Experiment 1

DC Circuits

Objectives:
Connecting basic DC circuits using breadboard, and performing basic resistance, current and voltage
measurements using multimeters.

Theory:
Ohm’s law describes the relation between the voltage difference across a resistor, and the current
that passes through that resistor. It states that:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (1)
Where R is the resistance measured in Ohms (Ω). Notice that the resistance can be constant, and
in this case it is called “Ohmic resistance”, or may be variable depending on the current or
voltage as well as other factors, where it is called a “Non-Ohmic” resistor. In this lab you will
use Ohmic resistors.
In real life, it may be required to connect more than one resistor together in order to achieve the
required result from the circuit being constructed. There are two basic ways in which resistors
can be connected:
a. The series connection:
When two or more resistors are connected in series, the current that passes through one of
them will pass through all three resistors. So in this connection:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 … (2)

However, if you measure the total voltage difference across the whole combination, you
will find that it equals the sum of individual voltages;
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 … (3)

b. The parallel connection:

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage difference across each
one of them equals the voltage difference across all three resistors. So in this connection:
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 … (4)

However, if you measure the total current passing the whole combination, you will find
that it equals the sum of individual currents;
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 … (5)
Refer to appendix II before proceeding with this experiment for information on performing
voltage and current measurements.
You probably noticed that ohm’s law allows you to analyze simple circuits and calculate voltage,
current and resistance easily. If you wish to analyze more complicated circuits, such as circuits
with two batteries, you will find that this can’t be done using Ohm’s law alone. Kirchhoff’s laws
are valuable tools that allow you to do such an analysis.

Kirchhoff’s Point Rule: ∑ 𝐼 = 0

This rule is a result of the conservation of charge principle; charge can’t
be created or destroyed. Take a look at fig. 1 that shows a part of a
circuit that has a junction, where the current has two possible paths.
Kirchhoff’s point rule tells us that all the current that enters the junction
has to leave it. To apply Kirchhoff’s point rule to this junction, one can
assume that any current entering the point is positive, and any current
that leaves the point is negative:
∑ 𝐼 = 0 → 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 Fig.1-1: Kirchhoff’s point rule
From which 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule: ∑𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 ∆𝑉 = 0

Kirchhoff’s loop rule is a result of the conservation of energy (how?). Before getting in the
details of this rule, let us look at two frequently encountered circuit elements:
a. The resistor: The current flows from the point of high potential to the point of low
b. potential. Thus, based on the direction of the current through any resistor, we can figure
out which side of the resistor has high potential and which side has low potential.
c. The battery: Always, the positive side of the battery has a higher potential that the
negative side.
To illustrate how you can use the loop rule, let us look at the example in Fig. 1-2.

In this example, the direction of the current in

each branch is given. Notice how the current is
moving to the right through R1, which means that
the left side of this resistor has a higher potential
than the right side. Similarly, the right side of R2
is at a higher potential than its left side, and the
left side of R3 is higher in potential than its right
side. To help in memorizing these important
notes, it is helpful to write some information on
the diagram itself. In Fig.1-2b, the high potential
point is represented by a “+” sign, and the low
potential with a “-” sign. Notice also how the
positive side of the battery is at a higher potential
Fig.1-2a: Kirchhoff’s loop rule
than its negative side regardless of the direction of
the current.
Once you have the “+” and “-” signs written on the diagram, you can decide in which direction
you would like to apply Kirchhoff’s loop rules.
In this example, we will call the upper loop
“loop 1” and will travel in the clockwise
direction, and we will call the lower loop “loop
2” and travel in the clockwise direction.
Let us start loop1 at point A: Imagine that you
are walking around this loop and observing
potential differences. The first thig that you will
encounter is the battery E1, where you will pass
from its negative side to its positive side,
meaning that you will observe an increase in
potential, thus a positive potential difference.
The next circuit element is R1, and you are
going to see the high potential side followed by
the low potential one, so a drop in potential (a Fig.1-2b: Kirchhoff’s loop rule
negative potential difference). Next item is R2,
and finally E2 before you get back to point A, at which point, according to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
the sum of potential differences should add up to zero. The same can be applied to loop 2. This
can be represented as follows:
∑𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 ∆𝑉 = 0

Loop 1: 𝜀1 − ∆𝑉𝑅1 − ∆𝑉𝑅2 + 𝜀2 = 0 (6)

Loop 2: −𝜀2 + ∆𝑉𝑅2 + ∆𝑉𝑅3 − 𝜀3 = 0 (7)

If required, the voltage difference across each resistor can be written in terms of current and
resistance according to ohm’s law:
Loop 1: 𝜀1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝜀2 = 0 (8)
Loop 2: −𝜀2 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝜀3 = 0 (9)

Finding the voltage difference between any two points can also be achieved using a similar
approach. As an example, let us find the voltage difference between points A and B. To do this,
you have to start at one point, and end at the other without closing the loop. If you start at point
A for example, the starting potential would be 𝑉𝐴 , and if you end at point B, the final potential
would be 𝑉𝐵 , the same sign convention as the one we used for Kirchhoff’s loop rule apply here:
𝑉𝐴 − 𝜀2 + ∆𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉𝐵 (10)

From which the voltage difference can be calculated:

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝜀2 − ∆𝑉𝑅2 (11)

Note that you can use a different path to evaluate the same voltage difference; so one can choose
to travel through the upper branch, or the lower branch. The final result however, after the actual
numbers are plugged in, should be exactly the same.
Refer to appendix II before proceeding with this experiment.
 Appendix I
Introduction to basic components

Wires:
Wires can be thought of as large, smooth pipes that allow water to pass through easily. Wires are
made of metals, usually copper, that offer very low resistance to the flow of electricity. When
wires from different parts of a circuit connect accidentally we have a short circuit or simply a short.
You must always make sure that the metal from different wires never touches except at springs
where the wires are connecting to each other. The electric current, expressed in Amperes (A,
named after Andre Ampere who studied the relationship between electricity and magnetism) or
milliamps (mA, 1/1000 of an ampere), is a measure of how fast electrons are flowing in a wire just
as a water current describes how fast water is flowing in a pipe.
Batteries and Generators:
To make water flow through a pipe we need a pump. To make electricity flow through wires, we
use a battery or a generator to create an electrical charge across the wires. A battery does this by
using a chemical reaction and has the advantage of being simple, small, and portable. If you move
a magnet near a wire, then electricity will low in the wire. This is done in a generator. The electric
power companies have enormous generators driven by steam or water pressure to produce
electricity for your home.

Voltage:
Expressed in volts (V, and named after Alessandro Volta who invented the battery in 1800), is a
measure of how strong the electric charge from your battery or generator is, similar to the water
pressure. Notice the “+” and “–” signs on the battery. These indicate which direction the battery
will “pump” the electricity, similarly to how a water pump can only pump water in one direction.
The 0V or “–” side of the battery is often referred to as “ground”. Notice that just to the right of
the battery pictured below is a symbol, the same symbol you see next to the battery holder.
Engineers are not very good at drawing pictures of their parts, so when engineers draw pictures of
their circuits they use symbols like this to represent them. It also takes less time to draw and takes
up less space on the page. Note that wires are represented simply by lines on the page.

Switch:
Since you don’t want to waste water when you are not using it, you have a faucet or valve to turn
the water on and off. Similarly, you use a switch to turn the electricity on and off in your circuit.
A switch connects (the “closed” or “on” position) or disconnects (the “open” or “off” position) the
wires in your circuit. As with the battery.
The switch is represented by different symbols, shown below.

Resistor:
The pipe size limits the water flow to what you actually need. Electricity works in a similar manner,
except that wires have so little resistance that they would have to be very thin to limit the flow of
electricity. They would be hard to handle and break easily. But the water flow through a large pipe
could also be limited by filling a section of the pipe with rocks (a thin screen would keep the rocks
from falling over), which would slow the flow of water but not stop it. Resistors are like rocks for
electricity, they control how much electric current flows. To increase the water flow through a pipe
you can increase the water pressure or use less rocks. To increase the electric current in a circuit
you can increase the voltage or use a lower value resistor (this will be demonstrated in a moment).
Ohm’s Law: You just observed that when you have less resistance in the circuit, more current
flows (making the LED brighter). The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is
known as Ohm’s Law (after George Ohm who discovered it in 1828):
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Current= 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Resistance is the electrical friction between an electric current and the material it is flowing
through; it is the loss of energy from electrons as they move between atoms of the material.
Resistors are made using carbon and can be constructed with different resistive values, such as
the seven parts included in your PK-101. If a large amount of current is passed through a resistor
then it will become warm due to the electrical friction. Light bulbs use a small piece of a highly
resistive material called tungsten. Enough current is passed through this tungsten to heat it until
it glows white hot, producing light. Metal wires have some electrical resistance, but it is very
low (less than 1Ω per foot) and can be ignored in almost all circuits. Materials such as metals
which have low resistance are called conductors. Materials such as paper, plastic, and air have
extremely high values of resistance and are called insulators.
Resistor Color Code:
You are probably wondering what the colored bands on the resistors mean. They are the method
for marking the value of resistance on the part. The first ring represents the first digit of the
resistor’s value. The second ring represents the second digit of the resistor’s value. The third ring
tells you the power of ten to multiply by, (or the number of zeros to add). The final and fourth
ring represents the construction tolerance. Most resistors have a gold band for a 5% tolerance.
This means the value of the resistor is guaranteed to be within 5% of the value marked. The
colors below are used to represent the numbers 0 through 9.
 Variable Resistor:
We talked about how a switch is used to turn the electricity on and off just like a valve is used
to turn the water on and off. But there are many times when you want some water but don’t need
all that the pipe can deliver, so you control the water by adjusting an opening in the pipe with a
faucet. Unfortunately, you can’t adjust the thickness of an already thin wire. But you could also
control the water flow by forcing the water through an adjustable length of rocks.

Center pin
Symbol of
Symbol of variable resistor
a variable
resistors

Left pin Right pin

The dial on the variable resistor moves the arm contact and sets the resistance between the left
and center pins. The remaining resistance of the part is between the center and right pins. For
example, when the dial is turned fully to the left, there is minimal resistance between the left and
center pins (usually 0Ω) and maximum resistance between the center and right pins. The resistance
between the left and right pins will always be the total resistance.
Breadboard:
Breadboards are used for mounting electronic components and to make connecting them together
easy, and are similar to the printed circuits boards used in most electronic devices. Breadboards
make it easy to add and remove components. Your breadboard has 830 holes arranged into rows
and columns (some models may have more or less holes but will be arranged the same way).

The holes are connected together as follows:

There are many columns of 5 holes each. The 5 holes within each column are electrically
connected together, but the columns are not electrically connected to each other. This makes 126
columns of 5 holes each. Note that “electrically connected together” means that there is a wire
within the breadboard connecting the 5 holes.
All holes in the rows marked with a blue “–” or a red “+” are electrically connected together, but
none of these rows are electrically connected to each other. This makes 6 rows of 100 holes. The
red “+” holes will usually be used for your “+” battery or power supply connections and the blue
“–” holes will usually be used for your ground (“–” battery or power supply) connections.

Inserting Parts into the Breadboard

To insert components into the breadboard, keep their pins straight and gently push into the holes.
If the pins get bent and become difficult to insert, they can be straightened with a pliers. Always
make sure components do not touch each other.

After using your kit for a while, some of the wire ends may break off. If so, you should remove
about 3/8 inch of insulation from the broken end with a wire striper or scissors.
LED:
converts electrical energy into light, like the light bulbs in
your home. You can also think of an LED as being like a
simple water meter, since as the electric current increases
in a wire the LED becomes brighter.
 Appendix II
Performing basic measurements

- Measuring voltage
To measure the voltage across any circuit element, the
voltmeter/voltage sensor should be connected in parallel with the
circuit element as shown in Fig. B-1.

Note that the voltmeter has a very high impedance. Connecting a

voltmeter in series with a circuit by mistake may result in reducing
the current through the circuit to zero or a very small value, and in
general the reading obtained in such a connection is far from the Fig.B-1: A voltmeter is used to
actual value of the intended measurement. measure the voltage across R1

- Measuring current
To measure the current in any part of a circuit, the ammeter/current sensor should be connected in
series. This requires cutting one of the connections and inserting the ammeter/current sensor so
that all the current passes through it. See Fig. B-2.

Fig. B-2: connecting an ammeter to measure the current in a circuit.

Note that current measuring devices like ammeter/current sensor have a very small impedance.
Thus, connecting these devices by mistake in parallel with a circuit element should be avoided
since it may result in a large current through the device which can cause severe damage to the
device. Some manufacturers install a fuse to protect the device should a similar mistake happens.

- Measuring resistance
An Ohm meter can be used to measure the value of the resistance. In this case, the resistor has to
be disconnected from the circuit.
For this reason, a color coding is used to identify the value of the resistance easily without the
need to disconnect the resistor from the circuit.
 Experiment 1

DC Circuits

Components Needed:
Part 1:
1- 9V battery or power supply
2- one Switch
3- resistors: 10kΩ resistor, 1kΩ, 10kΩ variable resistor
4- one LED
Part 2:
1- 9V battery or power supply
2- switch
3- resistors: 1kΩ, (2.2 kΩ x 2), 3.3kΩ, 3.9kΩ,10kΩ, 100KΩ

Part 3:
1- 9V battery or power supply
2- switch
3- resistors: 1kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 3.9kΩ

Part 4:
1- 9V battery or power supply
2- switch
3- resistors: 3.9kΩ, 10kΩ, 10kΩ variable resistor
4- two LEDs
Experimental Procedure:

Part1: Simple circuit

A. Simple LED circuit

Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1-1. Be sure all your wires are securely in place and not loose.
Also make sure the metal in each hole is not touching any other metal, including other parts of the
same component.

Fig.1-1

Turn the switch on, the LED should light up. Reverse the LED and right down your observations.

Observations: …………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

B. Brightness control
Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1-2 and then write down your observations.

Fig.1-2

Observations: …………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Part two: Resistors in Series

1- Connect the circuit shown in figure 1-3.

Fig.1-3

2- Complete table 1-1 by finding the voltage across each resistor and the total voltage across both
resistors theoretically and experimentally. (Note: measure the actual voltage of the battery with
the circuit ON and use this value for the theoretical calculations).

Table 1-1

Theoretically Experimentally

V1

V2

VTot

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

………………………………………………………………………………………..…………...……

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………...………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Practice 1:

Is the multimeter reading in figure 1-4 correct? If not, what is the correct reading? Explain your
answer experimentally and theoretically.
R1 = 1 K R2 = 2.2 K, R3 = 2.2 K, R4 = 10 K R5 = 3.9 K

Fig.1-4

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

………………………………………………………………………………………..…………...……

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………...………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Part Three: Resistors in parallel

3- Connect the circuit shown in figure 1-5.

Fig.1-5

4- Complete table 1-2 by finding the current through each resistor and the total current
theoretically and experimentally. (Note: measure the actual voltage of the battery with the
circuit ON and use this value for the theoretical calculations).

Table 1-2

Theoretically Experimentally

I1

I2

ITotal

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Practice 2:

Draw the circuit diagram for the setup in figure 1-6, where the leads shown are connected to a 9 V
power supply. Use the theoretical and experimental methods to determine the current indicated by
the arrow on the circuit.
R1 = 2.2 K, R2 = 1 K, R3 = 3.9 K.

Fig.1-6

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
Part four: Combined circuit

Connect the circuit shown in figure 1-7

Fig.1-7

With the circuit running, change the value of the variable resistor and observe what happens.

Analyze the circuit to explain your observations.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Conclusion:

Source of error: