, c as shown below:
B

c
a

A
b C

The following formula can be derived from the relationship between the sides and the
angles
𝑎 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 or 𝑎 = 𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

This formula can be used when two sides are given and an angle opposite one
of the given sides.

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WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Find angle x.
13cm
15cm
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛65°
= 65°
13 15
𝑠𝑖𝑛65
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 13 × x
15
𝑥 = sin−1 ( 0.785466)
𝑥 = 51.76386744
∴ 𝑥 = 51.8°

The Sine Rule can also be used when two angles are given and any
side

85
Find the side labelled x
x 18cm

62°

The missing angle =180-(62+85) =33°.

Now use the angle to find the missing side.

𝑥 18
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛33 𝑠𝑖𝑛62 First calculate the missing angle
18𝑠𝑖𝑛33 using the property of interior angles
𝑥=
𝑠𝑖𝑛62 of triangle add up to 180°
𝑥 = 11.1031534708
𝑥 = 11.1°

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Exercises
1.

To avoid the island, a ship travels 40 kilometres from A to B and the 60 kilometres
from B to C.

The bearing of B from A is 080° and angle ABC is 115°.

(a) The ship leaves A at 11 55.

It travels at an average speed of 35 km/h.
Calculate, to the nearest minute, the time it arrives at C.

(b) Find the bearing of

(i) A from B,

(ii) C from B.
(c) Calculate the straight distance AC.

(d) Calculate angle BAC.

(e) Calculate how far C is east of A.

2.

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The diagram shows three straight horizontal roads in a town, connecting P, A and B.
PB = 250 m, angle APB = 23° and angle BAP = 126°.

(a) Calculate the length of the road AB.

(b) The bearing of A from P is 303°.

Find the bearing of

(i) B from P,
(ii) A from B.
3.

The diagram shows a triangular prism of length 12 cm. The rectangle ABCD is
horizontal and the rectangle DCPQ is vertical.

The cross-section is triangle PBC in which triangle BCP = 90°, BC = 4 cm and CP = 3

cm.

(a) (i) Calculate the length of AP.

(ii) Calculate the angle of elevation of P from A.

(b) (i) Calculate angle PBC.

(ii) X is on BP so that angle BXC = 120°.

Calculate the length of XC.

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4.

The diagram shows a pyramid on a square base ABCD.

The diagonals of the base, AC and BD, intersect at M.
The sides of the square are 8 cm and the vertical height of the pyramid, PM, is
5 cm.
Calculate
(a) the length of the edge PB,
(b) the angle between PB and the base ABCD.

5.

ABCDEFGH is a cuboid.
AB = 4cm, BC = 3cm and AG = 12cm.

Calculate the angle AG makes with the base ABCD.

6. (a) Write down the value of cos 295°.

(b) If sin x and cos x are both negative, between what values must x lie?

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 Vectors and Transfromation

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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VECTORS

Magnitude of a vector
The magnitude of the vector, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵, is the length of the line segment joining point A and B. We
use the Pythagoras Theorem to calculate the magnitude (length) of a vector.

B B
?

A A

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the distance between

The magnitude of 𝐴𝐵
A and B

We use the following notations for a magnitude of a vector.

AB or α or |a|

[Example box]
 12 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =   . From the figure it is clear that 𝐴𝐵
1. The figure shows 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ forms the hypotenuse of a
 5
 
right-angled triangle and AC = 12 units and BC = 5 units the other two sides of the right-
angled triangle.

O x

A C

Answer
The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is then calculated as follows using the Theorem of Pythagoras:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √122 + 52 = √169 = 13 units
 |𝐴𝐵

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6. The figure shows ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑃, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐾 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, b) |𝑂𝐾
𝑃𝐾 on a Cartesian plane. Calculate (a) |𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | correct to two decimal places.
and (c) |𝑃𝐾

y
K

7. Calculate in each case the magnitude of the following vectors and give answers
correct to two decimal places where applicable:
12 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =   , (b) 𝐶𝐷
  8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =   , and (c) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 17 
(a) 𝐴𝐵  5   6 𝐸𝐹 =   .
     17 
8. A(9;4), B(-7;-7) and C(-2;8) are point on a Cartesian plane.
a) Draw position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, (ii) |𝑂𝐵
b) Calculate (i) |𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | and (iii) |𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.

Vector geometry
We can use knowledge of vectors to express distances on a geometrical diagram in
terms of given vectors on the diagram.
The information on the diagram below is very useful towards working with vector
geometry.

The triangle rule The parallelogram rule

B B b C
a
b a a
A
C A D
b

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Example

1. Triangle PQR is shown below where PQ  k and PR  a

P

R Q
a

Express the following vectors in terms of k and a.

(a) PR (b) QR (c) PQ (d) QP

Answers

(a) PR = -k
(b) QR = -a

(c) PQ = PR + RQ = -k + a (starting from P to Q is the same as moving from P to R

to Q)

(d) QP = QR + RP = -a + k (starting from Q to P is the same as moving from Q to R

to P)

2. OABC is a parallelogram where OA = y and OC = w.

A B
y

O w C

Express the following vectors in terms of y and w.

(a) AB (b) BC (c) OB (d) AC

Answers
(a) AB = w

(b) BC = -y

(c) OB = OC + CB = w + y

(d) AC = AO + OC = -y + w

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NOTE: Vectors with the same magnitude and direction are equal.
Parallel vectors with the same magnitude and direction are equal.
Vectors that are multiples of each other with different lengths but same
direction are parallel.

3. In the diagram below BCE and ACD are straight lines. AB  2a and BC  3b . The
point C divides AD in the ratio 2 : 1 and divides BE in the ratio 3 : 1

Express, in terms of a and/or b, the vectors

Hint: First write the required vector as a sum of 2 vectors

(a) AC (b) CD (c) CE (d) ED

 1  3  4
2. OA    , OB    and OC   
 2  1  - 1
Hint: try to have a rough sketch for better visualization

  2
(a) (i) Show that BA   
 1 
(ii) Express AC as a column vector.

(b) Calculate OA
Hint: Use Pythagoras Theorem
(c) If AD  2 AB , find OD

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 3.

Points A and B are marked on the grid.

  4
BC   
 0 
(a) On the grid, plot the point C.
(b) Write AC as a column vector.
(c) DE is a vector that is perpendicular to BC . The magnitude of DE is equal
to the magnitude of BC .Write down a possible column vector for DE.

4. O is the origin and OPQRST is a regular hexagon.

OP  x and OT  y .

(a) Write down, in terms of x and/or y, in its simplest form,

(i) QR
(ii) PQ
(iii) the position vector of S.

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 (b) The line SR is extended to G so that SR : RG = 2 : 1. Find GQ , in terms of
x and y, in its simplest form.
(c) M is the midpoint of OP.

(i) Find MG , in terms of x and y, in its simplest form.

(ii) H is a point on TQ such that TH : HQ = 3 : 1. Use vectors to show that

H lies on MG.

Exercises

1. PQRS is a rectangle with SR = b and RQ = y.

Q y R

P S

Express the following vectors in terms of b and y.

(a) PQ (b) PS (c) RS (d) QS (e) PR

2. ABCD is a trapezium with AB = z, BC = t and AD = 2 BC

B t C

A D
2t

Express the following vectors in terms of t and z. Simplify your answers where
necessary.

(a) AC (b) DB (c) CD (d) DC

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3. NPQRST is a regular hexagon with ON = q and OP = r.

P Q

q r

N R
O

T S

Express the following vectors in terms of q and r. Simplify your answers where
necessary.

(a) PQ (b) SQ (c) OR (d) NS (e) NR (f) RQ

4. Triangle ABC is shown with AB = z and AC = x. M is the mid-point of BC.

z .M

A C
x
Express the following vectors in terms of z and x. Simplify your answers where
necessary.

(a) BC (b) BM (c) AM

5. KLMN is a parallelogram with KL = x and KN = q. KM and LN intersect at D.

L M

x .
D

K N
q

Express the following vectors in terms of x and p. Simplify your answers where
necessary.

(a) KL (b) LN (c) MK (d) LD

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6. PQRS is a rectangle with PQ = t and QR = y and M is the mid-point on PS.

Q y R

P . S
M

Express the following vectors in terms of t and y. Simplify your answers where
necessary.

(a) PM (b) QM (c) MR (d) RP

7. On The diagram ABCD is a trapezium with BC // AD and AD = 2BC. R is a point on

AD for which AR : RD = 3:1.

B C

A .
R
D

Given that AB = t and BC = x, express the following vectors in terms of t and x.

(a) AC (b) BR (c) RC

8. The diagram shows the triangle PQR. The point S lies on QR and divides QR in
the ratio 2:1. The point T is the midpoint of line PR.

P
T

Q R
S

It is given that QP = a and QR = b. Express the following vectors in terms of a and b

in simplest from.

(a) PR (b) QT (c) ST

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9. On the diagram, the point M is the midpoint of BC. The point N lies on AM and AN :
NM is 3:4.

A a B
N
.
b M

D C
4a

The vectors AB = a, AD = b and DC = 4a.

Find, in terms of a and b,

(a) BC , (b) BM , (c) AN .

10. The diagram shows triangle ABC with P the midpoint of AB and Q a point in BC
  2  ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 9
such that BQ:QC = 1:2. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑃 =   𝐵𝐶 =  
 3 6
A

B
Find:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) 𝐶𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(b) 𝐵𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(d) 𝑃𝐶
11. The diagram shows a rectangle QRST.
V

T U
S

Q R

1
The point U on TS, is such that TU : US = 2:3 and RS is of RV.
3
QR = 10a and RS = b. Express the following vectors in terms of a and/or b.

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(a) TU (b) RT (c) VQ (d) RU

12. The diagram shows a regular hexagon. G is the point on AB such that AG : GB is
1:3. H is the midpoint of BC.

A G
. B

a b .H

F C
O

E D

Express, as simply as possible, the following vectors in terms of a and b.

(a) AB (b) FB (c) OG (d) OH (e) GH

13. PQR is a right-angled triangle and PRST is a rectangle. The diagonals of PRST
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 2a + 1b.
intersect at A. M is the midpoint of TS and N is a point in QR such that |𝑃𝑁 3 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = a, |𝑃𝑅
|𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = b and |𝑃𝑇
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | c.
Q
N
a
b
P R

c A

T M S

Express the following vectors in terms of vectors a, b and c.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) 𝑅𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(b) 𝑇𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝐴𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(d) 𝑄𝑁
(e) Determine QN:NR
(f) Express MN in terms of a, b and/or c.

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14. In the figure AC and BD intersect at P such that DP:PB = 6:5 and AP:PC = 3:5. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = 5a,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 3b and 𝐷𝐶 = 2c.
C

B
2c
P
3b

A 5a D
Express:
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐵 in terms of vectors a and b (b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐵 in terms of vectors a and b.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝐵𝐶 in terms of vectors a, b and c (d) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐶 in terms of vectors a and c.

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Transformation
The term “transform” can literally be explained as “to change”.
Transformations are the processes we shall use to change a shape. When an object
A is transformed we write it as:

We can say A is mapped onto its image AI.

Four different transformations:

 Reflections
 Rotations
 Enlargements
 Translations
The table below summarises the four transformations and what we are expected to
mention whenever we describe them.
Reflection Translation
 Identify that it is a reflection  Identify that it is a translation
 Give the equation of the line of  Give the column vector of translation
reflection
Enlargement Rotation
 Identify that it is an enlargement  Identify that it is a rotation
 Give the centre of enlargement  Give the centre of rotation
 Give the scale factor of enlargement  Give the angle and direction of
rotation

Exercises

1.

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The shape S, , is drawn on the grid above and the point P (1,3) is labelled.

a) On the grid, draw the following transformations.

(i) The rotation of S, 90° clockwise, about the point P. Label it A.

  4
(ii) The translation of S by the vector   . Label it B.
  3
(iii) The enlargement of S with centre (0, 0) and scale factor 2. Label it C.

(iv) The reflection of S in the line y = 4. Label it D.

b) Write down the vector which translates B back to the original position of S.

2.

a) Describe fully the single transformation that maps

(i) triangle X onto triangle Y,

(ii) triangle X onto triangle Z.
  5
b) (i) Draw the image of triangle X after a translation by the vector   .
 3 
Label this triangle P.
(iii) Draw the reflection of triangle P in the line y = 3. Label it Q.

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 3. The diagram to the right shows triangles A, B and C.
y
5

4
C
3
A
2

1
B
x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

(a) Triangle A is mapped onto B by an anticlockwise

rotation. Write down
(i) the angle of rotation
(ii) the centre of the rotation.

(b) Triangle A is mapped onto C by an enlargement.

Write down
(i) the scale factor of the enlargement
(ii) The centre of the enlargement.

4.

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 a) Describe fully the single transformation that maps

(i) shape P onto shape Q,

(ii) shape P onto shape S.

b) Draw the image of S under the following transformations

(i) reflection in the line y = x. Label it T

(ii) enlargement with scale factor – 2 through the center  3 , 4 . Label it

U

c) Draw the image of shape Q under a rotation of 90 clockwise about 3 , 5 .

Label it V.

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 Probability and Statistics

Hinge

Pencil

Hold for pencil

Compass needle

height

bas
e
D E

B C
∆AHK lll ∆ABC

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Statistics and Probability

Statistics

Data

Two kinds of Data: Grouped and Ungrouped data.

Ungrouped data
Measures of central tendency: Mean, median and mode.

Measures of dispersion: Range, variance and standard deviation, but for these we will only
focus on the range.

Mean
The mean is the average of the scores and is calculated using a formula:

x
x
n
o x is pronounced as “x bar” is the symbol of the mean
o  x is pronounced as “the total or sum of all values”
o n is the number of values.

Example
The following numbers represent the shoe size of eight learners in a grade 11 class.
6 7 8 7 7 5 6 7

Calculate the mean shoe size.

Answer

x
x
n
67875567
x
8
51
x
8
x  6.38
Median
When values are arranged in ascending or descending order, the median is the value
in the middle.
To find the median we:
o Arrange the scores in either ascending or descending order
o Pick the value in the middle of the distribution
o If two values are in the middle find their average

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Example

Five friends obtained the following marks in a test.

16 17 18 17 15

Calculate the mean of their marks.

Answer

Arrange the scores (in ascending order): 15 16 17 17 18

The median is 17, the number in the middle of the distribution.

Example

Suppose Sikukumwa, another friend has brought his paper so that there are now six sets of
marks as shown here:

16 17 18 17 15 18

Calculate the median of their marks.

Answer

Arrange the scores (in ascending order): 15 16 17 17 18 18

The median is, obtained by finding the average of the two numbers in the middle of the
distribution.
(17  17)
i.e.
2
Mode

Mode is the value that appears the most frequency.

There can be:

o One mode (unimodal distribution)

16 17 18 18 15 18
o Two modes (bi modal distribution)

16 17 18 17 15 18
o More than two modes (multi-modal distribution)
16 17 18 17 16 18 15
o No mode at all

16 17 18 17 16 18

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Range

o Range is calculated by subtracting the largest value from the smallest value.

Example

Calculate the range of the data set: 16 17 18 17 16 18 15

Answer

Range = largest – smallest

Range = 3

Exercises

Given the following numbers: 161 173 184 174 165 150

Calculate the:

a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) Range

Grouped data
o When the data is grouped according to the frequencies the mean is calculated

by: x 
 xf
f
n 1
o For the median we need to calculate the position of the median by (where
2
n is the number of values), and then select the median. If the answer is a
whole number we pick the number at that position, if the answer is not then we
pick the number position represented by the whole number part of the answer
as well as the next position, the average of these two numbers is the median
o The mode is still the value that appears the most frequency.
o The range is still obtained by subtracting the smallest value from the largest
value.

Example

The table below shows the number of siblings each of the thirty learners in a Grade
10 class has.

3 3 2 5 3 5 6 3 4 5

2 6 4 3 5 5 4 6 4 6

3 5 6 7 5 5 4 2 2 3

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a) Complete the given data above to complete the following table.
Number of siblings Frequency Xf
(x) (f)
2
3
4
5
6
7
Total

b) Find the:
i) mean
ii) median
iii) mode
iv) range
Answer

a)
Number of siblings Frequency Xf
(x) (f)
2 5 10
3 7 21
4 5 20
5 8 40
6 5 30
7 1 7
Total 30 121

b)

x
 xf
f
121
x
30
x  4.03

c) The position of the median is given by:

n 1
2
30  1
2
31
2
15.5

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This means at the 15th and the 16th position, the numbers at these positions are: 4
and 4 and their average is 4.

c) The mode is 5 which appears 8 times

d) Range is 7-2 = 5

Exercises

The following numbers represent the scores of learners in a test out of 30

marks:

13 23 12 25 13 15 26 13 24 35

12 16 14 13 25 25 24 16 24 16

13 15 16 27 15 15 24 22 22 23

a) Complete the given data above to complete the following table.

Mark (x) Frequency Xf
(f)

Total

b) Find the:
i) mean
ii) median
iii) mode
iv) range

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Histogram
For this section we will focus on:
o Histograms with equal and unequal intervals
o Mean modal class of grouped data
o Cumulative frequency diagrams (drawing and interpretations)

Before constructing a histogram one needs to ask the following question: Are the
class intervals the same?

o If the class intervals are the same then the modal class will be the class that
has the highest frequency and we will plot the class interval (x-axis) versus the
frequency (y-axis).
o If the class intervals are different then the modal class is the class with the
highest frequency density and we will plot the class interval (x-axis) versus the
frequency (y-axis).

We will now look at the two situations separately:

Equal class intervals

We need to consider the fact that the

We need to work out the following:

o The Class Width ( Upper Class Limit - Lower Class Limit): CW  UCL  LCL
o Frequency density (Frequency divided by the Class Width): fd  f
CW
o Midpoint (the average of the Upper and the Lower Class Limits):
UCL  LCL
CW 
2
o The product xf
All these will be the columns of the frequency distribution diagram that you will construct:

Example
The following table shows the marks obtained of 60 learners in a school.
Class interval Frequency
20 < x ≤ 40 12
40 < x ≤ 60 16
60 < x ≤ 80 18
80 < x ≤ 100 14
Total 60

a) Complete the table above to include the following details: Class-midpoint, Class width
and the product xf .
b) Draw a histogram.
c) Write down the modal class?
d) Calculate the estimated mean.

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Solution:
a)
Class interval Frequency Class width Class mid-point xf
(x)
20 < x ≤ 40 12 20 30 360
40 < x ≤ 60 16 20 50 800
60 < x ≤ 80 18 20 70 1 260
80 < x ≤ 100 14 20 90 1 260
Total 60 3 680
b)

18

16

14

12

10
Frequency

8
s

Class Interval
0 20 40 60 80 100

c) In this case since our class intervals are the same therefore, we simply select
the class with the highest frequency, which is 60 < x ≤ 80. Remember modal
class is not the mode but the class that is why our answer is in a form of an
interval.

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 d)
x 
 xf
f
3680
x 
60
x  61.3

Summary:

Once we realise that the intervals are the same, we only need to plot the class
intervals versus the frequency.

Non-Equal Class Intervals

When the intervals are not equal we need to realise that we plot the plot the class
intervals versus the frequency density (frequency ÷ class width). Also, the modal
class is not necessarily the one that has the highest frequency but the one that has
the highest frequency density. Let’s see why this is the situation with the following two
examples.

Example

The following marks were obtained by learners in a test out of 100, in a class of 35
learners.

8 15 50 15 75 33 73 90 91 72

75 33 39 31 28 25 27 75 52 73

55 55 51 29 39 35 49 55 63 75

75 71 81 78 25 55 85 46 22 65

a) Complete the table to indicate the frequency, the class width, the frequency
density, the class midpoint.
b) Draw a histogram plotting the class interval versus the frequency.
c) Write down the class with the highest frequency.
d) Using the same data set complete the following table.

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 Class Frequency Class Frequency Class mid- xf
interval width density point (x)
0 < x ≤ 10
10 < x ≤ 20
20 < x ≤ 30
20 < x ≤ 30
30 < x ≤ 40
50 < x ≤ 60
60 < x ≤ 70
70 < x ≤ 80
80 < x ≤ 90
90 < x ≤
100
Total

e) Use your table to draw a histogram (plotting class interval versus frequency).
f) Write down the class with the highest frequency.
g) Calculate the estimated mean.

Answer:

a)

Class Frequency Frequency Class Class

interval density width midpoint
0<x≤ 18 0.36 50 25
50
50 < x ≤ 8 0.4 20 60
70
70 < x ≤ 10 1 10 75
80
80 < x ≤ 4 0.2 20 90
100

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b)

18

16

14

12

10
Frequency

8
s

0 20 40 60 80 100
Class Interval

c) In this case it appears as if the class 0 < x ≤ 50 is the modal class.

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 d)
Class Frequency Class Frequency Class mid- xf
interval width density point (x)
0<x≤ 1 10 0.1 5 5
10
10 < x ≤ 2 10 0.2 15 30
20
20 < x ≤ 6 10 0.6 25 150
30
30 < x ≤ 6 10 0.6 35 210
40
40 < x ≤ 3 10 0.3 45 135
50
50 < x ≤ 6 10 06 55 330
60
60 < x ≤ 2 10 0.2 65 130
70
70 < x ≤ 10 10 1 75 750
80
80 < x ≤ 3 10 0.3 85 255
90
90 < x ≤ 1 10 0.1 95 95
100
Total 40 2 090

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e)
10

5
Frequency

4
s

0 20 40 60 80 100
Class Interval
f) The modal class is 70 < x ≤ 80

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g)
x
 xf
f
2090
x
40
x  52.25
Example
a) Use the table below to draw a histogram (plotting class interval versus
frequency density).

Class Frequency Class Frequency Class mid-

interval width density point (x)
0 < x ≤ 50 18 0.36 50 25
50 < x ≤ 70 8 0.4 20 60
70 < x ≤ 80 10 1 10 75
80 < x ≤ 4 0.2 20 90
100
Total 40

b) Complete a histogram and write down the modal class.

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Density

0.5
s

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 20 40 60 80 100

Class Interval

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From this it appears that 70 < x ≤ 80 is the modal class.

Summary:
In summary, the when given to draw a histogram with equal class widths, we plot the
Class interval versus the Frequency. In the event the intervals differ we plot class
interval versus Frequency density. In this way the modal class comes out clearly.

Exercises
1. The following table shows the masses of 200 learners in a school.

Class interval Frequency Class Frequency Class-

width density midpoint
20 < x ≤ 40 40
40 < x ≤ 60 60
60 < x ≤ 80 80
80 < x ≤ 100 20
Total 200

a) Complete the table.

a) Draw a histogram on a graph paper of 2 cm to represent 10 units on both
x-axes.
b) Calculate the estimated mean.
c) Write down the modal class.

2. For the table below:

Class interval Frequency Class Frequency Class-
width density midpoint
50 < x ≤ 56 5
56 < x ≤ 63 18
63 < x ≤ 70 50
70 < x ≤ 77 20
77 < x ≤ 84 10
84 < x ≤ 90 4
Total

b) Complete the table.

c) Draw a histogram using a scale of 2 cm to represent 10 units on the x-axis
and 1 cm to represent 1 unit on the y-axis.
d) Calculate the estimated mean.
e) Write down the modal class

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1.2 Cumulative frequency curves

The following key words need to be unfold to the learners:

Key words: Cumulative frequency, Ogive curve, Lower quartile, Median, Upper
Quartile, Inter quartile range.

The content of this section will be centered around the following glossary:

Glossary:

 Cumulative frequency: The sum of frequencies of classes before that particular

class plus the frequency of that particular class.
 Ogive curve: The cumulative frequency curve (“s” shaped curve).
 Lower quartile: Is the score that marks a lower quarter (25%) of the
distribution.
 Estimated Median: Is the score that marks half (50%) of the distribution.
 Upper Quartile: A score that marks three quarters (75%) of the distribution.
 Percentile: A score that marks a given % of the distribution.
 Inter quartile range: The difference between the upper and the lower quartile.
We need to work out the:

 Cumulative frequency;
 Plot a graph of upper class boundary versus the cumulative frequency;
 Use the graph to work out the lower quartile, median, upper quartile and
the inter quartile range.
Example
The following table represents the ages of 70 members assisting in a community
programme:
Class Frequency Cumulative
interval Frequency
35 < x ≤ 39 4
39 < x ≤ 44 8
44 < x ≤ 49 10
49 < x ≤ 54 20
54 < x ≤ 59 10
59 < x ≤ 64 6
64 < x ≤ 69 12
Total 70

a) Complete the table to fill the cumulative frequency.

b) By using a scale of 2 cm to represent 10 units on the x-axis and 2 cm to
represent 10 units on the y-axis, draw a smooth ogive curve.

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 c) Use your curve to find:
i) the lower quartile
ii) the median
iii) the upper quartile
iv) Inter quartile range
v) 10th Percentile
vi) 75th Percentile

Answer

a)
Class Frequency Cumulative
interval Frequency
0 < x ≤ 39 4 4
39 < x ≤ 44 8 12
44 < x ≤ 49 10 22
49 < x ≤ 54 20 42
54 < x ≤ 59 10 52
59 < x ≤ 64 6 58
64 < x ≤ 69 11 69
69 < x ≤ 74 1 70
Total 70

b) Solution

Exercise
Class Frequency Cumulative
interval Frequency
0 < x ≤ 20 2
20 < x ≤ 40 6
50 < x ≤ 70 12
70 < x ≤ 90 14
100 < x ≤ 10
110
120 < x ≤ 4
140
150 < x ≤ 2
170
Total

a) Complete the table above.

b) By plotting the upper class limit versus cumulative frequency, draw a smooth
cumulative frequency curve.
c) Use your graph to estimate:
(i) the upper quartile
(ii) the median
(iii) the lower quartile
(iv) the inter quartile range
(v) the 25th percentile
(vi) the 21st percentile

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Probability

Is the total chance of getting a successful out come out of the total chances available.

success
That is; P(event ) 
 chances

In order to understand some ideas of probability we need to understand the following

facts about probability:

Facts about probability:

 Probability is a value between 0 and 1.
 It can be given as a fraction, decimal or a percentage.
 The closer the value of the probability to 1 the more likely the event is.
 The closer the value of probability to zero the more unlikely the event is.

Example
In the letters NAMIBIAN find:

a) P(A)
b) P(B)
c) P(I)

Solutions

a)
2
P ( A) 
8
1
P ( A)
4
b)
1
P( A) 
8
2
P ( A) 
c) 8
1
P ( A) 
4

Probability of A or B versus Probability of A and B

The word “or” in probability means add while the word “and” means multiply. We can
have a practical example.

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Example

In a bag there are 4 apples, 6 oranges and 8 guavas. A fruit is to be picked from this
bag at once. Calculate the probability that the fruit will be:

a) Guava
b) Apple
c) Orange
d) Guava or Orange
e) Guava and orange
f) Apple and Orange or Guava
g) Apple and Guava or Orange

Solution:

Probability success versus probability failure

Recall we said that the minimum we can go with probability is 1 whereas the
maximum probability is 1. This means:
P(success) + P(failure)
=1

Therefore, if we take the probability that an event will happen plus the probability that
the same event will not happen it will give us 1.

Example:

a) It is known that the probability that the teacher will start the lesson late is 0.4,
find the probability that the lesson will start early.
b) The probability that it rains in August is 0.1, find the probability that it will not
rain in August.

Solutions:

The Expected Probability

The number of times that we expect the event whose probability is known to take
place in a given time frame is given by:

Expected outcomes = P (Event) x Total number of events

Example:

a) The probability that it rains in January is 0.6. Calculate the number of days you
would expect to have rainfall during the month of January.

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 b) The probability that the Eguni fruit will falls from the tree in a day is 0.4.
Calculate the number of Maguni fruits expected to fall from this tree in a day if
there are 80 of them.
c) The expected number of rain days in a month of February on an ordinary year
is 21 days, what is the expected probability of rainfall in February?

Solutions:

Possibility diagrams
These are diagrams that indicate all the possible outcomes in a series of events.
Let’s consider a coin that is to be tossed and a die that is being rolled once. Our
motivation is to find all the possible outcomes that are there. We may want to use the
following diagram.

1 2 3 4 5 6

This appears that we have a total of twelve possibilities: (H,1); (H,2); (H,3); (H,4);
(H,5); (H,6); (T,1); (T,2); (T,3); (T,4); (T,5); (T,6).

We can ask the questions as in the following example.

Example
From the possibility diagrams above, find the probability of a:
a) Head and an even number
b) Tail an odd number

Exercise

1. Cards have four options: heart, diamond, spade or a rose. There are thirteen
cards; A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, K. Draw a possibility diagram for this.

2. Bag A has cards each with a vowel non-repeated, Bag B has cards with
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 non-repeating. A card is to be drawn from each bag
once. Draw a possibility diagram.

Probability trees
 Trees are used to show the probabilities of outcomes when two or more trials
take place following each other.
 Each branch indicates the possible outcomes that exist.
 Moving along the same branch means we will multiply otherwise from one
branch to the other we add.

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  We need to be aware of whether or not the objects will be replaced or not.
 The sample space still has a probability of 1.

Example
A box contains 3 Apples (A) and 5 Oranges (O). Two fruits have to be selected at
random one at a time with replacement.
a) Draw a probability tree diagram to show this.
b) Find the probability that
i) The two fruits picked up are of the same kind
ii) The two fruits are of different kinds

Solutions
When the objects being drawn are not replaced it appears that the initial probabilities
affect the subsequent probabilities.

Example
Three teams comprising of 4 engineering students; 3 science students and 5
education students are playing a quiz. The rule of the game is that if someone gives a
wrong answer that person quits the game. Suppose the first three answers were
wrongly answered so that three people have to quit in a row. The probability that
anyone of them to give a wrong answer is the same regardless of the course they are
taking.

a) Draw a probability tree diagram to illustrate this.

b) Find the probability that
i) the first person to quit is from engineering
ii) at least a science student quits
iii) at least an education or a science student quits

Exercise
1. A bag contains 2 red cards (R) and 5 green cards (G). Two cards are to be
removed at random without replacing them.
a) Draw a tree diagram to illustrate this
b) What is the probability among the two cards picked;
i) there is at least a red card
ii) there is at least a green card

2. A box contains 3 red, 4 black, and 6 yellow cards. Three cards are to be
picked at random without replacing.
a) Draw a tree diagram to show this situation
b) Find the probability that among the cards chosen there is at least a yellow
card.
c) Find the probability that the cards selected are of the same colour.

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Probability with Venn diagram
When an event is represented by Venn diagram, the sample space( S ) is always equals to
the universal set (U) and the possible outcomes of specific events are represented by circles
within the universal set.
It must be noted that If A is an event occurring in a sample space S, then P(A) =n(A)/n(S)
For instance if six sided die is rolled, then the sample space will be:
S ={1,2,3,4,5,6}. If we let E ={the outcome is an even number} and O={an outcome is an odd
number}. Then E={2,4,6} and O ={1,3,5}. Then we have the following Venn diagram.

S
E
O
2
1

4
6 3
5

 Now P(E) = 3/6 = 1/2 and P(O) = 3/6 = ½

 P(E ∩ O) = 0/6 = 0, as n(E ∩ O) = 0
 P(E ∪ O) = 6/6 = 1

The following website can be consulted for any topic on mathematics and mainly for
probability using Venn diagrams

1. https://www.khanacademy.org
2. https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-statistics/probability-ap/probability-addition-
rule/v/probability-with-playing-cards-and-venn-diagrams
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydv1Wn3Au3Y

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