IGCSE

COMBINED
SCIENCE NOTES
Name: Amina Berete

Form: 4
School: First Choice

COMPILED BY B.N MUPETI

 2020 Edition
CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER

Biology

B1. Characteristics of living organisms 01

B2. Cells 01
B3. Biological molecules 05
B4. Enzymes 07
B5. Plant nutrition 09
B6. Animal nutrition 11
B7. Transport 16
B8. Gas exchange and respiration 21
B9. Coordination and response 25
B10. Reproduction 27
B11. Organisms and their environment 34
B12. Human influences on ecosystems 36

Chemistry

C1. The particulate nature of matter 38

C2. Experimental techniques 40
C3. Atoms, elements and compounds 44
C4. Stoichiometry 51
C5. Electricity and chemistry 53
C6. Energy changes in chemical reactions 55
C7. Chemical reactions 56
C8. Acids, bases and salts 60
C9. The Periodic Table 67
C10. Metals 71
C11. Air and water 75
C12. Organic chemistry 77

Physics

P1. Motion 82
P2. Work, energy and power 94
P3. Thermal Physics 102
P4. Properties of waves, including light and sound 110
P5. Electrical quantities 120
P6. Electric circuits 124

For feedback email briannaithan@gmail.com

 Biology section

Characteristics of living organisms

Describing the characteristics of living organisms by defining the following terms

Movement: movement refers to an action by an organism causing a change of position or

place.

Reproduction: reproduction refers to processes that make more of the same kind of organism.

Sensitivity: sensitivity refers to the ability to detect and respond to changes in the
environment.

Growth: growth refers to the permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in the
number of cells, cell size, or both.

Respiration: respiration refers to the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules and release energy.

Excretion: excretion refers to removal, from organisms, of toxic materials and substances in
excess of requirements. These toxic materials are waste products of metabolism and
substances taken in excess.

Nutrition: nutrition refers to taking in of materials for energy, growth and development.

The seven characteristics could be memorized by the term “MRS. GREN” using the first
letters of each characteristic mentioned above.

Cells

Cell structure

Stating that living things are made of cells

Living organisms are made of cells. Cells are very small; hence, they can only be seen under
a microscope. We have two types of cells namely plant and animal cells.

Describing and comparing the structure of a plant and animal cell.

Note similarities: both contain a cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus

Note differences: in addition, a plant cell contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a sap vacuole

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Stating the functions of the structures found in cells

1. Cell wall: This is a non-living thick rigid layer surrounding the cell. It is made of
cellulose, and it gives the cell its shape (angular, rectangular or rounded) and
prevents it from bursting. It also allows the plant to support itself. The cell wall is
permeable
i.e. it allows all substances to move into or out of the cell. Only the semi-
permeable membrane will allow or dis-allow entry or exit of some substances into
the cell.

2. Cell membrane: This is a partially permeable membrane. It controls the movement of

substances into and out of the cell.

3. Cytoplasm: This is a jelly like substance made up of mostly water and structures.
Metabolic reactions occur in the cytoplasm.

4. Chloroplasts: These are green discs which contain chlorophyll (which is a green
pigment that traps sunlight for photosynthesis).

5. Nucleus: Controls all activities of the cell.

6. Sap vacuole: A vacuole is a large room in the center of the cell. It contains cell sap.
The cell sap stores dissolved sugars, mineral salts and amino acids. It also controls
the movement of water in and out of the cell.

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Relating the structure of certain cells to their functions:

Type of cell Where it is found Function
Ciliated cells Lining the trachea and bronchi Move mucus upwards to the back
of the throat
Root hair cells Near the ends of plant roots Absorb water and mineral salts
Xylem vessels In stems, roots and leaves of plants Transport water and mineral salts;
help in support
Palisade mesophyll Beneath the epidermis of a leaf Photosynthesis
cells
Nerve cells Throughout the bodies of animals Transmit information in the form of
electrical impulses
Red blood cells In the blood of mammals Transport oxygen
Sperm and egg cells Sperm in testes and egg cells in ovaries Fuse together to produce a zygote

Ciliated Cells:

Ciliated cells have cilia whose function is to move the mucus up the trachea and bronchi
to the throat. The mucus traps bacteria and dust particles. When it reaches the throat,
mucus is swallowed to the stomach where the acid kills the bacteria.

Root Hair Cells:

Their function is to absorb water and minerals from the soil. They are adapted by 3 ways. One,
they have a large surface area for more water intake. Two, they have a large number of
mitochondria for respiration to become more active. Three, they have a concentrated vacuole
to support the absorption of water by osmosis.

Palisade mesophyll cells:

Consist of one or two layers of closely-packed, long and cylindrical cells containing
chloroplasts. Their function is to facilitate photosynthesis. They contain numerous
chloroplasts to allow maximum absorption of light.

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Leaf structure
showing one layer of
palisade mesophyll
cells

Sperm cells have

 a tail – to help them swim

 a head which has digestive enzymes to breakdown the outer membrane of the ovum to
allow fertilization to occur

 a middle piece with numerous mitochondria to provide energy for the sperm to swim
(this point is not in the syllabus though)

An egg cell

Egg cells (ova) possess a yolk which acts as a food store. The spherical shape of ova allows
cilia lining the oviducts to easily move the ovum so that it can meet sperm and be fertilized
by it.

Calculating magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres as units

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Magnification = in mm

Movement in and out of cells

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Defining diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane. Water diffuses
through partially permeable membranes by osmosis.

Defining osmosis

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential
(dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a
partially permeable membrane. Water moves in and out of cells by osmosis through the cell
membrane. Water also enters the roots by osmosis.

Investigating and describing the effects of immersing of plant tissues in solutions of

different concentrations

Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water molecules to move from one region to
another.

Dilute solutions have a higher water potential than concentrated solutions. Pure water has the
highest water potential. Water molecules that dissolve solutes are bound to the solute
particles. A dilute solution thus has a lot of unbound water molecules, giving it a higher water
potential than a concentrated solution.

Immersing plant tissues in concentrated solutions of salts make the tissues smaller (flaccid) due
to the movement of water molecules out of the tissues and into the concentrated solution.

Immersing plant tissues in pure water can make the tissues bigger (turgid) due to movement of
water molecules from the pure water and into the tissues. Cell walls in plant cells prevent
them from bursting. Absence of cell walls in animal cells can result in bursting due to too
much water uptake by cells.

Small dots are

water and large
dots are solute
particles.

Biological molecules

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Listing the chemical elements that make up:

1. Carbohydrates: made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.

2. Fats: made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (less oxygen than in

carbohydrates).

3. Proteins: made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They sometimes

contain sulphur and phosphorus.

Large molecules are made from smaller molecules: e.g.

1. Starch and glycogen are made from glucose

2. Proteins are made from amino acids

3. Fats and oils are made from fatty acids and glycerol

Food tests

Test for starch

1. The test for starch is called the Iodine test. Iodine is added to the sample and the
colour change (if any) is observed.

2. Procedure: Add a few drops of iodine solution (which is brown) to the sample. If
the sample contains starch, it will turn blue-black in colour.

Test for reducing sugars 1. The test for reducing sugars is known as the
Benedict’s test.

2. Reducing sugars are glucose, fructose,

galactose, maltose and lactose. Sucrose is
not a reducing sugar.

3. Procedure: Add Benedict’s solution to the

sample and mix the contents thoroughly.
Heat the mixture in a boiling water bath
for 5 minutes.

4. The colour of the solution changes from

blue to green to yellow to orange to brick-
red if a reducing sugar is present.

5. Both test tubes on the left contain reducing sugar,

however, the one on the right side contains more than

Test for proteins the one on the left.

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1. The test for proteins is known as the Biuret test.

2. The main reagents are aqueous sodium hydroxide (potassium hydroxide can also be
used) and copper (II) sulfate. A ready mixed reagent of the two chemicals called Biuret
reagent can also be used.

3. Procedure: First add copper sulfate solution to a solution of the food sample, followed
by either sodium or potassium hydroxide solution.

4. If proteins are present, a colour change from blue to purple will be observed.

Test for fats and oils

1. The test for fats is known as the ethanol emulsion test.

2. Fats in the sample are dissolved by adding ethanol. Water is then added to the ethanolic
mixture. Since fats do not dissolve in water, they form a cloudy white emulsion.

Nutrient Test Original colour Positive result Negative result

Starch Iodine solution Brown Blue/black Brown
Reducing sugars Benedict’s solution Blue Brick red Blue
Proteins Biuret reagent Blue Purple Blue
Fats Ethanol and water ------------ Cloudy Clear

Water:

About 70% of your weight is water. Water is an essential nutrient. The functions of water
include:

• As a solvent which dissolves reactants of metabolic reactions.

• As a component of blood plasma in which red blood cells, nutrients, hormones and other
materials are carried in.

• It helps in lowering the body temperature in hot conditions in the form of sweat on the
skin. The sweat evaporates using heat energy from the body, thus lowering the
temperature.

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. Catalysts speed up the rate of
chemical reactions without being altered in the reaction.

Explaining enzyme action

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1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions without
being altered in the reaction. They are made of proteins.

2. They are substrate-specific. Substrates are the reactants that an enzyme acts on e.g.
amylase can only digest starch and not cellulose even though they are both polymers of
glucose.

Enzymes are believed to function using the lock and key hypothesis.

1. An active site is the region on an enzyme molecule that the substrate binds to. It is usually
a groove on the surface of the enzyme. Only the correct substrate is able to fit into the
active site.

2. Enzyme action begins when the substrate molecule binds to the active site of the enzyme
to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

3. The substrate is then converted into product molecules.

4. The product molecules depart from the active site, leaving the enzyme free to catalyse
another reaction.

Investigating and describing the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme

activity

Effect of temperature

1. At low temperatures, the rate of a reaction is very low because substrate particles
are moving too slowly to react. Substrate and enzyme molecules have little kinetic energy;
hence the frequency of collision is low.

2. As the temperature increases, the rate of enzyme activity increases. Substrate and
enzyme molecules gain more kinetic energy; hence the frequency of collisions between
substrate molecules and active sites of enzymes increases.

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3. Enzyme activity increases up to an optimum temperature, beyond which it starts

decreasing. Enzymes which are found in the human body usually work best at about 37
°C.

4. As the temperature increases beyond the optimum temperature, enzyme activity

drops because enzymes are made of proteins, which are denatured at high temperatures.

5. At extremely high temperatures, the enzyme is completely denatured and the rate
of reaction drops to zero.

1. Enzyme activity is highest at the optimum pH of

Effect of pH the enzyme.

2. As the pH increases or decreases from the

optimum, enzyme activity sharply
decreases. This is because the shape of
the active site is changed as the enzyme is
denatured. When this happens, the active
site no longer fits the substrate, so the
enzyme can no longer catalyse its
reaction.

3. At extreme pH levels, the enzyme is

completely denatured and the rate of
reaction drops to zero.

4. The optimum pH for each enzyme differs. For

example, pepsin works best under the acidic
conditions in the stomach, while intestinal
enzymes work best under alkaline conditions.

Plant nutrition

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials
using energy from light.

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The word equation for photosynthesis is:

carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll

The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis is:

Chlorophyll converts light energy into chemical energy in molecules. The chemical energy is then
used for the synthesis of carbohydrates.

The subsequent use and storage of the carbohydrates made in photosynthesis

Glucose, the product of photosynthesis is the most important food of the plant. Plants make
other nutrients from glucose. Glucose is transported to other parts of the plant as sucrose e.g
to the roots, where it can be converted back to glucose for respiration, and part of it into
starch for storage (this is the case with potatoes and sweet potatoes). Growing cells make
cellulose for cell walls from sucrose. Fruits use the sucrose to make the attractive scent and
tasty nectar to attract insects.

Importance of photosynthesis

 Converts light energy from the Sun to chemical energy in the form of glucose,
which
can then be used by plants and animals.

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 In the day, the leaf produces more glucose than can be removed. The excess glucose
is then converted into starch and stored in the leaf, or converted to sucrose and
transported to other parts of the plant via the phloem.

 At night, starch stored in the leaf is then converted to glucose for respiration.

 Excess glucose is converted to sucrose before being transported out of the leaf for
use by other parts of the plant, or converted to starch for storage in the various
storage organs.

 The stored starch can be used to make cellulose.

 Photosynthesis ensures that living things have a constant supply of oxygen.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthesis increases as the amount of water, concentration of carbon dioxide,
temperature and light intensity increase. Submerged aquatic plants can have reduced
photosynthesis due to events like eutrophication which cause growth of algae on the surface
of water bodies resulting in reduced light intensity reaching the submerged aquatic plants.
Leaf structure

You should be able to identify chloroplasts, cuticle, guard cells and stomata, upper and lower
epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, vascular bundles, xylem and phloem in
leaves of a dicotyledonous plant.

Features of leaves that enable it to perform its functions

Palisade mesophyll cells for photosynthesis:

Their function is to facilitate photosynthesis. They contain numerous chloroplasts to allow

maximum absorption of light. Their chloroplasts are arranged alongside the cell wall and are most
abundant on the side facing the sunlight. The position of the chloroplasts actually changes to
ensure efficient absorption of sunlight.

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Stomata, spongy mesophyll cells and guardcells for gas exchange:

Spongy mesophyll cells have air spaces to allow for fast diffusion of carbon dioxide, which
enters the leaf through the stomata, to all photosynthetic cells.

Guard cells are bean-shaped, chloroplast-containing cells located in the lower epidermis.
They control the opening and closing of the stoma (plural: stomata), the gap between the
guard cells. The stomata allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in, oxygen to diffuse out and
water vapour to escape.

Plants open their stomata during the day for carbon dioxide intake and close their stomata
during the night to minimize water loss through transpiration. Guard cells control the
opening and closing of stomata through regulation of water potential within themselves.

Xylem for transport and support

The xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves. A xylem vessel is
made up of hollow tubes joined end to end forming a long drain pipe which runs from the
roots to the stem.

The xylem also adds mechanical support to the plant since its walls are made of strong
cellulose and lignin

Phloem for transport

The function of the phloem is to transport sugars and amino acids from the leaves to
other parts of the plant.

Describing the importance of nitrate ions for making amino acids and magnesium ions
for making chlorophyll

• Mg2+ (Magnesium ions): they are important for the production of the green pigment
chlorophyll. Lack of it results in lack of photosynthesis and yellowing between the veins of
leaves

• Nitrates: these are the sources of nitrogen; they are required to make amino acids and
proteins. Lack of it results in weak growth and yellowing of the leaves. Both mineral ions are
absorbed from the soil.

Animal nutrition

A balanced diet: is a perfect diet which contains all of the nutrients in reasonable
proportions.

Nutrient Source Dietary importance

Carbohydrates Fruits, Honey, sugar,  Energy resource, essential in

Bread, Potatoes, Pasta, respiration to release energy.

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sadza/maize meal etc  Also used in creating cellulose, the

substance that makes up cell walls of
plant cells.
Fats Butter, cooking oil, red  Synthesis of membranes.
meat  Solvent for fat soluble vitamins.
 Storage of energy.
 Insulating material.
Proteins Milk, meat, eggs  For growth and repair of worn out
tissues.
 Synthesis of enzymes and hormones.
 Formation of antibodies.
Vitamin C Citrus fruits e.g  Essential for the formation of collagen, a
oranges and lemons protein that functions as a cementing
(vitamin C is damaged layer between cells.
by cooking)  Increases immunity.
Vitamin D Butter, egg yolk,  Promotes absorption of calcium from small
exposure to sunlight intestines and its deposition in bones.

Mineral salts

Calcium Milk, cheese, eggs  Making bones and teeth.

 Normal functioning of muscles and blood
clotting process.
Iron Red meat especially  Needed for the formation of the red
liver, green leafy pigment haemoglobin, which is essential
vegetables for the transportation of oxygen around
the body in red blood cells.

Fibre/roughage Fruits and vegetables  Provide bulk to undigested matter and

(cellulose from promote peristalsis. The process of
roughage is not pushing the food through the gut is called
digested/absorbed. peristalsis, without roughage peristalsis is
Roughage is from cell very slow and weak
walls of plant cells.)

Water Water, juices. (70% of  Medium/solvent for various enzymatic

the body is water) reactions.
 Main component of blood plasma.
 Main component of sweat. Sweat lowers
body temperature in hot conditions by
absorbing heat from the body. This leads
to the evaporation of the sweat.

How age, gender and activity affect the dietary needs of humans including during
pregnancy and whilst breast-feeding.

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Pregnant Women:

The diet of a pregnant woman needs to be very rich in certain nutrients because she is not
only feeding herself; she is feeding her baby as well. In order for the fetus to develop well, it
needs extra protein, iron, calcium and vitamin D. Proteins are used to develop the tissues of
the fetus, iron is used to make haemoglobin, while calcium and vitamin D are used to
develop the baby’s bones.

Breast-Feeding Women (Lactation):

Lactation means the production of breast milk. After pregnancy, the mother breast-feeds the
baby for about 6 months or more. Breast milk needs to be high in proteins, calcium, and
vitamins to guarantee the healthy growth of the infant.

Growing Children (Passing Puberty):

At some point, each child gets a growth spurt. This is a very high growth rate that increases
the child’s size and mass in a short period of time. A growing child’s diet needs extra proteins
to develop cells and enzymes because their metabolic rate is higher. They also need calcium
and vitamin D to develop bones, and iron to make haemoglobin.

Some other considerations:

Men need more energy than women. Teenagers need more energy, proteins and calcium than
adults. Blue collar (industrial) workers need more energy than white collar (office) workers.

Effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, obesity, constipation, coronary heart

disease and scurvy

Malnutrition is eating inadequate proportions of food. It is a consequence of an

unbalanced diet. An unbalanced diet is rich in some nutrients and low in others, or even
lacking. There are lots of effects of malnutrition such as starvation, obesity or deficiency
diseases.

Starvation is an effect of malnutrition. In the case of starvation, the body tends to feed on its
own self. When the glucose level is decreased in the body, the liver breaks down fats to
respire for energy, when the body is out of fats, it starts respiring proteins from the muscles to
release energy, eventually the body ends up looking like a skeleton. Starvation is usually
present in countries with famines, which are caused by poverty, large populations, low
amounts of food, unsuitable climates and lack of money.

Obesity is the opposite of starvation. It is eating too much of every nutrient, especially
carbohydrates and fats. Obesity doesn’t strike alone; it brings with it several other diseases
such as high blood pressure, cardiac diseases, diabetes, stress on joints and bones, as well as
other psychological issues like low self-esteem and lack of confidence. To prevent obesity,
you have to control your carbohydrates and fats intake and exercise regularly.

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Constipation: lack of fibre in the diet causes undigested matter to lack bulk. This results
in poor peristalsis, meaning that food stays too long in the large intestine. Since food
stays longer, lots of water is absorbed by the large intestine, resulting in dry hard stools.

Coronary heart disease: over consumption of carbohydrates and fats can lead to obesity. The
excess carbohydrates are converted into fats resulting in fatty deposits in organs and arteries.
These fatty deposits may lead to coronary heart diseases.

Scurvy is caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. Its symptoms include bleeding gums.

Explaining the causes and effects of vitamin D and iron deficiencies

Rickets (soft and deformed bones) is the deficiency disease of both vitamin D and calcium.
Bones are made of calcium, which vitamin D helps to deposit in the bones. If either calcium
or vitamin D is lacking in the diet, rickets is developed.

Anaemia is the deficiency disease of iron. The amount of haemoglobin decreases due to iron
deficiency. This causes short breath and tiredness.

The Alimentary canal

Ingestion is the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth.

Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water soluble
molecules using mechanical and chemical processes.

Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change
to the food molecules. The teeth are responsible for mechanical digestion.

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules. Saliva, in the mouth, aids in chemical digestion. Chemical digestion is also found
in the alimentary canal.

Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine
into the blood. It takes place in the small intestine.

Egestion is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through
the anus.

Identifying the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs, limited
to the mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver,
gall bladder, large intestine and anus.

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The journey of food from the mouth to

the anus through the alimentary canal
includes 5 steps:

Ingestion: Taking in pieces of food into the mouth

Digestion: The breakdown of large, insoluble food particles into smaller more soluble
ones by chemical and mechanical means. Absorption: Taking the digested food
molecules from the alimentary canal and into the bloodstream
Assimilation: Movement of digested food molecules into cells where they are used e.g.
to release energy or growth etc. Egestion: The elimination of undigested food materials
through the anus

Don’t confuse egestion with excretion;

excretion is to get rid of waste products of

Digestion metabolism.

Stating the significance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal in producing

small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed

The significance of chemical digestion is that it produces small, soluble molecules that can be
absorbed.

Functions of enzymes in the human alimentary canal

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1. Amylase breaks down starch to simpler sugars e.g. maltose

2. Protease breaks down protein to amino acids

3. lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol

Stating where, in the alimentary canal, amylase, protease and lipase are secreted

1. amylase – for breaking down starch to simpler sugars, e.g. maltose, is secreted in the
mouth by salivary glands

2. protease – for digestion of proteins to amino acids, is secreted in the small intestines

3. lipase – for digesting fats into fatty acids and glycerol, is secreted in the small intestines

Stating the functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice

The hydrochloric acid in gastric (stomach) juices is for killing bacteria in food and giving an
acid pH for enzymes to work well.

Transport

Transport in plants

Stating the functions of xylem and phloem

Xylem

 conducts water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves

 provides mechanical support to the plant

Phloem

 transports manufactured food (sucrose and amino acids) from the leaves to other
parts of the plant e.g. the roots and flowers.
Transverse section of dicotyledonous
tems Transverse section of dicotyledonous root

For stems, the xylem is drawn as a hollow tube.

Root hair cells as seen under a light microscope, as well as their function

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Root hairs Root hair cells take in water and

minerals from the soil. Xylem
vessels then take this water to all
parts of the plant.

Root

Stating the pathway taken by water through root, stem and leaf

 Water travels from the root to the stem and then to the leaf.
 The large surface area of root hairs increases the rate of the absorption of water.
 The pathway of water through parts of a plant can be investigated using stained
water.

Transpiration

Transpiration is loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the
surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the
stomata.

Factors which affect transpiration

 Light intensity – transpiration is greater in light than in darkness

 Temperature – as temperature increases, the rate of transpiration also increases

 Humidity of the atmosphere – transpiration is low when the level of humidity is

high

Explaining the effects of variation of temperature, and humidity on transpiration rate

• Humidity: humidity means more water vapour in the air, which means water vapour has
a higher concentration in the atmosphere than inside the leaf, so transpiration will be much
slower because the diffusion of water vapour outside the leaf will be slow. The higher the
humidity the slower the transpiration. [Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region
of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a
result of their random movement].

• Temperature: when the temperature is high, molecules move faster and evaporate faster,
so transpiration rate increases. The higher the temperature the faster the transpiration.

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Transport in mammals

The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure
oneway flow of blood.
Double circulation
The heart is a muscular organ which contracts to pump blood
around the body. It consists of four chambers – two upper
chambers (atria) and two lower chambers (ventricles). Both
ventricles have thicker walls than those of the atria. Humans
have a double circulation system i.e circulation to the lungs and
circulation to the body tissues. There is a low pressure
circulation (between the heart and the lungs) and a high pressure
circulation (between the heart and the rest of body).

Advantages of double circulation

 Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are separated
 Low pressure circulation prevents lung damage
 High pressure circulation ensures oxygenated blood reaches all parts of the body

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Cardiac 1. Muscles of the atria relax allowing blood to enter the heart. Atrioventricular valves
Cycle (bicuspid and tricuspid valves) open. Semilunar valves closed.
2. Muscles of the atria contract whilst muscles of the ventricles remain relaxed.
Atrioventricular valves open. Semilunar valves closed. Blood is moved from atria to
ventricles.
3. Muscles of the atria relax whilst muscles of the ventricles contract. Atrioventricular
valves closed. Semilunar valves open. Blood moves out of the heart.

Naming blood vessels

Using the diagram above, you should be able to name

Blood vessels to and from the heart: vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and
pulmonary vein.
Blood vessels to and from the lungs: pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease is caused by the blockage of coronary arteries. Possible risk
factors include diet high in fats or cholesterol, stress, smoking, genetic predisposition,
age (risk increases with age), and gender (affects males earlier than women).

Physical activity and pulse rate. Physical activity and heart rate.

A person’s pulse rate and heart rate are the same. Thus, physical activity increases both
the pulse and heart rate.

Structure and function of blood vessels

1. Arteries

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Function: The function of arteries is to transport blood away from the heart to the lungs
or other parts of the body.

Structure: The blood in the arteries (excluding the pulmonary artery) always has a high
pressure. The lumen of arteries is very narrow. This adds to the pressure. Arteries have a
strong thick wall which is elastic and stretchable to withstand this high pressure.

Brief description of characteristics of arteries:

• Transport blood away from the heart • Strong but stretchable walls

• Have a high blood pressure • Narrow lumen.

2. Veins

Function: the function of veins is to transport blood from the body to the heart. The veins
always have low blood pressure because by the time the blood reaches the veins after touring
the body, it will have lost most of its pressure. This means that blood flows very slowly in
the veins. To prevent backflow, veins have valves.

Structure: since veins have low blood pressure, they don’t need strong, thick walls like the
arteries, instead they have thin and less elastic walls. Their lumen is much wider too.

Brief description of characteristics of veins: • have wide lumen

• carry blood to the heart • have thin and less elastic walls • Valves present
• have low blood pressure

Arteries Veins
Blood flows away from the heart Blood flows towards the heart
Possess thick elastic walls Possess thin, not very elastic walls
Carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary Carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary
artery vein
Do not possess valves except aorta Possess valves to prevent back flow
Arteries are usually deeper in the flesh than Veins are nearer to the surface of the skin
veins
Pulse is detactable Pulse is usually not detectable
Have narrow lumen Have wider lumen

3. Capillaries
Blood capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in our
systems.

Function: capillaries collect nutrient filled and

oxygenated blood from the arteries and bring this
blood closer to body cells. Capillaries also link

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arteries with veins. When arteries come near an organ or a tissue, they divide into arterioles, these
arterioles divide further into capillaries that go through the tissue; this is when the exchange of
oxygen and food nutrients with carbon dioxide and waste products such as urea takes place by
diffusion.

Structure: Blood capillaries are very well adapted to their

function. They are one cell thick to reduce the diffusion
distance of materials thus promoting faster diffusion. They
also

have pores in their walls between the cells, to allow the

plasma Components of blood to get out of the blood and become tissue fluid.

Components of blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and blood
plasma

Identifying red and white blood cells, as seen under the light microscope, on
prepared slides and in diagrams and photomicrographs

Diagram showing a red and a white blood cell Microscopic view of Micrograph of red blood
one white and many
cells red blood cells

Stating the functions of certain components of blood

1. Red blood cells

The function of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body cells.
Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, an iron containing protein which binds reversibly
with oxygen.

Red blood cells are fully adapted to their function by the following characteristics:

 Biconcave disc shape gives it large surface area to carry more

oxygen  Haemoglobin to combine with oxygen  No nucleus that
takes up space.

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2. White Blood Cells:

White blood cells are found in blood plasma. White blood cells are part of the Immune
System. Their role is to protect the body by killing bacteria which cause disease, also
known as pathogens. White blood cells are much bigger than red blood cells, have a
nucleus, and are present in fewer amounts. There are two types of white blood cells
namely phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes are important in phagocytosis (the process of killing bacteria by engulfing

them, and digesting them using enzymes). Lymphocytes are important in antibody
production (Lymphocytes kill bacteria by secreting antibodies which kill the pathogens.
Each pathogen is killed by a specific type of antibody).

3. Platelets

Platelets prevent bleeding when the skin is cut, and stop bacteria from entering our
systems through the wound. Platelets work by causing clotting, when the skin is injured.

4. Blood plasma

Blood plasma makes up most of the blood. It is mostly water with some substances
dissolved in it. The blood plasma transports blood cells, ions, hormones, soluble
nutrients, hormones and carbon dioxide from one place to another.

Gas exchange and respiration

Gas exchange

Naming and identifying the lungs, diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries

Air inhaled moves from nostril to larynx to trachea to either of two bronchi to
bronchioles and then to alveoli (singular: alveolus). Bronchi form many smaller
bronchioles. Bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli are in the lung.

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Alveoli and associated blood vessels Listing the features of gas exchange

surfaces in animals:

These features include

• Large surface area for faster diffusion

• Thin surface to make diffusion distance shorter and faster. Both the alveoli and
capillaries are one cell thick.
• Good blood supply and
• Good ventilation with air

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Stating the differences in composition between inspired and expired air limited to
oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour
Gas Inspired Air Expired Air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Water vapour Variable High

Explaining the differences in composition between inspired and expired air

 Oxygen decreases in exhaled air because some of it is used by body cells in

respiration.
 Carbon dioxide increases because respiring cells produce carbon dioxide which is
then exhaled.
 Exhaled air contains more water vapour because gas exchange surfaces are made
of living cells which must be kept moist; some of this moisture evaporates into the
air.

Using limewater as a test for carbon dioxide to investigate the differences in

composition between inspired and expired air

Exhaled air turns lime water more milky because of its high carbon dioxide content.

When you inhale, air moves

into the mouth from C to D via
conical flask A.

When you exhale, air moves

from the mouth from E to F
via conical flask B.

The higher carbon dioxide

content in exhaled air turns the
lime water milky white.

Investigating and describing the effects of physical activity on rate and depth of
breathing

Generally, the rate and depth of breathing increase with physical activity. An increased
carbon dioxide concentration in the blood causes an increased rate and depth of
breathing.

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Explaining the role of goblet cells, mucus and ciliated cells in protecting the gas
exchange system from pathogens and particles

Ciliated cells:

Ciliated cells are present in the trachea and bronchi of our respiratory system. Their
function is to use their cilia to move mucus up the trachea to the throat. The mucus traps
bacteria and dust particles. When it reaches the throat, the mucus is swallowed to the
stomach where the stomach acid kills the bacteria.

Goblet cells and mucus:

The mucus used to trap bacteria and dust particles is secreted by goblet cells which are
next to ciliated cells.

Tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer and
coronary heart disease.

Describing the effects on the gas exchange

system of tobacco smoke and its major toxic
components, limited to carbon monoxide,
nicotine and tar

Effects of Smoking tobacco:

• Cilia can’t vibrate anymore, the air inhaled isn’t

clean. Goblet cells release more mucus which
makes the trachea narrower.

• Nicotine increases heart beat rate and blood

pressure.

• Carbon monoxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin

(in place of oxygen); hence, less oxygen is transported to

cells.

Smoke particles get trapped inside the lungs. White blood cells try to remove them by
secreting chemicals which unfortunately end up doing serious damage to the lungs
resulting in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells. This reduces the
amount of oxygen carried by blood to body cells because red blood cells end up carrying
carbon monoxide (which binds with haemoglobin much easily and strongly than oxygen).

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Nicotine makes blood vessels get narrower. This can increase blood pressure, leading to
hypertension.

Tar contains carcinogens (cancer causing chemicals).

Respiration

The uses of energy in the body of humans:

Energy in the human body is used for muscle contraction, protein synthesis, growth and
the maintenance of a constant body temperature.

Defining aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration refers to chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy.

Stating the word and balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration

Word equation for aerobic respiration is Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide +

water Balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 →

6CO2 + 6H2O Coordination and response

Hormones in humans

A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, and carried by the blood, which
alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.

Adrenaline is the hormone secreted in ‘fight or flight’ situations. Its effects are to increase
breathing and pulse rate, as well as to widen the pupils.

The role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic activity,
including increasing the blood glucose concentration and pulse rate.

Adrenaline increases your metabolic rate so that you have enough energy for fighting or
running away etc. When adrenaline reaches the heart it causes the cardiac muscle to
contract and relax rapidly so that oxygen and glucose reach the muscles of the body
faster. Adrenaline also makes the liver convert glycogen into glucose and secrete it into
the blood to be used in respiration. When adrenaline reaches the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles of the ribs, it makes them contract and relax faster too to increase rate
of breathing. These changes cause an increase in the respiration rate so that lots of energy
is being released. Giving examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion
increases

Adrenaline is released in Fight and flight situations.

Tropic responses

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Tropisms are directional growth responses to environmental stimuli.

Gravitropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity.

Phototropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the
direction from which light is coming.

Since auxin is a chemical ,phototropism and gravitroprism of a shoot are examples of the
chemical control of plant growth.

Investigating gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots

A seed is pinned
in the dark as
shown. The shoot
will bend
upwards whilst
Root the root bends
downwards due to
Shoot
gravitropism. The
shoot displays
negative
gravitropism whilst the root displays positive gravitropism.

Explaining the role of auxin in controlling shoot growth

[check notes that follow]

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Auxin is made only in the tip of a shoot from where it spreads through to the plant. Auxin
stimulates cell elongation/ growth. Auxin is only produced by the growing tip of the
plant. If this is removed, growth ceases.

Diagram A (phototropism): When light shines onto a shoot from all around, the shoot
grows straight upwards because auxin is evenly distributed around the tip of the shoot
causing equal growth on all sides. However, when light shines onto a shoot from one
side, the shoot grows towards the light because auxin at the tip concentrates on the shady
side thus causing rapid growth on the shady side than the bright side. This is positive
phototropism.

Diagram B (gravitropism): If a potted plant is placed on its side in a dark room

overnight, the shoot will bend upwards. Since there is no light, the result should be a
response to gravity. Auxin collects on the lower side of the stem, causing faster growth
there. Therefore, the stem curves upward. The shoot is displaying negative gravitropism.

Diagram C
(gravitropism): the root
and shoot are displaying
gravitropism.

Tropism can be positive

or negative. Positive
tropism means growing
towards. Negative
tropism means growing
away from. The root is
displaying positive
gravitropism.

Reproductio
n
Asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction:

Asexual means not sexual. This means that this kind of reproduction does not involve
sex. Asexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent. It is simply a single organism growing a new organism from itself e.g. in bacteria,
fungi and potato plants.

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Bacteria reproduce by a process called

binary fission. In binary fission, one
bacterium grows an exact copy of its
DNA coil which carries its genetic
information. Then the bacterium
completely divides with one DNA coil
in the parent and one in the daughter
bacterium. Each bacterium can
undergo binary fission once every 20
minutes making them able to
reproduce massive numbers from one parent in very little time.

The sporangium of Fungi produce productive

structures called spores that can grow into other
fungi. At some point, the sporangium will burst
open dispersing the spores into the air. If a spore
falls on an area of favourable conditions it will
germinate and grow into a new identical fungus.

A potato plant starts as a lateral bud

which grows from a potato tuber
under the soil. The bud then forms a
plant which will form more potato
tubers. These tubers can also form
lateral buds which grow into potato
plants.

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Sexual reproduction:

Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex
cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Identifying and drawing the sepals, petals, stamens, filaments and anthers, carpels,
style, stigma, ovary and ovules, of an insect-pollinated flower

Identifying and describing the anthers and

stigmas of a wind pollinated flower

Methods of Pollination:

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of a flower (anther) to the
female part of a flower (stigma). There are two methods of pollination, insect pollination
and wind pollination. Some flowers pollinate by insects while others pollinate by wind.

Functions of certain parts of a flower

Sepals – Protect the flower when it is in bud stage.

Petals –They are brightly coloured in insect-pollinated plants to attract insects,
and form a platform for insects to land on.
Anther – Contains pollen grains. Pollen grains in insect-pollinated plants are heavy
and sticky.
Stigma – Receptor of pollen grains. Secretes a fluid that stimulates germination of
pollen grains.
Ovary – Each ovary contains one or more ovules. Ovule – Contains female
gametes.

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Distinguishing between the pollen grains of insect pollinated and wind-pollinated

flowers

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
Part of flower Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
Pollen grains Fairly abundant, large Very abundant, small and
and sticky. Sticky so that light so that wind easily
they easily attach to carries them.
insects.

Agents of pollination are wind and insects. Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus
fuses with a nucleus in an ovule.

Describing the structural adaptations of insect and wind pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
Brightly coloured and large petals to attract insects Small dull petals/ no petals at all
Strong attractive scents to attract insects No scent
Sticky or spiky pollen grains to attach pollen to Smooth and light so that it travels easily in air
bodies of insects
Contain nectarines (at the base of petals) to attract No nectaries
insects
Stigma inside flower such that insects brush past it Large stigmas which hang outside the flower to
to reach nectar capture pollen grains carried by the wind
Anthers inside flower such that insects brush past it Anthers hang outside the flower to easily distribute
to reach nectar pollen grains in air
Produce fairly large quantities of pollen because Produce very large quantities of pollen because
some will be eaten or delivered to the wrong flower some of it is blown away and lost

Investigating and stating the environmental conditions that affect germination of

seeds: limited to the requirement for water, oxygen and a suitable temperature A
seed remains dormant until it is put in suitable conditions to start growing.

These are:

• Water • Air (oxygen) • Suitable temperature

Conditions in each test tube

 Tube A: water; air; suitable temperature

 Tube B: water; air
 Tube C: water; air; suitable temperature
 Tube D: water; suitable temperature

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 Tube E: air; suitable temperature

Results: germination occurs only in test tubes A and C

Pyrogallol absorbs oxygen.

Sexual reproduction in humans

Identifying and naming, on diagrams, parts of the male reproductive system: the
testes, scrotum, sperm ducts (vas deferens), prostate gland, urethra and penis

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[Note that vas deferens are also known as sperm ducts]

Function of the parts of the male reproductive system

Testes: a male human has two testes. A testis (singular) produces male gametes
(sperms)
Scrotum: The scrotum is a sac which holds the testes outside
the body
Sperm Ducts (Vas deferens): Sperm ducts transfer the sperms from the testis to
the urethra
Prostate Gland: The prostate gland secretes a fluid for the sperms to swim in,
forming a mixture called semen.
Urethra: The urethra carries semen and urine out of the body.
Penis: The penis transfers semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse.
Identifying and naming, on diagrams, parts of the female reproductive system: the
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina

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Stating the functions of the parts of the female reproductive system

Oviducts (fallopian tube): oviducts transfer eggs to the uterus. Fertilisation

takes place along the oviducts.
Ovaries : ovaries release female gametes (eggs)
Uterus: the fetus develops in the uterus
Cervix: the cervix is a ring of muscle at the opening of the
uterus
Vagina: the vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse
Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete
(egg cell/ovum).

Comparing Male and Female Gametes:

Size: egg cells are much larger than sperms. This is because they need space to store
nutrients to feed the embryo before it reaches the uterus.

Structure: sperms have a head, a middle piece and long tails which help them swim their
way to the egg. The middle part of sperms contains a large number of mitochondria to
release a lot of energy which they use to swim towards egg cells. Egg cells have a
spherical structure and are made up of a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane and a layer
of jelly.

Motility: motile means capable of moving spontaneously as a whole. Sperms are motile
whilst egg cells are not. Eggs are unable to move by themselves, they are swept to the
uterus by cilia on the walls of the oviduct. Sperms have tails that allow them to swim.

Numbers: a woman releases one egg at a time. Sperms, however, are in larger quantities
to increase the chance of successful fertilization.

The adaptive features of sperm, limited to flagellum and the presence of enzymes

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The tail (flagellum) beats to propel the sperm towards the egg.

The head contains digestive enzymes which break down the outer membrane of the
ovum, allowing for fertilization to take place.

The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria to provide adequate energy for the
sperms to swim to the egg [note that this point is not required by the syllabus].

The adaptive features of egg cells, limited to energy stores and a jelly coating that
changes after fertilization

The egg contains nutrients or energy stores.

They also contain a jelly coating that changes after fertilization.

The menstrual cycle

 The menstrual cycle can be described as “changes in the ovaries and in the lining
of the uterus” (knowledge of sex hormones is not required)

Changes in the ovaries: A follicle containing an ovum develops in the ovary, as the
uterus lining builds up. The follicle then bursts (around day 14), releasing an egg cell
from the ovary. The release of the ovum is called ovulation. The follicle turns into a
corpus luteum.

Changes in the uterus: A woman usually releases one egg every month. The lining of
the uterus becomes thick and spongy in preparation for a fertilised egg cell. The
thickening of the uterus lining begins before an egg cell is even released, and just after
menstruation, from the previous menstrual cycle, ends. If the egg cell is not fertilised, it
dies before it reaches the uterus. The unfertilised egg does not sink into the spongy uterus
lining, but continues onwards, down through the vagina. The spongy uterus lining then
gradually disintegrates and is slowly lost through the vagina. This is called
menstruation, or a period. It usually lasts for about five days. After menstruation, the
lining of the uterus builds up again, so that it will be ready to receive the next egg, if it
is fertilised. Menstruation and the menstrual cycle are two different things. The menstrual
cycle, on the other hand, can take about 28 days (the menstrual cycle differs amongst
women, some take more and others take less days). A mature ovum (egg cell) is released
on day 14 and if not fertilized it can die after 1 or 2 days.

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Fertilization results in the formation of a zygote which further forms an embryo in

early development.

An embryo is a ball of cells that implants into the wall of the uterus.

The functions of the umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

1. Umbilical cord:
The umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta. This allows for the
exchange of oxygen and dissolved nutrients from the mother’s blood to the child’s
blood. It also offers a pathway by which waste products leave the child.
2. Placenta:
 Provides nutrients and oxygen for the embryo.
 Removes waste materials such as urea and carbon dioxide.
 Allows protective antibodies to diffuse from maternal blood into embryonic blood.
 Provides a barrier preventing maternal blood and embryonic blood from mixing.
3. Amniotic sac: contains amniotic fluid.
4. Amniotic fluid:
 Absorbs shock, supports and protects the embryo from physical injury
 Lubricates the vagina during birth to reduce friction
 Allows the fetus to move freely during development

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The functions of the placenta and umbilical cord are

Oxygen and nutrients in the mother’s blood diffuse across the placenta into the fetus’s
blood, and are then carried along the umbilical cord to the fetus. Carbon dioxide and
waste materials diffuse from the fetus’s blood to the mother’s blood, and are carried away
in the mother’s blood. The placenta provides a barrier to toxins by preventing maternal
blood and embryonic blood from mixing.

HIV and AIDS

AIDS is a disease caused by the HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection may lead to acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS). The virus can live for years in the body before it starts showing
symptoms. AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. The disease prevents white
blood cells from killing bacteria and viruses, so one or more weak viral or bacterial
infections take advantage of the person’s weak immune system to kill the patient. There
is no cure for AIDS.

HIV is transmitted:

 By sexual intercourse with an infected person

 By sharing and reusing contaminated needles during intravenous drug use, getting
a tattoo and body piercing

 By receiving a blood transfusion from an infected donor

 During pregnancy and childbirth. An infected mother can pass on the virus to her
child

Spread of HIV can be prevented by:

 Having protected sexual intercourse. A condom reduces the risk of infection.

 Abstinence from sex or having sex with only one faithful partner

 Not sharing objects that could be contaminated with blood or bodily fluids such as
hypodermic syringes and razors

 Proper screening of blood in a blood bank for HIV infection to reduce chances of
transmission during blood transfusions

 Infected mothers should undergo antiretroviral therapies and give birth by

caesarean section to minimise risk of transmission to the fetus. Breastfeeding
should be avoided after birth.

 Visiting reliable and hygienic operators for tattoos, piercings or acupuncture where
needles are sterilized

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Organisms and their environment

All energy in biological (living systems) is ultimately derived from sunlight.

Definition of key terms

• A food chain shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning
with a producer.

• A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.

• A producer is an organism that usually uses energy from sunlight to make its own
organic nutrients through photosynthesis.

• A consumer is an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms.

• A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.

• A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.

• A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter.

• An ecosystem is a unit containing all ofthe organisms and their environment,

interacting together, in a given area, e.g. a lake

• A trophic level is the position of an organismin a food chain or food web.

The transfer of energy between trophic levels

A pyramid of energy represents the total energy in the various trophic levels of a food
chain.

 Producers occupy the first trophic level at the base of the pyramid. This trophic
level has the largest amount of energy.

 The quantity of energy which is available to the next trophic level decreases from
one trophic level to another.

Explaining why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels

Since the quantity of energy decreases from one trophic level to another, the number of
sustainable trophic levels is limited to five because there isn’t enough energy to support a
sixth trophic level. Some energy is lost during transfer between organisms. Part of the
food input is wasted as faeces and in respiration. These losses are repeated at every
transfer.

Constructing simple food chains Identifying producers and

consumers as trophic levels
Tree → caterpillar → small bird → hawk
It is important to understand

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Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake that producers, primary

consumers, secondary
A food web
consumers, tertiary
consumers and
quaternary consumers
are individually
referred to as trophic
levels in food webs
and food chains.

Tree → caterpillar →
small bird
→ hawk

The caterpillar is trophic level

2

Classification of consumers by virtue of their position in a food chain.

Consumers obtain their energy by consuming other organisms. They occupy a few
trophic levels:

 Primary consumers feed on primary producers directly. They are called

herbivores.

 Secondary consumers are carnivores that eat herbivores.

 Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores.

Human influences on ecosystems

Describing the carbon cycle, limited to photosynthesis, respiration, feeding,

decomposition, fossilisation and combustion

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The carbon cycle is a natural global cycle of the element carbon. It is what maintains a
constant level of carbon dioxide in air (0.03%). The cycle goes as follows:

• Plants absorb carbon dioxide from air use it for a process called photosynthesis to
produce glucose and oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

•The carbon is now stored in plants as glucose. One of two things happen, either the plant
gets eaten by animals or humans in a process called feeding, or the plant dies and is
decayed by decomposers in a process called decomposition.

• If the plant is eaten by animals or humans, glucose in the plant is used by them in a
process called respiration to release energy for their body. In addition, fossil fuels and
wood can be burnt to release carbon dioxide and energy in a process called combustion.
Both combustion and respiration have the same chemical equation as shown below. You
do not need to remember this chemical equation.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

• Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis.

• If plants and animals die, and their remains are buried underground and exposed to
certain conditions, fossil fuels are formed by a process called fossilisation. Fossil fuels
contain carbon.

• Power stations burn carbon-containing fuels like coal (a fossil fuel). This is a
combustion reaction. Carbon dioxide produced is released to the air through chimneys
of power stations.

Discussing the effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting down of forests
on the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere

Combustion of fossil fuels

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Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) uses up oxygen and gives out
carbon dioxide; hence, it leads to the decrease in oxygen concentrations and the increase
in carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.

Cutting down of forests

Since green plants absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to form carbohydrates,
cutting down trees reduces the number of green plants available for photosynthesis, thus
leading to a buildup of carbon dioxide concentration in air.

The undesirable effects of deforestation

The undesirable effects of deforestation include habitat destruction, extinction of some

flora and fauna that depend on that flora, soil erosion, siltation, flooding and an increase
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is summarized by the following points

Excess nitrates (and other ions) from fertilizers run off into water bodies leading to an
increased growth of producers in water bodies e.g. algae. When these producers die, it
leads to increased decomposition of producers, followed by increased aerobic respiration
by decomposers. A reduction in dissolved oxygen then occurs, leading to the death of
aquatic organisms that require dissolved oxygen in water.

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The particulate nature of matter

1. Stating the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

2. Describing the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and types of motion

Describing the changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing and
condensation

Explaining changes of state in terms of particle theory and the energy changes involved

1. Melting: Occurs at the melting point. Particles absorb heat and vibrate more
vigorously, allowing them to overcome the attractive forces holding them in fixed positions.

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2. Freezing: Occurs at the melting point. Particles release heat and move more slowly.
Attractive forces are formed and the particles are forced to be held in a fixed and orderly
arrangement.

3. Boiling: Occurs at the boiling point. Particles absorb heat and gain more kinetic
energy. The particles move fast enough to completely overcome the forces of attraction
acting between them.

4. Evaporation: Occurs below the boiling point. Particles at the surface gain sufficient
energy to escape into the surroundings.

5. Condensation: Occurs at the boiling point. Particles release heat and move more
slowly. The forces of attraction are then able to hold the particles closely.

Describing qualitatively the pressure and temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of
its particles

A high pressure results in a small volume thus limiting the motion of gas particles.

A high temperature results in high kinetic energy of gas particles thus increasing the motion
of gas particles.

Demonstrating understanding of the terms atom, molecule and ion

• All matter is made up of tiny particles

• These particles can be atoms, molecules or ions

An atom is the smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. An atom
has sub atomic particles namely electrons (which are found in electron shells situated around
the nucleus), protons and neutrons (both of which are found in the atom‟s nucleus).

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A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically joined together, e.g. a chlorine
molecule has 2 chlorine atoms chemically combined together. A water molecule has 2
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom chemically combined together.

An ion is a positively or negatively charged species. An atom has an equal number of

positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. This makes an atom to be
neutral. Ions arise when atoms lose or gain electrons. When atoms lose electrons, positively
charged ions are formed because the total positive charge of the protons would not be
cancelled by the total negative charge of the electrons. Similarly, when an atom gains extra
electrons, it will not have extra protons to cancel out the negative charge of the added
electrons, resulting in a negatively charged ion. A negatively charged ion is called an anion. A
positively charged ion is a called a cation.

Experimental techniques

Measurement

Naming and suggesting appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time,

temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders

Apparatus Used to measure Stop watch Time

Thermometer Temperature

Electronic balance Mass

Measuring cylinder, burette and pipette Volume

Criteria of purity

Interpreting simple chromatograms

Chromatography is a process used to separate and identify two or more substances from a
mixture. It is also used to find the number of components in a substance, hence, determining
the purity of the substance. A pure substance has one substance in it; an impure substance has
two or more. In addition, a pure substance has a definite, sharp, melting point and boiling
point.

Interpreting simple chromatograms, including the use of Rf values

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Rf values have
no units

Substance 1 contains A, B and C. Substance 2 contains B. Substance 3 contains D. Substance

4 contains C.

Rf value for each component =

Rf values for the above 3 situations are 48mm/80mm = 0.6

72mm/120mm = 0.6 and 120mm/200mm = 0.6
Methods of purification

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1. Describing and explaining methods of separation and purification by the use of a

suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation, distillation, fractional distillation and
paper chromatography
2. Suggesting suitable separation and purification techniques, given information
about the substances involved

1. Filtration

Filtration is used to separate a mixture of a liquid (or solution) and an insoluble solid. The
insoluble solid is collected as the residue (on the filter paper) while the liquid is collected as
the filtrate.

2. Evaporation

This method is used to evaporate off the solvent from a solution to obtain the dissolved
substance. This is only applicable to substances that do not decompose upon heating.

3. Crystallisation

Crystallisation can be used to recover a dissolved substance from its solution. This is carried
out by heating a solution until it is saturated. The saturated solution is then left to cool,
allowing for the substance to crystallise.

4. Distillation

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Distillation is used to separate a liquid from a mixture. The substances in the mixture must
have large differences in boiling points for the pure liquid to be obtained.

5. Fractional Distillation

In cases where a mixture contains liquids that have relatively close boiling points, fractional
distillation is used for purification. The fractionating column aids in separating the vapour
into individual components, which allow for the collection of pure substances.

6. Separation using a Separating Funnel

The separating funnel is used to separate a mixture of liquids that have different densities.
The liquid with lower density is found in the top layer while the liquid with higher density is
found in the bottom layer.

7. Paper Chromatography

This is used in the separation of small quantities of mixtures. The mixture is separated based
on i) differences in solubility of its components in a particular solvent and ii) differences in
the way the components are attracted to the chromatography paper. The identity of a
component in the mixture can be deduced by comparing the Rf value obtained in the
chromatogram with existing Rf values of known substances.

Atoms, elements and compounds

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Physical and chemical changes

Identifying physical and chemical changes, and understanding the differences between
them

A physical change is a change in which no new chemical substance forms; melting and
boiling are physical changes.

A chemical change is a change in which a new chemical substance forms. Electrolysis is an

example of a chemical change.

Elements, compounds and mixtures

Describing the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and between
metals and non-metals

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
or physical means. An element is made up of many identical atoms. Atoms of different
elements differ. Their differences are caused by the differences in the numbers of sub atomic
particles which they contain. The element sodium contains many sodium atoms in it. The
element calcium contains many calcium atoms in it. Elements can be combined physically to
form mixtures, or chemically to form compounds. Similarly, compounds can also be
combined physically and chemically to form mixtures and other compounds respectively.

Compound Mixture

1. Component substances cannot be Component substances can be separated

separated by physical means. by physical means
Chemical methods are required to
separate component substances.

2. Its physical and chemical properties Its physical and chemical properties are
are different from those of its the same as those of its constituent
constituent substances substances

3. Composition by mass is fixed Composition by mass varies

4. Has fixed melting and boiling points Has variable melting and boiling points

Property Metals Non-metals

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Appearance Lustrous (shiny) Dull

State at room temperature Solid (except mercury About half are solids and
which is a liquid) the other half are gases.
Only one (Bromine) is a
liquid
Malleable or brittle Malleable (easily shaped Brittle (break when
by hammering) because hammered)
they bend without
breaking since their atoms
can easily slide over each
other
Conduction (thermal and Good because they possess Generally poor (most are
electrical) either free or mobile ions insulators) because they
or electrons to carry do not possess free or
current or heat. mobile ions or electrons to
carry current or heat.
Melting and boiling points High melting and boiling Generally low melting
points and boiling points.

Density High density Low density

Magnetism Only nickel, iron and cobalt None are magnetic
are magnetic
Sound produced when Sonorous (make a bell or Make a dull sound
struck reverberative sound when
struck)
Ductile Ductile (Easily drawn into Not ductile
wire)

Defining the terms solvent, solute, solution and concentration

Solute the substance you dissolve in the solvent, to make a solution

Solvent the liquid in which a solute is dissolved, to make a solution

Solution a mixture obtained when a solute is dissolved in a solvent

Concentration tells you how much of one substance is dissolved in another; usually given as
gdm-3 or moldm-3. Concentration is also defined as the amount of solute dissolve in a given
volume of solvent.

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Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

Describing the structure of an atom in terms of a central nucleus, containing protons

and neutrons, and ‘shells’ of electrons
The nucleus is located
in the centre of the
atom and contains
protons and neutrons.
In the case of sulfur,
the nucleus has 16
protons and 16
neutrons. Electrons are
arranged in shells
around the nucleus of
an atom. The first shell
can contain up to 2 electrons and the second and third shells hold a
maximum of 8

electrons. Sulfur is represented by the symbol , indicating

that it has 16 protons and 16 neutrons. The number of neutrons is
calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the nucleon
number. Since it is electrically neutral, it has 16 electrons as well.
The first electron shell contains 2 electrons, the second sh ell
contains 8 electrons and the third shell contains 6 electrons. The
electronic configuration can be written as 2.8.6.

1. Describing the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understanding the

significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of the outer shell electrons
(The ideas of the distribution of electrons in s and p orbitals and in d block
elements are not required)
2. Describing the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

In terms of the buildup of electrons in shells, electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus
before filling up other shells further from the nucleus. In drawing the structure of an atom,
only shells containing electrons are shown. The first shell should not contain more than 2
electrons. The remaining shells normally contain a maximum of 8 electrons.

Atoms usually want to have a configuration which is such that they have full shells only. This
configuration is referred to as the noble gas electronic structure. Atoms achieve this noble gas
electronic structure by either losing or gaining the number of electrons preventing them from
achieving this electronic arrangement. These electrons are lost or gained by the outermost
electron shell only. Usually, atoms with electronic configurations whereby the outer shell has
3 or less electrons tend to lose these electrons to achieve a noble gas electronic structure.
Those with 4 outermost electrons can either lose or gain these to form noble gas electronic
structures, whilst those with more than 4 find it easier to gain the electrons required to reach

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an octet (from eight) state or noble gas electronic structure. When atoms lose or gain
electrons, ions are formed. These ions tend to be more chemically stable than the atoms.

Stating the charges and approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons

Defining and using proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom

Proton number is the number of protons in the atom of an element; it is sometimes called
the atomic number .

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom. They are collectively known as
nucleons.

Electrons are found outside the nucleus. They are arranged in shells, also referred to as
energy levels, which surround the nucleus.

Defining and using nucleon number (mass number) as the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Nucleon number is the number of protons plus neutrons in an atom of an element; it is

sometimes called the mass number.

Using proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain the basis of the
Periodic Table, with special reference to the elements of proton numbers 1 to 20

Atoms in the periodic table are arranged according to proton number from lowest to highest.
The ascension goes from left to right and from one horizontal period to another e.g period 3
is sodium (proton number 11; electronic configuration 2,8,1) to argon (proton number 18;
electronic configuration 2,8,8).

Note: a copy of the Periodic Table, as shown in the Appendix, will be provided in Papers
1, 2, 3 and 4.

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Ions and ionic bonds

Formation of Ions

An atom is most stable when the valence electron shell is completely filled. Atoms of
elements either gain or lose electrons to attain a stable electronic configuration.

Non-metals usually gain electrons to form negative ions (anions) while metals usually lose
electrons to form positive ions (cations).

The charge of an ion can be found by finding the difference between the number of electrons
and the number of protons.

Using dot-and-cross diagrams to describe the formation of ionic bonds between Group I
and Group VII

This type of bonding takes place between oppositely-charged ions. This usually occurs for
compounds made from a metal and a non-metal. Ionic bonds are formed by electron transfer,
where metal atoms donate electrons to non-metal atoms. The transfer of electrons forms
anions and cations. These ions are arranged in an ionic lattice and are held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction. An example of dot-and-cross diagrams that illustrates the
formation of an ionic bond are shown below

Sodium (metal) reacts with chlorine (non-metal) to form sodium chloride, NaCl

Describing the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic elements to
include the strong attraction between ions because of their opposite electrical charges

Ionic bonding should be defined as guided by the following steps

1. Metal atoms lose electrons to form cations

2. The electrons lost by metal atoms are gained by non-metallic atoms to form anions
3. The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction acting between these ions because of their opposite electrical charges.
4. The attractions described in (3) are ionic bonds.

It should be noted that an ionic bond can only occur between metals and non-metals only!!!

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Describing the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of

alternating positive and negative ions, exemplified by the sodium chloride structure

The lattice structure of ionic compounds is a regular arrangement of alternating positive and
negative ions, eg. the sodium chloride structure

Structure

 Ionic substances appear as giant lattice

structures with a regular arrangement
of alternating positive and negative
ions.

Molecules and covalent bonds

Stating that non-metallic elements form simple molecules with covalent bonds between
atoms

When non metallic elements react with each other, simple molecules are formed. The atoms,
of the different elements making up each simple molecule, are joined together by covalent
bonds. Weak intermolecular forces (not covalent bonds) hold different molecules together.

Describing the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCl as
the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration including the use
of dot-and-cross diagrams

• Covalent bonding is the sharing of a pair of electrons to gain an electronic

configuration or structure like that of an inert or noble gas.

• Covalent bonds occur between non-metals only.

• In covalent bonds, an atom usually shares the same number of electrons as it needs to
form the 2 or 8 valence electrons. E.g. oxygen is 2,6 and carbon is 2,4. Oxygen needs
2 so it shares two electrons forming 2 covalent bonds. Carbon needs 4 and shares 4
forming 4 covalent bonds. One carbon would need to bond with 2 oxygen atoms
giving O=C=O

• The shared electrons appear in pairs

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From left to right, top row to bottom, we have simple molecules of

HCl; H2O; Cl2; CO2; CH4; NH3

Using and drawing dot-and-cross diagrams to represent the bonding in the more
complex covalent molecules such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH, and CO2

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Describing the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity between

ionic and covalent compounds
Property Ionic compounds Covalent compounds

Volatility Not volatile because of Volatile because of weak

strong ionic bonds holding intermolecular forces
the particles (ions) together holding the particles
(molecules) together

Solubility Soluble in water Not soluble in water

Electrical conductivity Do not conduct
Conduct electricity only in electricity
molten or aqueous state (or are poor conductors)

Explaining the differences in melting point and boiling point of ionic and covalent
compounds in terms of attractive forces

Ionic compounds have higher melting and boiling points because ionic bonds have stronger
attractive forces holding the particles (ions) together as compared to the weak intermolecular
forces holding the particles (molecules) together in covalent bonding.

Stoichiometry

Using the symbols of the elements and writing the formulae of simple compounds
Element Symbol Elements have symbols. These are usually
either one or two letters, and are not
Hydrogen H necessarily letters extracted from the name of
the element e.g. lead is Pb. The first letter is
Helium He
usually a capital letter and the second letter is
Lithium Li a small letter.

Beryllium Be

Boron B

Carbon C

Nitrogen N

Determining the formula of an ionic compound from the charges on the ions present

• Determine the formula of an ionic compound made by the ions Al3+ and SO42-

Ions present:
Al3+ SO42-

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Al2 (SO4)3

Therefore, the formula is Al2(SO4)3

• Determine the formula of the ionic compound made by the ions Fe3+ and O2- Answer
should be Fe2O3
• If the charges on the ions are the same eg. An+ and Bn- ions we get AB. Mg2+ & O2- give
MgO. Similarly Na+ & Cl- give NaCl.

Deducing the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of atoms present

Water has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom; hence, its formula is H2O

Deducing the formula of a simple compound from a model or a diagrammatic

representation

[To be done practically]

Constructing and using word equations

1. calcium burns in oxygen to form calcium oxide

The word equation is calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide

2. chlorine reacts with potassium bromide to form bromine and potassium chloride

The word equation is chlorine + potassium bromide → bromine + potassium chloride

Interpreting and balancing simple symbol equations

The number of atoms of each element on the left side of the equation should be equal to the
number of atoms of that element on the right side of the equation, regardless of the fact that
the reactants and products differ.

The formulae of the reactants or products should not be changed during balancing; meaning
only the numbers in front of the chemical substance can be changed.

Balance the following equations:

1. CaCO3 + HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

2. Ca+H2O→Ca(OH)2+H2
3. Pb(NO3)2+NaI→PbI2+NaNO3
4. Al2(SO4)3+NaOH→Al(OH)3+Na2SO4
5. Al(OH)3+NaOH→NaAlO2+H2O

Answers on next page

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 Chemistry section

1. CaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

2. Ca+ 2H2O→Ca(OH)2+H2
3. Pb(NO3)2+ 2NaI→PbI2+ 2NaNO3
4. Al2(SO4)3+ 6NaOH→ 2Al(OH)3+ 3Na2SO4
5. Al(OH)3+NaOH→NaAlO2+ 2H2O

Electricity and chemistry

Defining electrolysis as the breakdown of an ionic compound when molten or in aqueous

solution by the
passage of
electricity

Electrolysis the process of

breaking down an ionic
compound, when molten or in
aqueous solution, by passing
electricity through it. The heat in
the diagram below is for melting
the compound. Aqueous solutions
will not have the heat supply as
shown below.

Using the terms inert electrode, electrolyte, anode and cathode

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An inert electrode is an electrode which is not changed during electrolysis; all it does is
conduct the current.

An electrolyte is the liquid through which the current is passed, in electrolysis; the current is
carried by ions in the electrolyte.

An anode is the positive electrode of an electrolytic cell.

A cathode is the negative electrode of an electrolytic cell.

Describing electrolysis in terms of the ions present and the reactions at the electrodes, in
terms of gain of electrons by cations and loss of electrons by anions to form atoms

1. Describing the electrode products and the observations made, using inert
electrodes (platinum or carbon), in the electrolysis of:
 molten lead(II) bromide
 concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
 dilute sulfuric acid

Example

Electrolysis of molten PbBr2

Ions present: Pb2+ and Br- only.

Reaction at the Anode

Br- loses electrons at the anode to form Br atoms. The Br atoms, which are created, bond
together to make Br2 gas. This is because elements in group 7 exist as X2 molecules.

2Br-(aq) → Br2(g)+ 2e-

Reaction at the Cathode

Pb2+ gains electrons at the cathode to form Pb atoms.

Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

• Aqueous solutions contain additional H+ and OH- ions from water, totalling 4 ions in
the solution: 2 from electrolyte and 2 from water. Only 2 of these ions are selectively
discharged.

Examples

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Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl

Ions Present: Na+, H+, OH- and Cl-

Reaction at the Anode

• Cl- ions lose electrons at the anode to form Cl atoms.

• The Cl atoms formed combine together to make Cl2 molecules.  2Cl- (aq) → Cl2(g) +
2e-

Reaction at the Cathode

• H+ ions gain electrons at the cathode to form H atoms which then combine to make
H2(g) (hydrogen gas). Like group 7 elements, hydrogen also exists as X2 molecules. 
2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2(g)

Electrolysis of dilute H2SO4 (referred to as the electrolysis of water)

Ions Present: H+, OH- and SO42- (note that the source of H+ is both acid and water)

Reaction at the anode

• OH- ions lose electrons at the anode to become O2 and H2O.

4OH-(aq) → O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e- (remember this equation)

Reaction at the cathode

• H+ ions gain electrons at the cathode to form H atoms which then combine to form
hydrogen gas (H2).
• 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)

Predicting the products of the electrolysis of a specified molten binary compound

Generally, a molten binary compound only has a single cation and a single anion. The cation
is discharged at the negative electrode (cathode). The negative ion is discharged at the
positive electrode (anode). Negative ions are discharged by removing electrons from them
and positive ions are discharged by adding electrons to them. The number of electrons added
or removed is such that no charge remains at the end of the discharging process.

Energy changes in chemical reactions

Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions

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Chemical reactions that release energy to the surroundings are described as exothermic
reactions. In an exothermic reaction the temperature of the surroundings increases.

Chemical reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings are described as endothermic
reactions. In an endothermic reaction the temperature of the surroundings decreases.

Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond formation as an

exothermic process

A chemical reaction can be divided into 3 steps namely bond breaking, bond
rearrangement, and bond formation. Bond breaking requires energy. This energy is
required to break bonds; hence, bond breaking is endothermic. Bond formation releases
energy, hence, it is exothermic.

Heat energy and enthalpy change (ΔH) of reaction

• When bonds are formed, heat energy is given out. The process is exothermic and ΔH
is negative.

• When bonds are broken, heat energy is absorbed. The process is endothermic and ΔH
is positive.

Activation energy

• Activation energy is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction.

• It is the energy needed to break the bonds in the reactant particles before new bonds
are formed.

Draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using
data provided

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Interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic reactions and the
activation energy of a reaction

Chemical reactions

Rate of reaction

The rate of a reaction is the amount of a reactant used up per unit time or
The amount of a product produced per unit time.

Describe practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction which produces a gas

For reactions which produce gas, the gas can be collected using a graduated gas syringe. A
table of volume vs time is made and used to plot a graph. The time intervals can be every 10
seconds if the reaction is fast, or even minutes or hours if the reaction is slow.

Magnesium reacts
with hydrochloric
acid to form
magnesium chloride
and hydrogen gas.
The rate of reaction
can be followed by
noting the volume
of hydrogen gas
collected in the gas
syringe over a
period of time. When the volume becomes constant (stops changing) it means the reaction
has reached completion.

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq)→ MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

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The rate changes

throughout the
course of the
reaction. It is
greatest at the
start, but
decreases as the
reaction proceeds.

Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate of reaction

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A: In terms of rate, A ˃ B ˃ C ˃ D
A B
˃ E. At point E, gradient is zero
meaning that the rate is also zero,
so the reaction has
stopped/reached completion. The
graph/curve shows amount of
product formed with time.

B: In terms of temperature, curve

B shows a reaction carried out at a
higher temperature than that in
curve A. Notice that curve B‟s
mass becomes constant before
curve A‟s mass becomes constant.
Constant mass/volume indicates
the completion of a reaction.
C
C: In C, the answers are for 1) A
(more products formed) 2) C 3)
B (larger gradient per unit time
meaning higher rate)

Suggest suitable apparatus, given information, for experiments, including collection of

gases and measurement of rates of reaction

Measuring the change in mass of the reaction mixture

If the reaction produces a gas, we can use the set up

on the left. The mass reading drops as the gaseous
product is lost from the conical flask. When the
balance reading stops changing, it means the
reaction is over.

Alternatively, we can use the set up with the gas

syringe and take note of the volume of gaseous
product collected at fixed intervals of time. We
would need a flask, gas syringe and stop watch as
some of the apparatus.

1. Describe the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts and temperature on

the rate of reactions

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2. Describe and explain the effect of changing concentration in terms of frequency

of collisions between reacting particles

Effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction

• Increase of concentration of either reactant A or B, or even both the reactants, means

there are more reactant particles per unit volume. The frequency of collisions between
the different reactant particles of reactant A and B increases, resulting in an increase
in the rate of the reaction.

Effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction

• High temperatures increase the rate of a reaction by increasing the kinetic energy of
the reactant particles. This increases the frequency of collisions between different
reactant particles, leading to an increase in the rate of reaction. Effect of particle size
or surface area on the rate of a reaction
Decreasing the particle
size increases the surface
area of the particle. This
means a larger part of the
particle is exposed to the
surface and thus also
exposed to the other
reactant particles. A
powdered form of a
substance will thus react
faster than large lumps of
the same substance.
Remember: the smaller
the particle size, the
larger it’s surface area.

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Effect of catalysts on the rate of a reaction

• Catalysts are chemical substances which alter the speed of a reaction without being
used up at the end of a reaction.

• Catalysts can either be enzymes (biological catalysts made up of proteins) or

transition metals and their compounds.

• Transition metals (e.g. Nickel, Iron, Platinum) are good catalysts.

• Most catalysts catalyse one kind of reaction i.e. they are specific. This is particularly
true for biological catalysts (enzymes)

Describe and explain the effect of changing temperature in terms of the frequency of
collisions between reacting particles and more colliding particles possessing the
minimum energy (activation energy) to react

Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles in a system. This in turn
increases the frequency of collisions between reactant particles, leading to an increase in the
rate of the reaction. Additionally, only particles with energy equal to or greater than
activation energy are able to react to form products. Increasing temperature increases the
number of particles with this minimum energy requirement so that when they collide,
products are formed.

Redox

Describe oxidation and reduction in chemical reactions in terms of oxygen loss / gain
(Oxidation state limited to its use to name ions, e.g. Iron(II), Iron(III), Copper(II)).

Oxidation is the gain or addition of oxygen. Reduction is the loss or removal of oxygen. Iron
(III) means the ion of Iron has an oxidation state of 3 i.e. Fe 3+. The chemical formula of Iron
(III) oxide is thus Fe2O3.

Define and identify an oxidising agent as a substance which oxidises another substance
during a redox reaction and a reducing agent as a substance which reduces another
substance during a redox reaction
For the reaction Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
CO is oxidized to CO2 Fe2O3 is reduced to Fe
CO is the reducing agent Fe2O3 is the oxidizing agent
Acids, bases and salts

The characteristic properties of acids and bases

1. Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH measured

using universal indicator.

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The pH scale states how acidic or alkaline a solution is by using a scale of numbers.
The numbers go from 0 to 14:

Universal indicator shows colours which can be used to stand for certain pH values.
Green is pH 7. It is neutral.

2. Describe the characteristic properties of acids (exemplified by dilute

hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid) including their effect on litmus paper
and their reactions with metals, bases and carbonates

Some commonly used acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Acids
turn blue litmus paper red. Their characteristic reactions are as outlined below.

Chemical Properties of Acids

Dilute acids reactions with metals

Dilute acids react with metals that lie above hydrogen in the reactivity series. The reaction
produces salt and hydrogen gas.

zinc + dilute hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Copper does not react with dilute acids because it is less reactive than hydrogen.

Dilute acids reactions with bases. Soluble bases are called alkalis.

Acids react with bases to form salt and water. The base could be a metal oxide or hydroxide.

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sodium hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Dilute acids reactions with metal carbonates

Acids react with metal carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.

calcium carbonate + dilute sulfuric acid → calcium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH (whole numbers
only) measured using Universal Indicator

A pH indicator displays different colours at different pH values.

Universal Indicator is a mixture of pH indicators that gives different colours at different pH

values. The table below lists the different colours and the pH range at which they are
observed.

Summarized as ROYGBV

Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil

Plants are sensitive to changes in soil pH. The pH levels can be controlled by adding certain
chemicals. For acidic soil, bases such as calcium oxide (quicklime) and calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime) can be added to neutralise the excess H+ ions from the acid. This process is
known as „liming‟. Care must be taken to avoid adding excess base as this would increase
the soil pH. This would make the soil too alkaline for plant growth.

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Preparation of salts

1. Describe the preparation, separation and purification of salts

2. Suggest a method of making a given salt from suitable starting material, given
appropriate information

Preparation of salts

1. By reaction of a metal hydroxide and an acid

This method is suitable for soluble metal hydroxides called alkalis. The titration method is
used in this case. e.g.

base + acid → salt + water

e.g. sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + water

• Usually 25.00 cm3 of acid is placed in a conical flask using a pipette.

• Alkali is placed in the burette.
• A few drops of indicator are added to the acid in the conical flask before it is titrated
with the alkali from the burette.
• The indicator changes colour at some point as alkali is added to acid.
• The change in colour shows the end of the titration.
• The process is then repeated using the 25.00 cm3 of acid and the same volume of base
from the burette as used in the previous experiment, however, no indicator is used this
time.
• Lastly, the solution obtained is crystallised to obtain the crystal salt.

2. By reacting metal with acid

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• This preparation method is suitable for metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Fe (but not K, Na and
Ca because these metals react vigorously with acids).
• In general, excess metal is added to the acid until there is no further reaction (when no
more bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced).
• Excess unreacted metal is then filtered out, and the clear filtrate is crystallized by
heating until a saturated solution is formed, and then leaving the saturated solution to
cool down and form crystals e.g.

zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + hydrogen

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

• Zn is added to dilute H2SO4 until it‟s in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is present. 
The mixture is then filtered to separate solid unreacted Zn from ZnSO4 solution.

• The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed in an evaporating dish to evaporate most of the
water resulting in a saturated solution. The saturated solution is then left to cool down
so that ZnSO4 crystals begin to form.
• The crystals are then filtered and dried by squeezing them between filter papers

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Step 1 Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

3. By reacting metal oxide with acid

• Nearly all metal oxides react with acids, but most require warming or heating.
• This method is especially suitable for those metals which do not react with dilute
acids e.g. the metal copper.
• Copper metal has no reaction with dilute acids but copper(II) oxide, if warmed with
dilute acids, forms salts.

copper (II) oxide + sulfuric acid →copper sulfate + water

CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

• Excess copper (II) oxide is added to warm sulfuric acid so that all the acid is
neutralised. The unreacted oxide is then removed by filtering.
• The filtrate is a blue solution of copper (II) sulfate.

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• The crystals are obtained by concentrating the solution by evaporation, and then
leaving it to cool.
• The crystals formed can be removed by filtration.
• Since copper (II) sulfate crystals contain water of crystallisation, it is important not to
evaporate the solution to dryness because the water of crystallisation will be lost to
form powder.

4. By reacting metal carbonate with acid

• This one is similar to the reaction involving metal oxide and acid, but this time, no
heating is required.
• The carbonate fizzes and gives off carbon dioxide gas.
• Excess metal carbonate must be added to ensure that all the acid is neutralised
• The solution is then filtered (to remove unreacted carbonate) and then crystallized (by
heating up to saturation point and then leaving the solution to cool down).

e.g. Reacting CaCO3 with acids

calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid → calcium sulfate + carbon dioxide + water

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

• The same process is used as in the reaction of an acid with a metal; just that carbon
dioxide is also produced in this case.
• Carbon dioxide can be tested by bubbling it into limewater. The limewater will
change from colourless to milky white.

Revision work

Element symbol Nucleon Number of Number of Number of Electronic

or mass electrons neutrons protrons structure or
number configuration
Sodium Na 23 11 12 11 2.8.1
Potassium K 39 19 20 19 2.8.8.1
Argon Ar 40 18 22 18 2.8.8

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Describe and use the following tests to

Identify:

Aqueous cations: ammonium, calcium, copper (II), iron(II), iron(III) and zinc, by means
of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia as appropriate (formulae of
complex ions are not required).

Tests for aqueous cations

Cation Effect of adding aqueous Effect of adding aqueous
sodium hydroxide ammonia
Ammonium (NH4+) Ammonia produced on _
warming
Calcium (Ca2+) White ppt, insoluble in no ppt. or very slight white
excess ppt.
Copper (Cu2+) Light blue ppt, insoluble in light blue ppt., soluble in
excess excess,
giving a dark blue solution
Iron (II) (Fe2+) Green ppt, insoluble in green ppt., insoluble in
excess excess
Iron (III) (Fe3+) Red brown ppt, insoluble in red-brown ppt., insoluble in
excess excess
Zinc (Zn2+) White ppt, , soluble in excess white ppt., soluble in excess,
giving a colourless solution giving a colourless solution

Cations: flame tests to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper (II) Flame
tests
Metal ion Flame colour
Lithium (Li+) Red
Sodium (Na+) Yellow
Potassium (K+) Lilac
Copper (II) (Cu2+) Blue-green

Anions: carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater), chloride (by
reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with
aluminium) and sulfate (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions)
Tests for anions
Anion Test Test result
Carbonate (CO32-) [in solution] Add dilute acid Effervescence, carbon
dioxide produced
Chloride (Cl-) [in solution] Add dilute nitric acid, White ppt (precipitate)
then add aqueous silver formed

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nitrate
-
Nitrate (NO3 ) [in solution] Add aqueous sodium Ammonia produced
hydroxide, then
aluminium foil: warm
the mixture carefully
Sulfate (SO42-) [in solution] Acidify (add acid), then White ppt formed
add aqueous barium
nitrate

Gases: ammonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (using limewater),
chlorine (using damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using a lighted splint), oxygen (using a
glowing splint)

Tests for gases

Gas Test and test result
Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus paper blue
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Turns lime water milky
Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp litmus paper
Hydrogen (H2) „pops‟ with a lighted splint
Oxygen (O2) Relights a glowing splint

The Periodic Table

Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and its use to predict
properties of elements

A periodic table is used to classify elements by placing them in groups (elements whose
atoms have the same outer most electrons are placed in the same group) and periods
(elements whose atoms have the same number of shells are placed in the same period).
Elements with the same outermost electrons have the same or similar chemical properties e.g.
group one elements react similarly with water to form hydroxides.

Periodic trends

Describe the change from metallic to non metallic character across a period

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A trend is a pattern. One trend found in the periodic table is that from left to right, elements
gradually change from metals to non-metals. Metals are generally found to the left of the
periodic table, and non metals are found to the right. Metalloids are elements that have both
the characteristics of metals and non metals. You need not worry about these for now.

Describe and explain the relationship between Group number, number of outer shell
electrons and metallic/non-metallic character

The period number corresponds to the number of electron shells present in an atom of an
element. An element in period 2 has 2 electron shells.

The relationship between number of shells and period number

Element Electronic Period Number of shells
configuration
Helium 2 1 1
Sodium 2,8,1 3 3
Magnesium 2,8,2 3 3
Lithium 2,1 2 2

Group properties

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1. Describe lithium, sodium and potassium (elements in Group I) as a

collection of relatively soft metals showing a trend in melting point,
density and reaction with water
2. Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given data, where
appropriate

Elements in Group I are known as alkali metals. The atoms of these elements have one
electron each in the outermost shell. These metals are soft and can be cut easily with a knife.

These metals show a trend (pattern) in melting point, density and reaction with water. You are
expected to be able to predict the behavior of an element in group one when given the
behavior of other elements in that group.

Moving down the group, the melting and boiling points decrease while the densities increase.
Moving down the group, the reaction of these metals with water increases.eg. the element
lithium (which is above sodium and potassium in group 1) has a higher melting and boiling
point than potassium; lower density than potassium; and reacts less with water as compared
to potassium.

Describe the halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII, as a collection of
diatomic non-metals showing a trend in colour and physical state

The group VII elements are known as the halogens. These include the elements chlorine,
bromine and iodine. Group VII elements exist as diatomic molecules (e.g. Cl2, Br2, l2). Di
means two, hence, diatomic molecules are molecules formed by joining two atoms of the
same element together. Group VII is found to the right of the periodic table; hence, elements
in this group are non-metals. Group VII elements show a trend (pattern) in colour and
physical state. The trend in colour is that the colour darkens down the group (Chlorine is a
yellow-green gas, bromine is a reddish-brown liquid and iodine is a black solid). The trend in
physical state is that the elements change from gas to liquid and from liquid to solid as we go
down Group VII (Chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid).

1. State the reaction of chlorine, bromine and iodine with other halide ions

Halogens at the top of the group are more reactive than those below them. Halogens undergo
displacement reactions, where a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from
its salt. For instance, when chlorine gas is bubbled into sodium bromide solution, bromide
ions get displaced.

Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

Generally, chlorine can displace both bromine and iodine. Bromine can displace iodine only.
Iodine cannot displace either chlorine or bromine because they are above it in Group VII.

2. Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given data where appropriate

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To predict the trend, simply remember that halogens are non-metals showing a trend in colour
and physical state. An element below Iodine would have to exist as a solid.

3. Identify trends in other groups, given data about the elements concerned

To identify the trend in the group, simply make sense of the pattern in the group.

Transition elements

Describe the transition elements as a collection of metals having high densities, high
melting points and forming coloured compounds, and which, as elements and
compounds, often act as catalysts

Transition elements are a block of metals found between Groups II and III in the Periodic
Table. These metals have high melting and boiling points, as well as high densities.
Compounds of transition elements are usually coloured. Compounds are formed when two or
more elements react together to form one product (known as a compound). One of the
elements reacting to form a compound, in this case, would be a transition element.

Transition elements and their compounds are good catalysts. Catalysts are substances which
speed up the rate of a chemical reaction. They make us obtain the products of the reaction in
a much shorter time. Examples of transition metals include iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and
vanadium (V). Check where they are located on your periodic table.

Noble gases

Describe the noble gases, in Group VIII or 0, as being unreactive, monoatomic gases and
explain this in terms of electronic structure

Elements in Group VIII (or sometimes referred to as Group 0) are known as noble gases.
These elements are inert (inert simply means unreactive) non-metals which are found as
monoatomic gases. Monoatomic means the atoms of these elements exist as single gaseous
atoms. (Remember that the halogens, unlike the noble gases, exist as diatomic molecules).
Their lack of reactivity is due to their complete shell of valence or outermost electrons (that
is, their electronic structure is such that all the shells are full or contain the maximum
possible number of electrons). Due to their unreactive nature, noble gases are often used to
provide an inert atmosphere. The following table shows some uses of noble gases. You need
to remember these uses.

State the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere, i.e. argon in lamps,
helium for filling balloons
Element Application
Helium filling balloons
Argon Light bulbs

Metals

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Properties of metals

1 Describe the general physical properties of metals as solids with high melting and
boiling points, malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity
Metals are solids which are good conductors of
electricity and heat.

Metals are solids with high melting and boiling

points since a lot of energy is required to break the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
„sea of delocalized electrons‟ and the lattice of
positive ions.

Metals are malleable which means that metals can be

shaped by hammering.

The diagram to the left shows metallic bonding.

2 Describe alloys, such as brass, as mixtures of a metal with other elements

An alloy is a mixture of a metal and other elements, which may be metals or non-metals.eg.
brass is an alloy made by mixing the metals copper and zinc.

3 Explain in terms of their properties why alloys are used instead of pure metals

Turning a metal into an alloy changes its properties, and makes it more useful.

A pure metal is soft due to the regular arrangement of atoms in the metal lattice. The atoms
are arranged in layers which slide past each other easily when a force is applied.

In an alloy, however, the regular arrangement of atoms is disrupted by the presence of atoms
of different sizes (since an alloy has atoms of different elements in it and these atoms of
different elements also differ in size). This prevents the layers of atoms from easily sliding
over each other, making the alloy harder than the pure metal.

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4 Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure

Alloying metals helps to change

their properties to make them more suitable
for a particular use. For instance, an alloy of
iron and chromium has greater resistance to
rusting compared to pure iron.

Reactivity series

Carbon and hydrogen are not metals but are placed due to their characteristic reactions with
metals. To remember the above elements in the reactivity series, master the phrase “Please
Stop Calling Me A Careless Zulu. I‟m Highly Complex”. Reactivity decreases from
potassium to copper.
Part of phrase Element
Please Potassium (most reactive)
Stop Sodium
Calling Calcium
Me Magnesium
A Aluminium
Careless Carbon
Zulu Zinc
I‟m Iron

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Highly Hydrogen
Complex Copper (least reactive)
1 Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminium, (carbon), zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper, by reference to the reactions, if
any, of the elements with:

 water or steam

Remember that carbon and hydrogen are not metals so they do not react with water or steam.
Reactivity of the above metals with water decreases from potassium to iron. From the list,
only copper does not react with both water and dilute acids. The metals potassium to iron
react with water to form the metal oxide and hydrogen gas. The metals actually displace the
hydrogens in a water molecule, and inturn form a bond with the oxygen which had
previously been bonded to the displaced hydrogen. The hydrogen is then displaced as
hydrogen gas. Metals also displace hydrogen in dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq) ), and inturn
bond with the chlorine of the hydrochloric acid to form chlorides (certain salts)

 dilute hydrochloric acid

The metals potassium to iron react with dilute hydrochloric acid to form the metal chloride
and hydrogen gas. Copper does not react with either water and dilute hydrochloric acid
(remember this!) because if you check the reactivity series above, copper is less reactive than
hydrogen, hence, it cannot displace hydrogen. Thats why if we need to make a salt of copper,
we react copper oxide with dilute acids, and not copper with dilute acids (since these two do
not react together!!!!). Reactions of metals with either water or dilute hydrochloric acid are
displacement reactions where by hydrogen in the water or acid is displaced by a more
reactive metal.

The reactivity series is like the world heavy weight boxing championships where by the
elements are fighting to wear the belt (either oxygen if reacting with water, or chlorine if
reacting with dilute acid). These elements need to displace the sitting champion (hydrogen in
this case). Only those elements ranked above hydrogen will displace it. Take note that carbon
is not a metal so it won‟t displace hydrogen, and also that hydrogen cannot displace itself
because if hydrogen displaces hydrogen then the overall change is zero.

 reduction of their oxides with carbon

Metals are usually found in nature as ores, which mainly consist of metal oxides. The
extraction of a metal from its ore depends on its reactivity. A more reactive metal usually
requires tougher methods of extraction compared to a less reactive metal. Only Zinc, Iron and
copper can be extracted from their oxides through heating with carbon. All these metals are
below carbon in the reactivity series.

2 Describe the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of a metal to form its
positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with the aqueous ions of other listed
metals

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Reactive metals easily form positive ions by easily losing electrons. When a more reactive
metal is placed in a solution containing aqueous ions of a less reactive metal eg. when
calcium is placed in a solution containing aqueous ions of copper metal, the calcium metal
will form calcium aqueous positive ions by losing its outer two electrons. These electrons are
picked up by the aqueous ions of the less reactive metal, and convert those ions to metal
atoms.

calcium metal + copper nitrate → calcium nitrate + copper metal

However, no reaction occurs when a less reactive metal is placed in the salt solution of a
more reactive metal. No change is seen when copper metal is placed in magnesium
sulfate solution since magnesium is more reactive than copper.

Extraction of metals from their ores

1 Describe the use of carbon in the extraction of copper from copper oxide

Copper can be extracted from copper oxide by heating copper oxide with carbon. The word
equation is:

Copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon monoxide or

Copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon dioxide

2 Describe and explain the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from hematite in
the blast furnace

 C + O2 → CO2
 C + CO2→ 2CO
 Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Extraction of Iron

The blast furnace is used to extract iron from its iron ore called haematite, Fe2O3. A mixture
of iron ore, coke and limestone, known as the charge, is added at the top of the blast furnace.
Hot air is pumped into the blast furnace via ports at the bottom of the furnace.

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Chemical processes which take place in the blast furnace

 Oxygen in the air reacts with coke (carbon) to give carbon dioxide. The reaction is
exothermic (gives out heat) and gives rise to the high temperatures experienced in the
blast furnace.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

 The carbon dioxide produced (above) then reacts with more coke to produce carbon
monoxide

CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)

 The carbon monoxide then reacts with iron (III) oxide to produce molten iron

3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

3 Know that aluminium is extracted from the ore bauxite by electrolysis

Aluminium is extracted from its ore, bauxite, by electrolysis. It cannot be extracted by

heating with carbon because its more reactive than carbon (above carbon in the reactivity
series).

4 Relate the method of extraction of a metal from its ore to its position in the reactivity
series

The extraction of a metal from its ore depends on its reactivity. A more reactive metal usually
requires tougher methods of extraction compared to a less reactive metal.

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Zinc, Iron and copper (all below carbon in the reactivity series) can be extracted from their
oxides through heating with carbon. The carbon reduces the oxides to give the metals.

Aluminium and other metals above it in the reactivity series form very stable oxides that are
not easily reduced by Carbon. They can only be extracted from their ores through electrolysis
of their molten oxides. Generally, metals above carbon are extracted by electrolysis and
those below are extracted by reduction with carbon.

5 Describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals

Metal ores are a finite resource i.e. they are limited in the earth‟s crust. Hence, for
sustainability, scrap metal should be recycled.

Air and water

Water

1 Describe a chemical test for water using copper (II) sulfate and cobalt (II) chloride

Test for water:

 Water turns white copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) blue.

 Water turns blue Cobalt (II) chloride (CoCl2) pink

2 Describe, in outline, the treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration and
chlorination

1. Filtration

The water is filtered to remove suspended particles and unsettled floc. Slow sand filters can
be used since the water must be passed very slowly through the filters. The filters are
constructed using graded layers of sand, with the finest sand at the top and the coarsest sand
(along with some gravel) at the bottom. Drains at the base of the filters convey filtered water
away for disinfection.

2. Disinfection
Disinfection is achieved by adding chlorine or one of its compounds. The chlorine kills
harmful organisms because of its strong oxidative properties.

Air

1 State the composition of clean air as being a mixture of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen
and small quantities of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide

Composition of air

Clean air is composed of 21% Oxygen, 78% Nitrogen and small quantities of noble gases,
water vapour and carbon dioxide.

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2 Name the common pollutants in air as being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen

Common pollutants in air are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Oxides
of nitrogen are nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide.

3 State the adverse effect of these common air pollutants on buildings and on health

Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide lead to acid rain. The acid rain corrodes buildings made
of marble and limestone. Sulfur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans.

Oxides of nitrogen irritate lung tissues and the eyes.

Carbon monoxide reduces the ability of haemoglobin to carry oxygen. This deprives cells of
oxygen, leading to headaches, fatigue or even death.

4 State the conditions required for the rusting of iron (presence of oxygen and water)

The conditions required for the rusting of iron are the presence of oxygen and water. In the
absence of either one of these two, rusting will not occur.

5 Describe and explain barrier methods of rust prevention, including paint and other
coatings

Barrier methods of rust prevention are methods which reduce oxygen and water from
coming into contact with iron. They place a barrier between iron, and both water and oxygen.

Rusting can be prevented by

1. Painting or covering the metal with a layer of oil. This protects iron from being
exposed to oxygen and water.
2. Sacrificial protection. In this method, a more reactive metal is used as the sacrificial
metal and corrodes/rusts instead of iron. This is usually done by attaching a block of
magnesium or zinc to the iron.

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3. Galvanizing Iron (coating of iron with zinc). The zinc coating keeps air and water (in
the form of moisture) away. However, if the coating gets damaged, the zinc will still
protect the iron by sacrificial protection.

Carbon dioxide and methane

1 State the formation of carbon dioxide as follows:

Carbon dioxide is a product in the following processes

1. complete combustion of carbon-containing substances

2. respiration
3. the reaction between an acid and a carbonate
4. thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

2 State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases

The greenhouse effect which is caused by greenhouse gases leads to global warming.
Examples of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane.

3 State that increased concentrations of greenhouse gases cause an enhanced greenhouse

effect, which may contribute to climate change

When greenhouse gases are produced faster than they are removed from the atmosphere (eg
by processes like photosynthesis), an accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere results.
This accumulation causes of greenhouse gases causes global warming. Global warming
refers to an increase in global temperatures due to high levels of greenhouse gases. This
global warming may contribute to climate change, cause drought or cause flooding.

Organic chemistry

Fuels

1 State that coal, natural gas and petroleum are fossil fuels that produce carbon dioxide
on combustion

Coal, natural gas and petroleum are fossil fuels that produce carbon dioxide on combustion.

2 Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas

Natural gas is a mixture of substances. The main constituent of natural gas is methane.

3 Describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into useful

fractions by fractional distillation

Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons which can be separated into various useful fractions by
fractional distillation.

4 Describe the properties of molecules within a fraction

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Petroleum consists of hydrocarbons that have different boiling points and condense at
different temperatures.

Higher parts of the fractionating column have lower temperatures while lower parts of the
fractionating column have higher temperatures.

Since lighter fractions have lower boiling points, they are tapped off at higher parts of the
column. Heavier fractions on the other hand, have higher boiling points and are tapped off at
lower parts of the column. Generally, the molecules of fractions at the top have

1. lower boiling point

2. smaller molecules
3. weaker intermolecular/attractive forces
4. greater flammability
5. and lower viscosity…as compared to those at the bottom

A simplified diagram of the fractional distillation of petroleum and the fractions collected is
shown below.

5 Name the uses of the fractions as follows:

Uses of the fractions of petroleum

 refinery gas: used as „bottled gas‟ for heating and cooking

 gasoline fraction: used as a fuel (petrol) in cars
 naphtha fraction: used as a feedstock for making chemicals
 diesel oil: used as a fuel in diesel engines
 bitumen: used in making road surfaces

Homologous series

1 Describe the homologous series of alkanes and alkenes as families of compounds with
the same general formula and similar chemical properties

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with the same general formula and
similar chemical properties.

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Alkanes and alkenes are two examples of a homologous series.

Alkanes

1 Describe alkanes as saturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain only single

covalent bonds

Alkanes are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons because their molecules contain only
single covalent bonds. Note that a hydrocarbon contains hydrogen and carbon only!!!!

Substances made
up of larger
molecules
have greater

intermolecular

attractive forces
acting between
their molecules,
giving rise to
greater melting and
boiling points e.g
octane, which
seems to have
the largest
molecules,
has the highest
m.p and b.p

2 Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally

unreactive, except in terms of burning

• alkanes do not react with most chemicals since they are saturated, thus having only C-
C and C-H single covalent bonds.

• Alkanes , however, undergo burning or combustion.

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3 Describe the complete combustion of hydrocarbons to give carbon dioxide and water

Hydrocarbons undergo complete combustion to give carbon dioxide and water. A lot of heat
energy is also given out.

Alkenes

1 Describe alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain one double

covalent bond

Alkenes are referred to as unsaturated hydrocarbons because their molecules contain one
double covalent bond between two Carbon atoms.

e.g. ethene

2 State that cracking is a reaction that produces alkenes

Alkenes are made from a process called cracking

3 Describe the formation of smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of
larger alkane molecules and state the conditions required for cracking

Large alkane molecules can be broken down into smaller molecules through cracking. This
process requires the following conditions

1. a catalyst (either aluminium oxide or silicon dioxide).

2. High temperatures or heating.

Examples of cracking. You

do not need to remember the
names of the complex
molecules.

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 Chemistry section

Note that the total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms on the left side is equal to the total
number of carbon and hydrogen atoms on the right. This is because matter is neither created
nor destroyed; it is simply converted from one form to another. This is known as the law of
conservation of matter. Decane (above) has 10 carbon atoms and 22 hydrogen atoms.
Pentane, propene and ethene (the products of the cracking of decane) also have a sum of 10
carbon atoms and 22 hydrogen atoms.

4 Recognise saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons:

 from molecular structures

Two unsaturated structures are shown below. Notice the presence of C to C double bonds.

For saturated structures study

the structures of the alkanes
given on previous pages of
these notes.

 by their reaction with aqueous bromine

Aqueous bromine reacts with substances which have a C = C bond (alkenes).

The addition of aqueous bromine is thus used in testing whether a substance is a saturated or
unsaturated compound. Aqueous bromine is reddish-brown. When added to an unsaturated
compound ( alkene) it changes from reddish-brown to colourless. There is no colour change
when reddish-brown aqueous bromine is added to a saturated compound (alkane).

5 Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of

monomer units

Just as bricks can be used to make houses in a process called building, monomers can be used
to build a polymer in a process called polymerization.

Many ethene molecules can be added together to form a polymer called poly(ethene). The
word mono means one…..the word poly means many…..

The formation of poly(ethene) is an example of addition polymerisation of monomer units

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Note that there are no C to C double bonds in polythene

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Motion

Length and time

1 Use and describe the use of rules and measuring cylinders to find a length or a
volume

Rules are used to measure length. A metre rule is ideal for measuring lengths up to 100 cm. it has
an accuracy of up to 0.1cm.

When using a metre rule one must be careful to avoid parallax error (an error due to
reading from an angle) by making readings at eye level.

How to avoid errors by

a. correct positioning of the eye

b. making sure the object touches the marking of the scale (for
measuring tape and metre rule, ensure that the object is in contact
with the scale)

(a) P
are to each other. r
e
ci
si
o
n
is how close the measured values

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 Physics section

(b) Accuracy is how close a reading is to the true value of the

measurement. The accuracy of a reading can be improved by
repeating the
measurements.

Volume is measured using burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, volumetric flasks and
beakers. Measuring cylinders measure a wide range of volumes whilst pipettes and
volumetric flasks are designed with one marking only to measure a single specific
volume.

When using measuring

cylinders and burettes, one
must be careful to avoid
parallax error (an error due
to reading from an angle) by
making readings at eye level.

2 Use and describe the use of clocks and devices, both analogue and digital, for
measuring an interval of time

Clocks and stop watches are used for measuring an interval of time.

Nowadays digital stopwatches are being used rather than analogue ones because analogue
stopwatches are prone to parallax error. However, starting and stopping of stopwatches
manually for time interval measurements results in error due to reaction time.

3 Obtain an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of time by
measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum)

When asked to make measurements e.g. measuring distance or time, make more than one
measurement and calculate the average.

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Making multiple measurements and calculating their average reduces error and increases
accuracy.

Motion

1 Define speed and calculate average speed from

Speed is the change of distance with time. It is measured in metres/second (m/s) or
kilometres/hour (km/h).

Average speed is calculated by dividing the total distance travelled by the time taken

Speed =
2 Plot and interpret a speed-time graph and a distance-time graph

3 Recognise from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:

 at rest  moving with  moving with

constant (steady) changing speed speed

The speed-time graph of a moving object is used to find:

(a) Acceleration (using the gradient of graph)

(b) Distance travelled (using the area under the graph)

An increase in speed is a positive acceleration, a decrease in speed is a negative

acceleration / deceleration / retardation.

• If acceleration is not constant, the speed/time graph will be curved.

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 Physics section

• The downwards acceleration of an object is caused by gravity. This happens most when
an object is in free fall (falling with nothing holding it up). Objects are slowed down by
air resistance

4 Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to work out the distance travelled for
motion with constant acceleration

5 Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed-time graph

6 Recognise linear motion for which the acceleration is constant (uniform) and
calculate the acceleration

7 Recognise motion for which the acceleration is not constant (or uniform)

The area under a speed-time graph gives the distance. Acceleration is calculated from the
gradient of a speed-time graph Total distance travelled base
= ×height 8 = 16m

Distance travelled from t = 3 to t = 4 is = area of shaded

region = area of triangle part + area of rectangle part =
1
(2 1 × 2) + (6 × 1) = 1 + 6 = 7

𝑕 𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡
Acceleration =�𝑒 𝑓 𝑦
�
𝑡𝑖𝑚
=
𝑒
8−0
4−0
Gradient ofthe graph=

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 Physics section

= 2ms-2

For an object moving with constant acceleration, the speed-time graph is a sloping straight
line. A constant acceleration means that speed is increasing at a constant rate.

For graphs showing non uniform acceleration (two graphs below), acceleration can be
calculated for a particular time by drawing a tangent on the curve and calculating its gradient

Summary of some graphs

In the diagram to the left, lines a,b and c

represent different gradients/steepness.
Line "a" is the steepest therefore it has a
higher average speed than the rest and "c"
has the lowest average speed.

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 Physics section

Graph-d:

The graph is getting less steep, hence, speed is decreasing. Decreasing speed is called
deceleration or retardation. Hence, the object is retarding or decelerating.

Graph-e:

When you throw something up, it goes against gravity because the force of gravity is pulling
it down. This constant downward pull of gravity reduces the speed per unit time therefore the
gradient of the graph keeps falling; that's why the object has a deceleration graph.

Graph-f:

Gravity pulls every object downwards therefore the presence of a constant force increases the
speed of the falling object. The speed is highest just before reaching the ground. Increasing
speed is called acceleration.

Example 1

A model train travels between two stations. The velocity–time graph shows the train's
motion.

(a) (i) State in which part of the journey A, B or C the train is decelerating. [C]

(ii) Explain your answer. [-ve gradient]

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 Physics section

(iii) What does the graph show about the deceleration? [constant deceleration] (b)

(i) What feature of the graph represents the distance travelled between the two

stations? [Area under the graph]

Example 2

(a) A student walks from home to a library, waits to collect a book and then runs to a
friend's house. The distance-time graph for the student is shown. Three sections of the
graph are labelled P, Q and R. Complete the sentences with P, Q or R.

(i) The student is walking at constant speed in section .............................................(1)

(ii) The student is waiting at the library in section ...............................................(1)

(iii) The two sections of the graph that take equal amounts of time are........... and .............
(1)

(b) Use words from the box to complete the sentences. You may use each word once, more
than once or not at all.

(i) My answer to (ai) is because the section of the graph is ....... and .......... (2)
(ii) My answer to (aii) is because the section of the graph is.....................................(1)
(c) How does the graph show that the student's friend lives nearer to the library than
the student does?

Example 2 Answers ai) P; aii) Q; aiii) Q and R; bi) Sloping straight; bii) Horizontal; c)
Less distance travelled in section R than in section P

8 Demonstrate an understanding that acceleration and deceleration are related to

changing speed including qualitative analysis of the gradient of a speed-time graph

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[objective covered above]

Mass and weight

1 Distinguish between mass and weight

Weight, unlike mass, is a force. Weight and mass are related by the equation Weight
= mass × acceleration due to gravity
Mass Weight

The property of an object that is a measure of The force of gravity acting on an

object, measured in Newtons, and given
• its inertia (defined as the resistance of by the formula:
a body to change its state of rest or
motion due to its mass), Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

• the amount of matter it contains

The more the mass, the heavier the object, therefore, the object is more difficult to move.
It's difficult to move a heavy truck than a bicycle. Mass resists the change from rest to
motion. However, it is equally difficult to stop the motion of a heavy object than a lighter
one. This property of mass by which it can resist the change from rest to motion and
motion to rest is called inertia. The greater the mass, the more the inertia.

2 Know that the Earth is the source of a gravitational field

The source of the gravitational field is the earth

3 Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a
mass

Since Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity,

Weight can be described as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

4 Recognise that g is the gravitational force acting on a unit mass and is measured in
N / kg

5 Recall and use the equation W = mg

Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

𝑾
W = mg hence, g =
𝒎

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 Physics section

Since W is a force known as the gravitational force, g is the gravitational force acting on a
unit mass, and is measured in N / kg

Density

1 Recall and use the equation ρ =

Density = using symbols, ρ =

The density of 1 kg of iron is the same as the density of 2 kg of iron because density of every
material stays the same.

Worked Example, (calculating density of regular shaped objects)

A gold bar of mass = 5 kg has length = 5 cm, width = 15 cm and height = 10 cm. Find
density.

Solution: To calculate density we need to measure the volume of the bar; but before we do
that, we need to convert it into meters so L = 0.05 m, W = 0.15 m and H = 0.10 m

Volume = L x W x H = 0.05 x 0.15 x 0.10m3= 0.00075m3

Density = mass / volume = 5 / 0.00075 = 6667kgm-3

2 Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly

shaped solid and make the necessary calculation

For the density of a liquid

 find the mass of a certain volume of liquid e.g. 10cm3

 divide that mass by the volume to find density

For the density of a regularly shaped solid

 calculate the volume of the object mathematically e.g. if it‟s a rectangular prism use
length × width × height

 find the mass of the object using a beam balance

 divide the mass by the mathematically calculated volume to find the density

3 Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the

method of displacement and make the necessary calculation

For the density of an irregularly shaped solid eg. a rock

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 find the volume of the object by the method of displacement in a measuring

cylinder. This is done by placing a certain volume of water in a measuring cylinder
and noting its initial volume. The irregularly shaped object is then placed in the
same measuring cylinder where it will displace some of the water to give a new
volume reading. The difference between the two volume readings is equal to the
volume of the irregularly shaped solid.

 find the mass of the solid using a beam balance.

 divide the mass by the volume of the solid to get density

A speed time gra ph

The volume of regularly shaped solids can be calculated using mathematical formulas instead
of the displacement method. The displacement method (described above) is ideal for irregular
solid objects because we cannot calculate their volumes mathematically. Examples of regular
shaped objects are spherical objects and rectangular prisms.

Volume for rectangular prisms = length × width × height

Effects of forces

1 Describe how forces may change the size, shape and motion of a body

A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body; cause acceleration or deceleration or
a change in direction depending on the direction of the force.

2 Plot and interpret extension-load graphs and describe the associated experimental
procedure

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1. set up apparatus 4. measure new 5. repeat 6 times,

i.e hang spring length and adding 100g
subtract initial masses each time.
2. measure initial
length to calculate
length of spring 6. plot extension
extension against load 3. add 100g mass

3 State Hooke‟s Law and recall and use the expression F = k x, where k is the spring
constant

Hooke‟s Law states that springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are under
their limit of proportionality. The proportional limit is the region when the graph ceases to
be a straight line.

Load (N) = spring constant (N/mm) x extension (mm)

F=kx

4 Recognise the significance of the term „limit of proportionality‟ for an extension-load

graph

The limit of proportionality is the point above which the load and extension would no longer
be directly proportional.

The elastic limit is the point above which the spring will not return to its original shape
after being stretched

Hooke's law is only valid for straight line parts of the graph, i.e up to the limit of
proportionality where force and extension are directly proportional. Beyond the limit of
proportionality, Hooke's law is not valid. The elastic limit is beyond the limit of
proportionality.
The material, up to the elastic limit, is able to retain its

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 Physics section

shape e.g. if a spring is stretched, it would be

able to go back to its original shape when the
force is removed. We say that the material is in
an elastic region. If the spring is stretched too
much i.e a large force is applied, the spring
won‟t be able to return back to its original
shape, it will become elongated forever. We
say that the spring is now in the plastic region.
All materials (copper, iron, rubber etc) behave
in the same way as springs; they extend on the
application of a force and return back to their
original length upon its removal. However, if
the force is large, all materials deform
permanently (plastic

deformation).
5 Understand friction as the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and
results in heating

Friction is the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating

6 Recognise air resistance as a form of friction

Air resistance is a form of friction because it impedes (opposes) motion.

7 Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line

8 Recognise that if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or

continues at constant speed in a straight line

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Newton‟s first law of motion states that a body will continue in its present state of rest or
uniform motion unless if acted on by an external force.

Example:

(a) Complete the sentence.

Hooke's law states that a force acting on a material produces an extension which is

............................................................. to the force. (1)

(b) A student attaches a load to the end of a spring.

(i) Name the type of force acting in the stretched spring.

(c) A force–extension graph for rubber is shown. Three regions A, B and C are

labelled. (iii) Explain your answer to (ii)

Answers:

a-(directly) proportional

b-(i) tension /weight / gravitational force

c-(i) A
(ii) B
(iii) large extension for small
increase in force

(i) In which region is Hooke's law obeyed?

(Total 7 marks)
(ii) In which region is the rubber easiest to
extend?

Pressure

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1 Relate qualitatively pressure to force and area, using appropriate examples

2 Recall and use the equation p = F / A

Pressure = force / area

Force is a numerator and area is a denominator. If force is large and area is small then the
pressure would be bigger and vice versa.

If Force = 5 N and area is 5 m2 then pressure is P = 5/5 = 1 N/m2 or Pascal

However, if force = 5 N and area is 0.5 m2 then pressure would be P = 5 / 0.5 = 10 N/m2

That‟s why camels can walk on the desert but a beautiful lady with high and sharp heels cannot.
Reason, camel's feet are wide so the area is large and the camel's weight is divided between the
four wide legs. However, the beautiful lady's weight is divided only between the two feet whose
contact area with the ground is very small due to sharp heels.

Example#1: An elephant weighing 40,000 N stands on one foot of area 0.1 m2. What
pressure is exerted on the ground?

Pressure = Force / Area = 40,000 /0.1 = 400,000 N/m2

Example#2: What is the pressure exerted by a girl weighing 400 N standing on one 'stiletto' heel
of area of 0.00001 m2?

Pressure = force / area = 400 / 0.00001 = 40000000 N/m2

.This is a hundred times bigger than the elephant's pressure on ground.

Example#3: A woman having a weight of 50 N and wearing a pointed heel of 0.1 m2 would apply a
pressure of 500 N; whereas, a woman having the same weight, but wearing a heel of
0.5 m2 would apply a pressure of 100 N. So which lady can walk easily on sand?

The one with a larger area of heel because a smaller heel would apply more pressure and
would dip deeper in sand.

Work, energy and power

Work

1 Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and distance
moved in the direction of the force

Work is done whenever a force makes something move. The unit for work is the Joule (J). The
work done is always directly proportional to the magnitude of the force and the distance moved in
the direction of the force.

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2 Recall and use W = Fd = ΔE

Work done = force × distance moved in the direction of the force = change in energy W =

Fd = ΔE

(a) The diagram shows an energy flow for a motorbike. Fill in the gaps in the diagram.

(b) The motorbike travels 2.0 km. The driving force is 700 N. Calculate the work done in
joules by this driving force.

Work done = ........................................................... J

Solution:
a) i- Chemical Energy ii- 30 000 J iii- Heat+Sound
b) convert 2.0 km into metres as 2000 m. Using Work done = F x d = 700 x 2000 = 14 00
000 J

Energy

1 Demonstrate an understanding that work done= energy transferred

From the equation W = Fd = ΔE ; work done = energy transferred (remember this)

When I push (pushing is applying a force) a table, it will move a certain distance, therefore, work is
done. Work done = Force x distance.

As the table is moved, the table gains Kinetic energy at the cost of my body‟s chemical
energy. Hence, whenever work is done, energy is transferred from one form to another.

2 Demonstrate understanding that an object may have energy due to its motion (kinetic
energy, K.E.) or its position (potential energy, P.E.) and that energy may be transferred
and stored

Kinetic energy is movement energy. When an object is moving fast it has more KE. KE can be
calculated by the following formula.

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Kinetic energy = ½ mass x 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚𝟐

When you ride a bicycle you convert your body‟s chemical energy to kinetic energy.
Similarly, an engine converts chemical energy in petrol to kinetic, heat and sound energy.

Potential Energy is stored energy. In fact, gravitational, chemical, strain or elastic and
nuclear energy are forms of potential energy.

Energy can be transferred from one form to another as shown above. It can also be stored e.g.
energy from the sun (light energy) can be used by photosynthetic plants to form carbohydrates
which possess stored chemical energy.

In summary, an object may have energy because of its movement (kinetic energy) or because of
its position, for example a book on a shelf has gravitational potential energy - it can fall off
the shelf. Energy can be transferred from one form to another for example if the book falls off
the shelf its GPE is turned into KE. Energy can be stored, for example, a book on a shelf stores
GPE and a glucose molecule stores chemical energy in its bonds. An object can transfer its
energy to another object, for example by conducting heat.

3 Give and identify examples of changes in kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical

potential, elastic potential (strain), thermal, sound and electrical potential energy that
have occurred as a result of an event or process

4 Recall and use the expressions K.E = ½ mv2 and gravitational potential energy,
G.P.E = mgh or change in G.P.E = mgΔh

Gravitational PE:

When you move an object above ground level, the object will store energy in it. This energy is
called Gravitational potential energy. This energy depends on how high the object is from the
ground. The higher it is above the ground, the more the energy stored. This energy can be
calculated from the following formula.

Gravitational Potential Energy (J) = Mass (kg) x Gravity (m/s2) x Height (m)

GPE = m x g x h

Extra information: Another way of looking at the GPE is that in order to raise an object above
ground level, we need to provide energy to it. This energy is called GPE, and is actually work done
against the gravitational force. This energy is released when the object falls back to ground.

Elastic Potential Energy:

When you stretch a rubber band, it stores energy in it and returns that energy when it relaxes.
Similarly, when you stretch a spring or catapult, they store energy in them. This stored energy is
called Elastic Potential Energy or Strain Energy. Elastic Potential Energy or Strain Energy is
called stored energy because objects will always return back to their original position and shape
after using the energy. When you stretch a rubber cord or spring, your body‟s chemical energy

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 Physics section

is converted to kinetic energy to stretch the rubber or spring. Your energy is then stored in the
stretched object as elastic potential energy.

Chemical Potential Energy:

Energy stored by chemicals is called chemical energy. Examples are fossil fuels.

Thermal Energy:

When food is eaten it reacts with the oxygen we breathe into our lungs and is slowly „burnt‟.
As a result, chemical energy stored in food becomes heat energy to warm the body and kinetic
energy for muscular movement.

Sound energy:

A microphone changes sound energy into electrical energy; a loudspeaker does the reverse

Electrical energy:

A battery changes chemical energy to electrical energy. The electrical energy can be further
changed to kinetic energy by an electric motor. A generator can convert kinetic energy to
electrical energy.

Some Facts which you need to know:

1 –Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.
This is called the Law of Conservation of Energy

2 – No energy transfer is 100% efficient.

5 Recognise that energy is transferred during events and processes, including examples
of transfer by forces (mechanical working), by electric currents (electrical working), by

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heating and by waves

Mechanical working is the transfer of

kinetic and potential energy. When a
crane uses an electric motor to lift a
heavy load, energy is transferred to the
load by the crane. This is called
mechanical working because kinetic
energy in the crane is being converted to
gravitational potential energy in the load
by a force causing movement.

Electrical working is the transfer of

electrical energy. The potential
difference across a circuit component
is the work done to drive a unit charge
through the circuit component.

Electricity can be used to transport energy. The circuit contains devices for transforming energy.
In a torch, energy is transferred electrically from the battery to the bulb, where it is transformed
into light and heat. Thermal (heat) energy spreads out from hot objects. Waves also transfer
energy.

6 Apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
hence, when work is done, energy is changed from one form to another. The most everyday
example of this is when we move, our cells turn chemical energy (in glucose) into thermal and
kinetic energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The total amount of energy before and after any
process/work always stays constant. However, after any process, energy is transformed from one
form to another.

For example, when 100 J is supplied to a lamp, it transfers 75 J to light and 25 J to heat. This
means that the total energy before and after remains as 100 J. The only difference is that before
the process, 100 J was in electrical form and after the process 100 J was in light and heat
energy form.

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Answers:
(a) moving (b) Chemical (c) Sound & Heat

Power

1 Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using appropriate examples

Power (W) = Work done (J) / Time Taken (s) [symbols of units are given in brackets]

2 Recall and use the equation P = ΔE / t in simple systems, including electrical circuits

P = ΔE / t where P is power in watts; ΔE is change in energy in joules; t is time in seconds

Energy resources

1 Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy

 Renewable sources of energy: are inexhaustible, for example solar, hydroelectric,

wind etc.

 Non-renewable sources of energy: are exhaustible for example fossil fuels

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2 Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from:
 chemical energy stored in fuel  nuclear fission
 heat and light from the Sun (solar cells
 water, including the energy stored in and panels)
waves, in tides, and in water behind  wind energy
hydroelectric dams
 geothermal resources
Chemical energy: Fuels can be burnt in thermal power stations to transform the stored
chemical energy to thermal energy which makes steam to turns turbines (kinetic energy)
which then produce electricity. Advantage: cheap, plentiful, and low-tech. Disadvantage:
harmful wastes - produces greenhouse gases and pollutant gases.

Hydroelectricity from dams: river and rain water fill up a lake behind a dam. As water
rushes down through the dam, it turns turbines which turn generators.

Tidal power scheme: a dam is built across a river where it meets the sea. The lake behind the
dam fills when the tide comes in and empties when the tide goes out. The flow of water turns
the generator. Advantage: no greenhouse gases are produced. Disadvantage: expensive,
can‟t be built everywhere, and not as reliable because it depends on the height of the tide
which varies daily, monthly and seasonally. Can cause silt to build and can disrupt fish.

Wave energy: generators are driven by the up and down motion of the waves at sea.
Advantage: does not produce greenhouse gases. Disadvantage: difficult to build

Geothermal resources: water is pumped down to hot rocks deep underground and rises as
steam which can then be used to turn turbines. Advantage: no carbon dioxide is produced.
Disadvantage: deep drilling is difficult and expensive

Nuclear fission: uranium atoms are split by shooting neutrons at them. Advantage: produces
a lot of energy from using very little resources. Disadvantage: produces radioactive waste

Solar cells: are made of materials that can deliver an electrical current when they absorb light
energy

Solar panels: absorb the energy and use it to heat water. Advantage: does not produce
carbon dioxide. Disadvantage: variable amounts of sunshine in some countries.

Wind energy: giant windmills called wind turbines, with two or three blades, drive
electrical generators. „Wind farms‟ of 20 to 100 turbines provide enough electricity for
thousands of homes in the UK and provide a useful „top-up‟ to the National Grid.
Advantage: wind turbines provide a clean and renewable source of energy. Disadvantage:
wind turbines can be noisy and may be considered unsightly so there is some environmental
objection to wind farms, especially as the best sites for setting up turbines are often in coastal
or upland areas of great natural beauty.

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3 Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of renewability, cost,

reliability, scale and environmental impact
Type of energy Renewable or Form of Advantages Disadvantages
nonrenewable Energy
Conversion
Wind Renewable Kinetic to 1-renewable. 1-expensive to install.
Electrical 2-no CO2 pollution. 2-dangerous for birds.
3-very cheap 3-requires large spaces of land.
electricity after few 4- not very reliable because the
years. output of a wind turbine
changes with the strength of
the wind
Water (HEP) Renewable GPE to 1-renewable. 1- expensive to install.
Electrical 2- no CO2 pollution. 2-dangerous for wildlife. 3-
3- very cheap and flooding risk and damage to
reliable electricity. environment.
Geothermal Renewable GPE to 1-renewable. 1- expensive to install
Resource Electrical 2- no CO2 pollution. 2-not available everywhere.
3- low cost to run 3- deep drilling is difficult
4- reliable and expensive
Solar Heating Renewable Light to 1-renewable. 1- expensive to install
Systems Electrical 2- no CO2 pollution. 2- If there is no Sun it won't work
3-low maintenance
Solar Cells Renewable Light to 1-renewable. 1-expensive to install.
Electrical 2- no CO2 pollution. 2- the output of a solar cell
3- easy to install changes with the intensity of light
4- low maintenance falling on it
Fossil Fuels Nonrenewable Chemical 1- cheap, 1- harmful wastes - produces
(natural gas, to plentiful, and low- greenhouse gases and pollutant
coal and Electrical tech. gases.
petroleum) 2- reliable in 2- oil spills can cause
that they can environmental damage
produce electricity 3- natural gas can cause
at any time of day explosions
and in any season of
the year as long as
fuel is available.
Nuclear Power Nonrenewable Nuclear 1-renewable. 1-expensive to install, maintain and
Potential 2- no CO2 pollution. decommission.
Energy to 3- produces a lot of 2-produces radioactive wastes.
Thermal + energy from using
Kinetic very little resources
4-reliable

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4 Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except
geothermal, nuclear and tidal

Apart from nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric or tidal energy, the Sun is the source for all our
energy resources.

5 Understand that the source of tidal energy is mainly the moon

The moon is the source of tidal energy. Its gravitational pull causes the level of the ocean‟s
surface to rise and fall. Water can be trapped behind a dam at high tides and released at lower
tides to drive turbines and generators.

6 Show an understanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun

Energy is released in the Sun by the process of nuclear fusion. In nuclear fusion, two
hydrogen atoms collide and fuse (join up) to form an atom of helium. Nuclear fusion requires
very high temperatures and pressures, both of which can be found on the Sun.

Thermal Physics

Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

1 State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

Solids: have a fixed shape and volume

Liquids: have a fixed volume but change shape depending on their container

Gases: do not have a fixed shape or volume. Gases fill up the space or volume of their
containers

2 Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and distances between
the molecules and to the motion of the molecules
Attractive forces Distances between Motion of particles
acting between particles
particles
Solids Very strong Very close to each Particles can only

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 Physics section

other vibrate about

fixed positions
Liquids Weaker than solids Slightly further apart Particles can flow
but stronger than in
gases
Gases No forces acting Far apart Move freely about
3 Describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of
the arrangement, separation, and motion of the molecules
Arrangement of Motion of
particles particles
Solids Particles tightly Particles can
packed together. only vibrate
about fixed
positions
Liquids Particles are Particles can
closely packed move around,
together but not but they remain
as tightly as in close to each
solids. other
Gases Particles are Particles can
spaced far apart move far apart
from each other. from each other
•Liquids and gases do not space does not exist. The
have a fixed shape because of particles in a solid cannot
their weak forces of move because they are held
attraction. Gases can be tightly together by the
compressed because there is attractive forces, but they can
plenty of space between the vibrate about fixed positions.
particles; solids can‟t because
such

4 Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas and the temperature of a gas, liquid or
solid in terms of the motion of its particles

The pressure of a gas is due to the gas particles colliding on the container walls. .

The pressure of a gas increases with temperature because the kinetic energy of the gas
particles increases, leading to more particles collisions with the walls of the container.

An increase in temperature of a gas, liquid or solid results in a corresponding increase in the

kinetic energy of the particles. However, solid particles only experience more vibration since
they are “locked” in fixed positions. Particles of liquids, on the other hand, experience both
vibrational and translational forms of kinetic energy.

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 Physics section

In summary, heating solids, liquids, or gases, increases the kinetic energy of the particles.

5 Use and describe the use of thermometers to measure temperature on the Celsius scale

Liquids expand when they are heated because the particles gain more KE causing them to
become further apart and to take up a greater volume.

This concept is displayed when the liquid in thermometers expands and contracts when
temperature changes. The volume of the liquid taken up in the tube can be used to find the
temperature. Units of temperature on the thermometer are 0C (degrees celsius)

6 State the meaning of melting point and boiling point, and recall the melting and
boiling points for water

•Melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance changes to liquid (it is
numerically equal to the freezing point).

•Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid substance changes to gas. (it is numerically
equal to the condensation point).

Pure water melts at 0 0C and boils at 100 0C

7 Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more-energetic molecules from the

surface of a liquid

Evaporation constantly occurs on the surface of liquids when the high energy particles
escape from the liquid, even at low temperatures. Boiling occurs only at the boiling point,
and the particles escape from everywhere in the liquid (not just on the surface).
Evaporation Boiling

Slow process Rapid process

Occurs only at the surface of Occurs throughout the liquid

the liquid

Occurs at all temperatures Occurs at a fixed temperature known

as the boiling point of the liquid

8 Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling of the liquid

Evaporation causes cooling. Higher energy particles leave the surface of the liquid. If the
liquid is in contact with a body, energy is transferred from the body to these particles which
then evaporate leading to a drop in the body‟s temperature.

9 Demonstrate an understanding of how temperature, surface area and draught over a

surface influence evaporation

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A few energetic molecules close to the surface of a liquid may escape and become gas
molecules. This process occurs at all temperatures and is called evaporation. It happens
more rapidly when

(i) the temperature is higher, since more molecules in the liquid are moving fast
enough to escape from the surface,

(ii) the surface area of the liquid is large, giving more molecules a chance to escape
because more are near the surface, and

(iii) a wind or draught is blowing over the surface carrying vapour molecules away
from the surface, thus stopping them from returning to the liquid and making it easier for
more liquid molecules to break free.

Matter and thermal properties

1 Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases at

constant pressure

When matter is heated it expands and when cooled it contracts. Solids, liquids and gasses
expand when they are heated because the atoms vibrate more and this causes them to
become further apart, taking up a greater volume. Expansion is highest in gases, then liquids
and lowest in solids.

2 Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of

thermal expansion
1. Axles are shrunk by cooling in liquid nitrogen
until the gear wheels can be slipped on to
them. On regaining normal temperature, the
axles expand to give a very tight fit.

In the kitchen, a tight metal lid can be

removed from a glass jar by immersing the lid in
hot water so that it expands.

2. Bimetallic strips are strips made up of two metals which do not expand at the same rate.

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 Physics section

They have multiple usese.g.

a) Fire alarm: heat from the fire makes the bimetallic b) A thermostat in an iron
strip bend and complete the elec
trical circuit, so
ringing the alarm bell

3. Thermal expansion is displayed when the liquid in thermometers expands leading to

temperature changes. The volume of the liquid taken up in the tube can be used to find out
the temperature.

4. Gaps have to be left on bridges to allow for expansion (rollers allow the bridge to expand)
Thermal processes

Conduction

1 Recognise and name typical good and bad thermal conductors

Conductors: Metals are the best electrical and thermal conductors because they have free
electrons (also known as delocalized electrons).

Insulators: Non-metals, liquids and gases are insulators. Materials such as wood, glass,
rubber, plastics and fabrics are insulators.

2 Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad thermal

conductors
A simple demonstration of the
different conducting powers of
various metals is shown below. A
match is fixed to one end of each
rod using a little melted wax. The
other ends of the rods are heated
by a burner. When the
temperatures of the far ends reach
the melting point of wax, the
matches drop off. The match on

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copper falls first, showing that it is the best conductor, followed by aluminium, brass and
then iron.

Expt 2: the length of melted wax shows which material is the best conductor.

Expt 3: water at the top boils without the ice melting. This shows that water is a poor
conductor.

3 Explain conduction in solids in terms of molecular vibrations and transfer by

electrons

In non-metals, conduction happens when heat is supplied to the non metal, causing its atoms
to vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the adjacent atoms. In metals, conduction
happens in the previous way and in another quicker way as follows; since electrons are free
to move, they travel randomly in the metal and collide with atoms, hence, passing on their
vibrations.

Convection

1 Recognise convection as the main method of energy transfer in fluids

Thermal energy (heat) travels through fluids such as liquids and gases mainly by convection.

2 Relate convection in fluids to density changes

3 Interpret and describe experiments designed to illustrate convection in liquids and

gases (fluids)
Convection can be shown in water by dropping a few crystals of potassium permanganate
down a tube to the bottom of a beaker. When the tube is removed and the beaker heated
just below the crystals by a small flame, purple streaks of water rise upwards and fan

outwards.

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 becomes less dense and is
forced upwards by
surrounding cooler, Physics
denser section
fluid which moves in under
it.

A laboratory demonstration of convection

currents in air can be given using the apparatus
on the left. The direction of the convection
currents created by the candle is made visible
by the smoke from the touch paper.

Black marks often appear on the ceiling above

a lamp or a radiator. They are caused by dust
being carried upwards in air convection
currents produced by the hot lamp or
radiator.

Radiation

1 Recognise radiation as the method of energy transfer that does not require a
medium to travel through

Whereas conduction and convection both need matter, radiation can occur in a vacuum;
particles of matter are not involved. Thus, radiation does not require a medium to travel
through. Radiation is the way in which heat from the Sun reaches us.

2 Identify infra-red radiation as the part of the electromagnetic spectrum often

involved in energy transfer by radiation

Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum involved in energy transfer by

radiation. Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves.

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 Physics section

3 Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny)
on the emission, absorption and reflection of radiation

Dull black surfaces are better absorbers of radiation than white shiny surfaces.

White shiny surfaces are better reflectors of radiation than dull black surfaces.

If you hold the backs of your hands on either

side of a hot copper sheet that has one side
polished and the other side blackened, it will
be found that the dull black surface is a
better emitter of radiation than the shiny
one.

In general, surfaces that are good absorbers of

radiation are good emitters when hot.

4 Interpret and describe experiments to investigate the properties of good and

bad emitters and good and bad absorbers of infra-red radiation

Expt 1 Expt 2

Expt 1: boiling water in a metal cube heats all surfaces equally. The thermal radiation
detector is placed in turn at the same distance from each surface and the meter readings
compared.

Expt 2: the metal plates are placed at the same distance from a radiant heater and the
temperature readings from the thermometers are compared.

Conclusion:

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 Physics section

 Matt black surfaces are the best emitters and absorbers of thermal radiation.

 Silver surfaces are the worst emitters and absorbers of thermal radiation.

Consequences of energy transfer

1 Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of

conduction, convection and radiation

Applications

 Solar panel: the sun‟s thermal radiation is absorbed by a matt black surface and
warms up the pipes containing water.

 Refrigerator: the freezer compartment is located at the top of the refrigerator. It cools
down the air which then sinks. Any warm air present rises to the top where it is
cooled. This creates a convection current which maintains a cold temperature.

 Metals are used in cooking pans because they conduct the heat well.

 A vacuum flask keeps hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold. Transfer by conduction and
convection is minimized by making the flask a double-walled glass with a vacuum
inbetween the walls. Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the vacuum side.

 Houses in hot areas are painted white; the back of a refrigerator is painted black so
that the refrigerator loses heat more quickly; saucepans are polished/shiny to make
them poor emitters so that they keep their heat longer.

Consequences

 A metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it conducts heat.

 Convection currents create sea breezes. During the day the land is warmer and acts as
a heat source. During the night the sea acts as the heat source.

 A black saucepan cools better than a white one, and white houses stay cooler than
dark ones.

Properties of waves, including light and sound

General wave properties

1 Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter

The motion of ropes and springs and experiments by ripple tanks show that waves transport
energy from one place to another without transferring matter.

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2 Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs
and by experiments using water waves

3 State the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude

Wave speed (v) is the distance moved in the direction of travel of the wave by a crest or any
point on the wave in 1 second. (units are ms-1)

Frequency (f) is the number of waves passing any point per second.(units are Hertz; Hz). If
the end of a rope is moved up and down twice in a second, two waves are produced in this
time. The frequency of the wave is 2 vibrations per second or 2 hertz

Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive points on a wave in phase (i.e from
peak to peak) e.g. from crest to crest or compression to compression (units are metres; m).

Amplitude (a) is the height of a crest or the depth of a trough measured from the undisturbed
position of what is carrying the wave, such as a rope.

Period is the time taken for one oscillation in seconds.

Continuous ripplesare studied more easily if

they are apparently stopped (‘frozen’) by
viewing them through a stroboscope.

4 Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples

Transverse waves have oscillations at right-angles to the direction of travel.

Longitudinal waves have oscillations in the direction of travel.

Transverse waves have crests (peaks) and troughs; whereas longitudinal waves (e.g. sound
waves) have compressions and rarefactions.

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 Physics section

For transverse waves, the oscillations are

perpendicular to the direction of travel e.g.
light, water and seismic- waves.
S A
transverse wave can besent along a rope (or a
spring) by fixing one end and moving the
other rapidly up and down.

For longitudinal waves, the oscillations are in

the direction of travel e.g sound and Seismic
P- waves from earthquakes.

The Cs and Rs below show compressions and

rarefactions on the spring.

A sound wave, produced for example by a

loudspeaker, consists of a train of
compressions („squashes‟) and rarefactions
(„stretches‟) in the air

5 Describe how waves can undergo:

 reflection at a plane surface

 refraction due to a change of speed

Reflection at plane surface

Water cannot pass through surfaces so it bounces back.

It bounces back with the same speed, frequency and wavelength.

The angle of incidence (i) = the angle of reflection (r)

Refraction due to a change of speed

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 Physics section

Refraction: when the water waves pass through shallower water they slow down. When
waves slow down they change direction.

Things to note about refraction:

 waves slow down when they pass from a less to a more dense material and vice versa

 when a wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards the normal (i > r)

 when a wave is sped up, it is refracted away from the normal (i < r)

 deep water is denser than shallow water  angle of incidence ≠ angle of reflection.

6 Recall and use the equation v = f λ

Wave speed = frequency × wavelength v=f×λ

Question: Calculate the frequency of a wave having wavelength = 1 x 10-7 m and speed = 3 x
105 km/s.

Solution: Apply v = f x λ formula and then plug in the values and calculate. But first
convert km/s into m/s. Therefore, v would become 3 x 108 m/s

Hence,3 x 108 = f x 1 x 10-7 m so, f = 3 x 1015 Hz

7 Understand that refraction is caused by a change in speed as a wave moves from one
medium to another

As demonstrated above, refraction is caused by a change in speed as a wave moves from one
medium to another

Light

Reflection of light

1 Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror and give its
characteristics

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 Physics section

Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes.

The image has these properties:

 the image is the same size as the

object
 the image is the same distance
from the mirror as the object
 a line joining equivalent points of
the image and object meets the
mirror at a right angle
 the image is virtual: no rays actually
pass through the image and the
image cannot be formed on a
screen
 the image is laterally inverted

• Laws of reflection:

Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

The incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always on

the same plane (side of mirror)

Looking at the diagram on the left, the image in the mirror is

laterally inverted.

2 Recall and use the law angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r recognising
these angles are measured to the normal

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 Physics section

[Objective covered above]

3 Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection by plane

mirrors

[To be done practically]

Refraction of light

1 Interpret and describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light

 As the ray of light enters the block, it

slows down and bends towards the
normal
 As the ray of light exits the block, it
speeds up and bends away from normal
 Angle of incidence ≠ angle of refraction
 Frequency does not change, only speed
and wavelength

Thin converging lens

1 Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light

A beam of light is composed
of light rays. When parallel
rays of light pass through a
convex (converging) lens,
they are focused to a point
called the principal focus.
Since light can fall on both
faces of a lens, we have two
focal points, one on each side. The
convex lens is represented as a thin
line in ray diagrams.

2 Use the terms principal focus and focal length

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 Physics section

F is the principal focus Distance between C and F (f) is the focal length

3 Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens

Step 1: Draw the lens with a horizontal axis passing through the middle of it.

Step 2: Mark the positions of the principal focuses F on either side, at equal distances from
the lens. Mark the position of the object O, an arrow standing on the axis.

Step 3: Draw ray 1, a straight line from the top of the arrow and passing undeflected through
the middle of the lens.

Step 4: Draw ray 2, from the top of the arrow parallel to the axis. As it passes through the
lens, it is deflected down through the principal focus. Look for the point where the two rays
cross. This is the position of the top of the image I.

Examples of ray diagrams

 Object (O) beyond 2F

 Used in camera

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 Physics section

 Object (O) between F and 2F

 Used in projector

Object (O) at 2F

4 Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass

The previous diagrams gave us real images; however, if the object is between the lens and F,
a virtual image is created, instead of a real image. This allows a single convex lens to be
used as a magnifying glass. The image is behind the object, virtual, erect (i.e. not inverted),
and larger than the object.

Electromagnetic spectrum

1 Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency,

from radio waves to gamma radiation (γ)

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 Physics section

2 State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum and
approximately the same in air

All electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum and approximately
the same in air.

3 State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108 ms-1

All electromagnetic waves:

 travel at the speed of light: 3 × 108 ms-1 in a vacuum

 do not need a medium to travel through i.e. they can travel through a vacuum

 can transfer energy

 are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy in some way

 are transverse waves

4 Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum including:

 radio and television communications (radio waves)

 satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
 electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms
(infra-red)
 medicine and security (X-rays)

Uses:

Radio waves are used in radio and television communications.

Microwaves are used in satellite television and telephones because they easily pass through
the Earth‟s atmosphere as they travel up to a broadcasting satellite in space, after which they
are sent back down to subscribers on Earth.

Infrared is used in electrical appliances (radiant heaters and grills), intruder alarms and
remote controllers for televisions.

Monochromatic light is light, of a single wavelength and colour. It is used in lasers.

Ultra violet light causes fluorescence. It is used to sterilize equipment.

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X-rays are used in medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer cells) and security. X-rays
can penetrate solid materials hence their use in security scanners at airports. In medicine,
bones absorb X-rays more strongly than flesh, so bones appear as a shadow in the image
formed by X-ray photography. In medicine, X-rays can also be used to kill cancer cells.

Gamma rays are used to sterilize food and equipment. They are also used in radiotherapy to
destroy cancer cells.

5 Demonstrate an understanding of safety issues regarding the use of microwaves and

X-rays

Safety issues:

 X-rays cause cancer due to cell mutations

 Microwaves can heat and destroy living cells

6 State the dangers of ultraviolet radiation, from the Sun or from tanning lamps

UV radiation can cause skin cancer and damage retina

Sound

1 Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources

Sound is a form of energy that is produced by vibrations. It travels as waves. A Sound wave
can only be produced in matter/medium (i.e it is a mechanical wave) and hence, cannot travel
through a vacuum.

All vibrating sources produce sound. Sources of sound all have some part that vibrates. A
guitar has strings, a drum has a stretched skin and the human voice has vocal cords.

2 Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves

Sound waves are longitudinal in nature i.e. particles move parallel to the direction of wave
travel.

3 Describe the transmission of sound waves in air in terms of compressions and

rarefactions

Sound waves come from a vibrating source for example a loudspeaker. As the loudspeaker cone
vibrates, it moves forwards and backwards, which squashes and stretches the air in front. As a
result, sound waves are transmitted as a series of compressions (squashes) and rarefactions
(stretches) that travel out through the air. It should be noted that

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 Physics section

the air molecules are merely pushed back and forth causing vibrations which travel to our
ears. The individual air molecules do not travel from the loudspeaker to our ears.

4 State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20
Hz to20 000 Hz

Humans can hear frequencies between 20Hz and 20 000Hz. An alarm has alternating high
and low pitched sounds. Both should fall within the audible frequency range in order to be
detected by humans.

5 Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves

Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because there are no molecules or particles in a
vacuum to vibrate back and forth. A medium eg. air is required for the transmission of sound.

6 Describe and interpret an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air, including
calculation

Question: A man shouts close to a high wall. He hears one echo. If the man is 40 m from the wall,
how long after the shout will the echo be heard? (Speed of sound in air = 330 m/s.)

Step 1: Calculate the distance travelled by the sound. Note that this is twice the distance from
the man to the wall (since the sound travels there and back).

Distance travelled by sound = 2 × 40 m = 80 m

Step 2: Calculate the time taken for the sound to travel this distance.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 80𝑚 So the man hears

Time taken = 0.24s
the echo 0.24 s after his shout.

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 Physics section

The diagram shows a „time-

offlight‟ method for
measuring the speed of
sound. The wooden blocks
and the two microphones are
arranged in a straight line.
The bang from the blocks is
picked up first by
microphone 1, setting off a
timer which stops when the
bang is picked up by
microphone 2. The speed of
sound is calculated using the
distance between the two
microphones and the time
taken by the sound to travel

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
between them.

The formula speed = is

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
used

7 Recognise that sound travels faster in liquids than gases and faster in solids than in
liquids

Sound travels fastest in solids followed by liquids and then lastly in gases.

8 Relate the loudness and pitch of sound waves to amplitude and frequency

 Higher frequency → a higher pitch

 Larger amplitude → louder sound

9 Describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo

An echo is produced when sound travels from the source and bounces off hard surfaces or
walls such that it is reflected back to the source. The more the reflecting surfaces, the more
the echoes heard.

Electrical quantities

Electric charge

1 State that there are positive and negative charges

There are 2 types of charges: namely positive and negative charges.

2 State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel

Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.

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3 Describe and interpret simple experiments to show the production and detection of
electrostatic charges by friction

The production of charges by friction (rubbing) can be explained by supposing that

electrons are transferred from one material to the other. For example, when a polythene rod
is rubbed with a silk cloth, electrons go from the silk cloth to the polythene rod, leaving the
silk cloth positively charged. The polythene rod now has more electrons than protons and
becomes negatively charged. Note that it is only electrons which move; the protons remain
fixed in the nuclei.

4 State that charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons

Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons

5 Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and give typical examples

 Conductors are materials that have free or mobile electrons that travel through them
e.g metals (copper, gold, silver etc). Metals are the best electrical conductors because
they have free electrons which move from one place to another. These electrons also
make them good thermal conductors.

 Insulators are materials that do not have free or mobile electrons; hence, they do not
conduct at all e.g. wood, rubber, air, plastic. Their electrons are firmly held to atoms,
meaning they do not move, but they can be transferred by rubbing (as shown above).

Current, potential difference and electromotive force (e.m.f.)

1 Demonstrate understanding of current, potential difference, e.m.f. and resistance.

2 State that current is related to the flow of charge

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Current is the rate of flow of charge through a conductor. Its SI unit is the Ampere (A).

Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as voltage. Potential difference is the
amount of energy the cell gives the electrons it pushes out. It is measured in volts (V) and is
measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel).

The electromotive force (e.m.f): When no current is drawn from a battery it is said to be an
„open circuit‟ and its terminal p.d. is a maximum. This maximum voltage is termed the
electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery. Like potential difference, e.m.f. is measured in
volts. The p.d. at the terminals of a battery decreases slightly when current is drawn from it.
This effect is due to the internal resistance of the battery which transfers some electrical
energy to heat as current flows through it.

Resistance: The opposition that a conductor offers to the flow of current is called its
resistance. A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high resistance.

3 Know and use the formula Q = It

Charge (Q) = current (A) x time (s)

Q=Ixt units are Q in coulombs (C) I in amps (A) t in seconds (s)

4 Show understanding that a current is a rate of flow of charge and recall and use the
equation I = Q / t

Current is the rate of flow of charge through a conductor. The SI unit is the Ampere (A).

I=Q/t

5 State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons

Current in metals is due to a flow of electrons.

6 State that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in
volts

The potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts

7 Use and describe the use of an ammeter and a voltmeter, both analogue and digital

An ammeter measures the current in a circuit. It

is connected in series. It can be digital or
analogue.
Current is measured in Amperes (A)

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A voltmeter measures the voltage in a circuit. It is connected in

parallel. It can be digital or analogue. Voltage is measured in
volts (V).

8 State that the electromotive force (e.m.f) of an electrical source of energy is measured
in volts

e.m.f. is measured in volts.

Resistance

1 State that resistance = p.d. / current and understand qualitatively how changes in p.d.
or resistance affect current

2 Recall and use the equation R = V / I

Resistance (Ω) = potential difference (V) / current (A)

R=V/I

@ constant p.d; increase in resistance leads to a decrease in current

@ constant resistance; increase in p.d leads to an increase in current

3 Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and length, and
the inverse proportionality between resistance and cross-sectional area of a wire

R R is resistance; ρ resistivity; L is length; and A is cross sectional area

Factors affecting resistance:

The resistance of a wire

(i) increases as its length increases,

(ii) increases as its cross-sectional area decreases, (iii) depends
on the material.

Electric circuits

Circuit diagrams

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1 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors (fixed and
variable), lamps, ammeters, voltmeters and fuses (Symbols for other common circuit
components will be provided in questions) Symbols for common circuit components:

Notice the two symbols for a lamp. The

diagram on the right represents a circuit
diagram which shows a battery (source); 3
resistors; 2 ammeters; and 1 voltmeter. V 1 is
measuring p.d across R1 hence it‟s connected in
parallel. A 1 measures current from the source
hence it‟s connected in series. A 2 measures
current through the 6 ohm resistor.
Series and parallel circuits

1 Understand that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same

2 Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series

3 Recall and use the fact that the sum of the p.ds across the components in a series
circuit is equal to the total p.d across the supply

Current at every point in a series circuit is

I
the same. Hence, I = I1 = I2

The potential difference across each resistor

is different based on their resistance. The
sum of the potential differences across the
resistors gives the total pd of the cell. V = V1
+ V2.

Combined resistance: RTotal = R1 + R2

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4 State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current
in each branch

The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so the total current from the source is
always greater than the current in one branch

5 Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in
the separate branches of a parallel circuit

The current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel
circuit

6 State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either
resistor by itself

The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself

7 Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel

Current: I = I1 + I2

V = V1 = V2

Total resistance across QW is calculated as follows

Hence; Rtotal 2.4 Ω

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 If R1 = 3.0 Ω; then total resistance of the circuit = 3.0 + 2.4 Ω = 5.4 Ω

 Since V = IR; I = V/R = 12.0/ 5.4= 2.22A to 2 decimal places.

8 State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a circuit

1. Lights are connected in parallel to avoid them from becoming dim because in parallel
connections, each lamp receives the same voltage (which is equal to the mains supply
voltage). Voltages below the mains supply will make the lamps dim.
2. In parallel connections, unlike in series connections, if one bulb fails, the others
remain lit.
3. It is easier for current to flow in parallel connections as compared to series
connections because the effective resistance is less.

Electrical Energy

1 Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt

Electrical power (W) = Current (A) × Voltage (V) P=I×V

Electrical energy (J) = power (W) × time (s) E = P × t (Since P = I × V)

Electrical energy (J) = Voltage (V) × Current (A) × time (s) E=I×V×t

Dangers of electricity

1 Identify electrical hazards including:

 damaged  overheating of  damp conditions insulation cables

•Damaged insulation: when the insulation is damaged, there is risk of contact with the live
wire leading to electric shock which can cause serious injury.

•Overheating of cables: when too much current flows e.g. because of a short circuit, it may
cause a fire because the cables get too hot.

•Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if electrical equipment is wet someone
might get electrocuted.

2 State that a fuse protects a circuit

The purpose of a fuse is to protect a circuit.

3 Explain the use of fuses and choose

appropriate fuse ratings
A Fuse is a thin piece of wire which
overheats and melts (we say the fuse

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„blows‟) if the current is too high. A fuse prevents overheating and risk of catching fire. A
fuse will have a specific current value or rating (e.g. 13A) so when choosing a suitable fuse
you must use the one which can have the lowest current value but over the current value of
the appliance. Always replace with one of the same value as recommended by the
manufacturer of the appliance.

Note that the current flowing

through resistors rated 5 Ω,
10 Ω and 25 Ω, adds up to
1.7A

Total current

1.7A = 1A + 0.5A + 0.2A

For (b); effective resistance for parallel connections is less than that of series connections.

For parallel connection, total resistance =

For series connection, total resistance = 5 + 10 + 25 = 40 Ω

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Diagram “a” shows an electric circuit set up in a lab, and diagram “b” shows the circuit
diagram of that very same electric circuit.

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