Chapter 4: Radiation Monitoring

Instruments
Set of 107 slides based on the chapter authored by
G. Rajan, J. Izewska
of the IAEA publication:
Review of Radiation Oncology Physics:
A Handbook for Teachers and Students

Objective:
To familiarize the student with instruments used for monitoring the
exposure from external radiation.

Slide set prepared in 2006

by G.H. Hartmann (Heidelberg, DKFZ)
Comments to S. Vatnitsky:
dosimetry@iaea.org

IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency

CHAPTER 4. TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Operational quantities for radiation monitoring
4.3 Area survey meters
4.4 Individual monitoring

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.Slide 1

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiation exposure to humans can be broadly classified as:

‰ internal exposure

‰ external exposure

This chapter only deals with monitoring of

external exposures.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.1 Slide 1

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of external exposure monitoring is

the measurement of:

‰ Radiation levels in and around work areas

(needs an area monitor)

‰ Levels around radiation therapy equipment or source

containers (needs an area monitor)

‰ Dose equivalents received by individuals working with

radiation (needs a personal monitor).

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

The results of external exposure monitoring is used:

‰ to assess workplace conditions and individual exposures;

‰ to ensure acceptably safe and satisfactory radiological

conditions in the workplace;

‰ to keep records of monitoring over a long period of time,

for the purposes of regulation or as good practice.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.1 Slide 3

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiation monitoring instruments are distinguished into:

Area survey meters Personal dosimeters

(or area monitors) (or individual dosimeters)

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING

All these instruments must be calibrated in terms of

appropriate quantities for radiation protection.

Two issues must be addressed:

‰ Which quantities are used in radiation protection?

‰ Which quantities are in particular appropriate for

• area monitoring ?
• individual monitoring ?

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2 Slide 1

4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

‰ Recommendations regarding dosimetric quantities and

units in radiation protection dosimetry are set forth by the
International Commission on Radiation Units and
Measurements
(ICRU).

‰ The recommendations on the practical application of these

quantities in radiation protection are established by the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP).

‰ Details of dosimetric quantities for radiation protection can

be found in Chapter 16.
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

Brief introduction of radiation protection quantities:

‰ The absorbed dose is the basic physical dosimetry

quantity.

‰ However, it is not entirely satisfactory for radiation

protection purposes because the effectiveness in
damaging human tissue differs for different types of
ionizing radiation.

‰ To account additionally also for biological effects of

radiation upon tissues, specific quantities were introduced
in radiation protection.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 2

4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

The basic quantity in radiation protection is the

equivalent dose H

Its definition requires two steps:

‰ the assessment of the organ dose DT

‰ the introduction of radiation-weighting factors to

account for the biological effectiveness of the given
radiation in inducing health effects
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

1. Step: Definition of Organ dose DT

The organ dose is defined as the mean absorbed dose DT

("physical" dose) in a specified tissue or organ T of the
human body given by
1 εT
DT =
mT ∫ D dm =
mT
mT
where
‰ mT is the mass of the organ or tissue under consideration
‰ εT is the total energy imparted by radiation to that tissue or
organ.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 4

4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

2. Step: Introduction of radiation-weighting factors

The organ dose is multiplied by a radiation-weighting

factor wR to account for the biological effectiveness of the
given radiation in inducing health effects.

HT = wR ⋅ DT,R

where DT,R is the absorbed dose delivered by radiation

type R averaged over a tissue or organ T.

The resulting quantity is called the equivalent dose HT

Unit: J/kg or sievert (Sv)
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

Example of radiation-weighting factors:

‰ for x rays, γ rays and electrons: wR = 1

‰ for protons: wR = 5

‰ for α particles: wR = 20

‰ for neutrons, wR depends wR ranges from 5 to20

on the neutron energy

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection

‰ The equivalent dose H is not directly measurable.

‰ There are no laboratory standards to obtain traceable
calibration for the radiation monitors using this quantity.

‰ Operational quantities have been

introduced that can be used for practical
measurements and serve as a substitute
for the quantity equivalent dose H.

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Appropriate quantities for radiation monitoring

The concept of operational quantities is:

‰ They are based on dose equivalent at a point in the

human body (or in a phantom).

‰ They relate to the type and energy of the radiation

existing at that point.

‰ They can therefore be calculated on the basis of the

fluence at that point.

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.2 Appropriate quantities for area monitoring

‰ It is desirable to assess the quantity of equivalent dose

in a phantom approximating the human body.
‰ The phantom selected for this purpose is the so-called
ICRU sphere.
‰ The ICRU sphere, 30cm in diameter, is a tissue-equivalent
sphere.
Composition:

Oxygen 76.2% 30 cm
Carbon 11.1%
Hydrogen 10.1%
Nitrogen 2.6%.

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.2 Appropriate quantities for area monitoring

‰ For area monitoring, two operational quantities have

been introduced, based on the ICRU sphere.

‰ These two quantities additionally refer

• to weakly penetrating radiation, or
• to strongly penetrating radiation

‰ In practice, the term ‘weakly penetrating’ radiation usually

applies to
• photons below 15 keV, and
• to beta rays.

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.2 Appropriate quantities for area monitoring

The two operational quantities introduced for area

monitoring are:

‰ the ambient dose equivalent H*(d)

‰ the directional dose equivalent H'(d)

where d refers to a certain depth in the ICRU sphere

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.3 Ambient dose equivalent

ambient dose equivalent H*(d)

‰ Definition:
It is the dose equivalent that would be produced by the
corresponding aligned and expanded field in the ICRU
sphere at a depth d on the radius opposing the direction of
the aligned field.

‰ Unit: sievert (SV)

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.3 Ambient dose equivalent

‰ Expanded field:
The fluence and its radiation aligned
directional and energy
distribution have the same
values throughout the
volume of interest as in the
actual field at the point of point of
interest
interest.
radiation
expanded
‰ Aligned field:
d
The fluence and its energy
distribution are the same as
in the expanded field, but the aligned
fluence is unidirectional.

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.3 Ambient dose equivalent

Weakly and strongly penetrating radiation

‰ The relevant depth in the ICRU sphere for strongly

penetrating radiation is d = 10 mm.

‰ The relevant depths in the ICRU sphere for weakly

penetrating radiation are:

• d = 3.0 mm used for skin

• d = 0.07 mm used for eye lens

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.3 Slide 3

4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.3 Ambient dose equivalent

radiation aligned

ICRU sphere

radiation
expanded
The ambient
dose equivalent
in a depth of
10 mm
10 mm:
aligned
H*(10mm)
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.4 Directional dose equivalent

directional dose equivalent H'(d,Ω)

‰ Definition:
It is the dose equivalent that would be produced by the
corresponding expanded field in the ICRU sphere at a
depth d on a radius in a specified direction Ω.

‰ Unit: sievert (SV)

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.4 Slide 1

4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.4 Directional dose equivalent

The ambient
dose equivalent
H'(0.07mm,Ω)
unidirectional Ω
radiation
expanded
ICRU sphere

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.5 Appropriate quantities for radiation monitoring

‰ The operational quantity for individual monitoring is the

personal dose equivalent Hp(d)

‰ It is the equivalent dose in soft tissue below a specified

point on the body at an appropriate depth d.

‰ The relevant depth for strongly penetrating radiation is

d = 10 mm.

‰ The relevant depth for weakly penetrating radiation is:

• d = 3.0 mm used for skin
• d = 0.07 mm used for eye lens
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION

MONITORING
4.2.6 Summary of operational quantities

weakly strongly
penetrating penetrating
radiation radiation

H * (0.07), H * (3) H * (10)

Area
monitoring H' (0.07,Ω), H' (3,Ω) H' (10,Ω)

Individual
monitoring
H p (0.07), H p (3) Hp (10)

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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.6 Summary of operational quantities

Area H*(d) and H'(d) are measured with survey meters of

monitoring which the reading is linked to the equivalent dose in
the ICRU sphere.

Individual Hp(d) is measured with a dosimeter which is worn at

monitoring the surface of the body and covered with the
appropriate layer of a tissue-equivalent material.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.6 Slide 2

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Radiation instruments used as survey monitors can be

distinguished into two groups of detectors:

Gas filled detectors: Solid state detectors:

‰ ionization chambers ‰ scintillator

‰ proportional counters ‰ semiconductor
‰ Geiger-Mueller (GM) detectors).
counters

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Properties of gas-filled detectors:

‰ Survey meters
come in different
shapes and sizes
depending upon
the specific
application.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Properties of gas-filled detectors:

‰ Noble gases are generally used in these detectors.

Reason:
• The limit of the dose rate that can be monitored should be as
high as possible:
a high charge-collection time is required!
• A high charge-collection time results from a high mobility of
charge carriers.
• The charge carriers are electrons and negative ions.
• The mobility of negative ions is about three orders of magnitude
smaller than that of electrons.
• Noble gases are non-electronegative gases in which negative
ion formation by electron attachment is avoided.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Properties of gas-filled detectors:

Depending upon the

voltage applied the
detector can operate in
one of three regions:

• ionization region B

• proportional region C

• Geiger-Müller (GM)
region E

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Properties of gas-filled detectors:

Regions not used for

survey meters:
• Region A
(recombination)

• Region D
(limited proportionality
in the “signal versus
applied voltage”)

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

Properties of gas-filled detectors:

‰ Because of their high sensitivity, the tubes of GM-based
gamma monitors are smaller in size compared to
ionization chamber-type detectors.
‰ The detectors can operate in a ‘pulse’ mode or in the
‘mean level’ or current mode. The proportional and GM
counters are normally operated in the pulse mode.
‰ Because of the time required by the detector to regain its
normal state after registering a pulse, ‘pulse’ detectors
will saturate at high intensity radiation fields. Ionization
chambers, operating in the current mode, are more
suitable for higher dose rate measurements.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.1 Ionization chambers

‰ In the ionization region the

number of primary ions of either
sign collected is proportional to
the energy deposited by the
charged particle tracks in the
detector volume.
‰ Because of the linear energy
transfer (LET) differences, the
particle discrimination function
can be used:

for 1 MeV beta particles

for 100 keV beta particles

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.1 Ionization chambers

‰ Build-up caps are required to improve detection efficiency

when measuring high- energy photon radiation, and they
should be removed when measuring lower energy
photons (10 - 100 keV) and beta particles.
‰ Beta-gamma survey meters have a thin end-window to
register weakly penetrating radiation.
‰ The gamma efficiency of these detectors is only a few
percent (as determined by the wall absorption), while the
beta response is near 100% for beta particles entering
the detector.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.2 Proportional counters

At a sufficiently high voltage, a

charge multiplication occurs
( = proportional region).

This occurs when the primary ions

gain sufficient energy between
successive collisions, in particular
in the neighborhood of the thin
central electrode.

The amplification is about 103-fold

to 104-fold.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.2 Proportional counters

Proportional counters are more

sensitive than ionization
chambers.

Proportional counters are

suitable for measurements in
The amount of charge collected low intensity radiation fields.
from each interaction is
proportional to the amount of
energy deposited in the gas of
the counter by the interaction.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.3 Neutron area survey meters

‰ Neutron area levels are normally associated with a

photon background.

‰ Neutron area survey meters require a

discrimination against the photon background.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.3 Neutron area survey meters

A mixed neutron-photon radiation field has:

Neutrons which Photons which

produce secondary particles produce secondary electrons
(reaction products (with low LET)
with high LET)

‰ Because of the LET differences, the particle

discrimination function of gas -filled detectors can be
used.
‰ A high efficiency of discrimination is obtained when the
gas-filled detector is operating in the proportional region.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.3 Neutron area survey meters

‰ Thermal neutrons can be detected very efficiently:

‰ A thermal neutron interacts with boron-10 nucleus
causing an (n,α) reaction.
α-particle

thermal
neutron
B-10 Li-7

‰ The alpha particles can be detected easily by their

ionizing interactions.
‰ Therefore, thermal neutron detectors usually
• have a coating of a boron compound on the inside of the wall
or
• the counter is filled with BF3 gas.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.3 Neutron area survey meters

To detect also fast

neutrons, the counter is
surrounded by a
moderator made of
hydrogenous material.
The fast neutrons
interacting with the
moderator get thermalized.
Subsequently they are
detected by the BF3 counter
placed inside the
The whole assembly is now
moderator. a fast neutron counter.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.3 Neutron area survey meters

‰ Filter compensation is
required to reduce the
weighting factors

over-response to thermal
neutrons so that the
response follows the
weighting factors wR.
(broken line, solid line is
a useful approximation)
neutron energy /MeV

‰ The output is approximately proportional to the dose

equivalent in soft tissue over a wide range (10 decades)
of neutron energy spectra.
‰ Other neutron detectors work on the same principles.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.4 GM counters

In the GM region the

discharge spreads
throughout the volume of
the detector.

The pulse height

becomes independent of
the primary ionization or
the energy of the
interacting particles.
Gas-filled detectors cannot be operated at
voltages beyond this region because they
continuously discharge.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.4 GM counters

‰ Because of the large charge

amplification (9 to 10 orders
of magnitude), GM survey
meters are widely used at
very low radiation levels.

‰ GM counters exhibit strong energy dependence at low

photon energies and are not suitable for the use in pulsed
radiation fields. They are considered ‘indicators’ of
radiation, whereas ionization chambers are used for more
precise measurements.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.4 GM counters

Disadvantage of GM counters:

‰ GM detectors suffer from very long dead-times, ranging

from tens to hundreds of ms.

‰ For this reason, GM counters are not used when accurate

measurements are required of count rates of more than a
few 100 counts per second.

‰ A portable GM survey meter may become paralyzed in a

very high radiation field and yield a zero reading.

‰ Therefore ionization chambers should be used in areas

where radiation rates are high.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.5 Scintillator detector

‰ Detectors based on scintillation (light emission) are

known as scintillation detectors and belong to the class of
solid-state detectors.
‰ Certain organic and
inorganic crystals
contain activator atoms
and emit scintillations
(light) upon absorption
of radiation.

‰ High atomic number phosphors are mostly used for the

measurement of gamma rays, while the plastic
scintillators are mostly used with beta particles.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.5 Scintillator detector

A photomultiplier tube is optically coupled to the scintillator to

convert the light pulse into an electric pulse.

Reflector Dynodes
Emitted (secondary e- emission)
Anode
electron +200V +600V
Glass
+50V

Coaxial out

Scintillation photon
+400V +800V
Photocathode
Other survey meters use photodiodes.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.6 Semiconductor detector

‰ Semiconductors detectors belong to the class of solid-

state detectors.

‰ They act like solid-state ionization chambers on exposure

to radiation.

‰ The sensitivity of solid state detectors is about 104 times

higher than that of gas-filled detectors because:
• the average energy required to produce an ion pair is
one order less
• the material density is typically 3 orders more
compared to gases
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.6 Semiconductor detector

‰ The high sensitivity of semiconductor detectors helps in

miniaturizing radiation-monitoring instruments.
‰ Example:
A commercial electronic pocket dosimeter based on a
semiconductor detector

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.7 Commonly available features of area survey meters

‰ “Low battery” visual indication.

‰ Auto zeroing, auto ranging, auto back-illumination
facilities.
‰ Variable response time and memory to store the data
values.
‰ Option for both the ‘rate’ and the ‘integrate’ modes of
operation.
‰ Analog or digital display, marked in conventional
(exposure/air-kerma) or recent “ambient dose equivalent”
or “personal dose equivalent” units.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.7 Commonly available features of area survey meters

‰ Audio indication of radiation levels (through the ‘chirp’

rate).
‰ Re-settable / non-re-settable alarm facility with adjustable
alarm levels.
‰ Visual indication of radiation with flashing LEDs.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.8 Calibration of survey meters

‰ As any other measuring instrument, protection level area

survey meters have to be calibrated against a reference
instrument that is traceable to a National Standards
Laboratory.
‰ However, the equivalent dose H and also the operational
quantities for area monitoring based on the ICRU sphere
are not directly measurable.
‰ Therefore, the following two-step concept is used:
(1) measurement of basic radiation quantities
(2) determination of equivalent dose by using
theoretical conversion coefficients

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.8 Calibration of survey meters

‰ Step 1: Measurement of basic radiation quantities:

Example:
In a reference photon field of Cs-
137, the air-kerma in air is
measured using a reference
instrument for gamma radiation,
that is a large volume ionization
chamber.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.8 Calibration of survey meters

‰ Step 1: Determination of the air-kerma in air :

( Kair )air = MR ⋅ NR

where
(Kair)air is the air-kerma in air
MR is the reading of the reference instrument
corrected for influence quantities
NR is the calibration factor (e.g., in terms of air-kerma
in air or air-kerma rate in air) of the reference
chamber under the reference conditions

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.8 Calibration of survey meters

‰ Step 2: Determination of equivalent dose by

using conversion coefficients h

H = h ⋅ ( Kair )air

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.8 Calibration of survey meters

Example:
The value of the conversion coefficient

hH*(10) = [H*(10)/(Kair)air]

is theoretically available by a calculation.

Using the data for the calibration beam quality in the

calculation, a reference instrument reading in terms
of air-kerma in air can be converted to H*(10) by:

H *(10) = hH *(10) ⋅ ( Kair )air

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Sensitivity

‰ Sensitivity
Sensitivity S is defined as the inverse of the calibration
factor N:
1
S=
N

‰ A high sensitivity is required to monitor low levels of

radiation.
‰ Scintillation-based systems are even more sensitive
than GM counters because of higher gamma conversion
efficiency and the dynode amplification.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Propreties of area survey meters: Sensitivity

‰ Scintillation-based systems
are generally used for survey
at very low radiation levels
(e.g., contamination
monitoring, lost source
detection survey, etc.)

‰ However, they can also be

used at higher radiation
levels, since their resolving
time is quite low (a few µsec A commercial
or lower) compared to GM contamination monitor
counters.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Sensitivity

‰ Sensitivity of ionization chamber based survey meters

can be adjusted by using :
• decade resistances
• detector of larger volume
• detector gas under high pressure

‰ A wide range of dose equivalent rates can be covered:

1 µSv/h 1 Sv/h

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Proprieties of area survey meters: Sensitivity

‰ GM-based systems would saturate beyond a few

thousand counts per second because of finite resolving
time.
‰ However, low dead time counters or dead time correction
circuits enable these detectors to operate also at higher
intensity radiation fields.

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Energy dependence

‰ Survey meters are normally calibrated at one or more

beam qualities.

‰ However, they are often used in situations where the

radiation field is complex or unknown.

‰ The requirement on survey meters is:

They should have a low energy dependence
over a wide energy range.

‰ They should have a low energy dependence in particular

with respect to the operational quantities.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 5

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Energy dependence

Low energy dependence with respect to the operational

quantities.

‰ The energy dependence is driven the calibration

factor NH*(10)
‰ Example:
H *(10) = NH *(10) ⋅ M

with
NH *(10) = hH *(10) ⋅ N
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 6

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Energy dependence

From
H *(10) = NH *(10) ⋅ M
it follows:

H *(10) H *(10) ( Kair )air

NH *(10) = = ⋅
M ( Kair )air M

‰ Conclusion:
H*(10)/(Kair)air as well as (Kair)air /M should have a flat
energy dependence.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 7

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Directional dependence

‰ The directional response of the instrument can be

studied by rotating the survey monitor about its vertical
axis,.

‰ A survey monitor usually exhibits isotropic response as

required for measuring ambient dose equivalent.

‰ For that a response within ±60° to ±80° with respect to

the reference direction of calibration is required.

‰ A survey monitor typically has a much better response for

higher photon energies (> 80 keV).

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 8

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Dose equivalent range

‰ Survey meters may cover a dose equivalent range

from:

1 nSv/h 1 Sv/h

but the typical range in use is:

1 µSv/h 1 Sv/h

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 9

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Response time

‰ Response time of the survey monitor is defined as the

RC time constant of the measuring circuit, where
• R is the decade resistor used and
• C the capacitance of the circuit.

‰ Low dose equivalent ranges would have high R and

hence high RC values and so the indicator movement
would be sluggish.

‰ It takes at least 3 to 5 time-constants for the monitor

reading to stabilize.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.9 Slide 10

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Overload characteristics

‰ The survey meters must be subjected to dose rates of

about 10 times the maximum scale range to ensure that
the meter reads full scale rather than near zero due to
saturation.

Danger:

‰ Some survey meters, especially the older models, may

read 'zero' on overload. Such survey meters should not
be used for monitoring.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 11

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Overload characteristics

‰ In particular GM survey meters are not suitable for use in

pulsed fields due to the possible overload effect.

‰ Ionisation chamber-based survey meters should be used

instead.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 12

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Long term stability

‰ The survey meters have to be calibrated in a standards

dosimetry laboratory with the frequency prescribed by the
regulatory requirements of the country, typically once
every three years.
‰ The survey meters also need calibration immediately
after repairs or immediately on detecting any sudden
change in response.
‰ The long term stability of the survey meters must be
checked at regular intervals using a long half-life source
in a reproducible geometry.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 13

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Discrimination capacity

‰ End-window GM counters have a removable buildup

cap to discriminate beta from gamma rays.

‰ For beta measurements the end cap must be removed

to allow beta particles to enter the sensitive volume.
end cap

for gamma measurements for beta measurements

gamma radiation
beta radiation
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 14

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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Uncertainties

‰ The standards laboratory provides the uncertainty

associated with the calibration factor of the survey monitor.

‰ Type A uncertainty:
Subsequent measurements at the user provide a type A uncertainty.

‰ Type B uncertainty:
The uncertainties due to energy dependence and angular dependence
of the detector, the variation in the user field conditions compared to
calibration conditions, etc., contribute to type B uncertainties.

‰ These two types of uncertainties are added in quadrature

to get the combined uncertainty.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 15

4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS

4.3.9 Properties of area survey meters: Uncertainties

‰ The combined uncertainty is multiplied by the coverage

factor of k = 2 or k = 3 to correspond to the confidence
limits of 95% or 99%, respectively.

‰ Typically the uncertainty of the measurements with area

monitors is within 30% under the standards laboratory
conditions

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 16

36
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

Individual monitoring is the measurement of radiation doses

received by individuals working with radiation.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 1

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

Individual monitoring is used for those who regularly work

in controlled areas or those who work full time in
supervised areas:

‰ to have their doses monitored on a regular basis;

‰ to verify the effectiveness of radiation control practices in

the workplace;

‰ for detecting changes in radiation levels in the workplace;

‰ to provide information in case of accidental exposures.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 2

37
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

The most widely used individual monitoring systems are

based on:

TLD dosimetry Film dosimetry

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 3

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

Other measuring techniques used for individual

monitoring systems:

‰ Radiophotoluminesce (RPL)

‰ Optically simulated luminescence (OSL)

‰ In case of fast neutron doses:

• Albedo dosimeter
• nuclear track emulsion

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 4

38
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

Self-reading pocket dosimeters

and electronic personal
dosimeters are direct reading
dosimeters and show both the
instantaneous dose rate and B: mikroscope

the accumulated dose at any I: ionisization

chamber
point in time.
F: quartz
filament

Setup of a simple pocked dosimeter

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 5

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.1 Film badge

‰ A film badge is a special

emulsion photographic film
in a light-tight wrapper
enclosed in a case or
holder with windows with
appropriate filters.

‰ The badge holder creates a

distinctive pattern on the
film indicating the type and
energy of the radiation
received.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.1 Slide 1

39
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.1 Film badge

‰ The film is a non-tissue

equivalent radiation detector.
‰ The film has not the response
of a tissue-equivalent material.
‰ A filter system is therefore
required to adjust the
energy response.
‰ One filter is adequate for
photons of energy above
100 keV.
‰ A multiple filter system is used for lower energy
photons.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.1 Slide 2

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.1 Film badge

Evaluation: Cumulative doses from beta, x, gamma,

and thermal neutron radiation are
evaluated by:

‰ Production of calibration films;

(exposed to known doses of well defined radiation of
different types);

‰ Measuring the optical density of the film under different

filters;

‰ Comparing the optical density with the calibration films.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.1 Slide 3

40
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.1 Film badge

A film can also serve as a monitor of neutron doses.

‰ Thermal neutrons:
A cadmium window absorbs thermal neutrons and the
resulting gamma radiation blackens the film below this
window as an indication of the neutron dose.
‰ Fast neutrons:
Nuclear track emulsions are used. The neutrons interact
with hydrogen nuclei in the emulsion and surrounding
materials, producing recoil protons by elastic collisions.
These particles create a latent image, which leads to
darkening of the film along their tracks after processing.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.1 Slide 4

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge

‰ A TLD badge consists

of a set of TLD chips
Filters
enclosed in a plastic
holder with filters.
‰ The most frequently
used TLD materials
(also referred to as
phosphors) are:
• LiF:Ti,Mg
• CaSO4:Dy
• CaF2:Mn.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.2 Slide 1

41
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge

‰ If the TLD material incorporates atoms with a high Z, it is

not tissue equivalent. Then a filter system similar to film
badges must be provided to achieve the required energy
response.

‰ TLD badges using low Z phosphors do not require such

complex filter systems.

‰ The TLD signal exhibits fading, but this effect is less

significant than with films.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.2 Slide 2

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge

‰ Because of the small size of

TLDs, they are convenient for
monitoring doses to parts of the
body
(e.g., eyes, arm or wrist, or
fingers)
using special type of dosimeters,
including extremity dosimeters.

finger ring dosimeter

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.2 Slide 3

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge

A TLD can also serve as a monitor for neutrons

Techniques:

‰ Using the body as a moderator to thermalize neutrons

(similarly to albedo dosimeters)

‰ Using LiF enriched with lithium-6 for enhanced thermal

neutron sensitivity due to the (n,α) reaction of thermal
neutrons in lithium-6.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.2 Slide 4

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.3 Radiophotoluminescent (RPL) glass dosimetry systems

A personnel RPL
A radiophotoluminescent glass block is dosimeter
positioned in the center of a holder. (1950s-1960s)
To determine the dose, the glass block
is removed from the holder and
exposed to ultraviolet radiation in a
reader.
The result is that the glass emits light,
the intensity of which is proportional to
the radiation exposure.
The reader measures the intensity of
the emitted light and converts this into
personal dose equivalent.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.3 Slide 1

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.3 Radiophotoluminescent (RPL) glass dosimetry systems

The physics of a RPL glass dosimeter:

‰ The material used is silver activated phosphate glass.

‰ When silver activated phosphate glass is exposed to

radiation, stable luminescence centers are created in
silver ions, denoted as Ag° and Ag++.

‰ This luminescence centers emit light upon excitation. The

readout technique uses pulsed ultraviolet laser excitation.

‰ A photomultiplier tube registers the orange fluorescence

emitted by the glass.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.3 Slide 2

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.3 Radiophotoluminescent (RPL) glass dosimetry systems

Advantages of RPL glass systems:

‰ The RPL signal is not erased during the readout, thus the
dosimeter can be re-analysed several times, and the
measured data reproduced. Accumulation of the dose is
also possible that may be used for registration of the
lifetime dose.
‰ Commercially available RPL dosimeters typically cover
the dose range of 30 μSv to 10 Sv. They have a flat
energy response within 12 keV to 8 MeV for Hp(10).
‰ The RPL signal exhibits very low fading and is not
sensitive to the environmental temperature making it
convenient in individual monitoring.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.3 Slide 3

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.4 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) systems

‰ Optically stimulated luminescence is now commercially

available also for measuring personal doses.

‰ OSL dosimeters contain a

thin layer of aluminum oxide
(Al203:C).

‰ During analysis the aluminum

oxide is stimulated with selected
frequencies of laser light producing
luminescence proportional to
radiation exposure.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.4 Slide 1

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.4 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) systems

‰ Commercially available badges are integrated, self

contained packets that come preloaded, incorporating an
Al203 strip sandwiched within a filter pack that is heat-
sealed.

‰ Special filter patterns

provide qualitative
information about
conditions during
exposure.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.4 Slide 2

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.4 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) systems

‰ OSL dosimeters are highly sensitive; e.g., the

Luxel® system can be used down to 10 μSv with a
precision of ±10 μSv.

‰ This high sensitivity is

particularly suitable for
individual monitoring in
low-radiation environments.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.4 Slide 3

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.4 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) systems

‰ The dosimeters can be used in a wide dose range up

to 10 Sv.

‰ Photon Energy range is from 5 keV to 40 MeV.

‰ OSL dosimeters can be re-analysed several times

without loosing the sensitivity and may be used for up to
one year.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.4 Slide 4

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors

‰ In addition to passive dosimetry badges, direct reading

personal dosimeters are widely used:
• to provide direct read-out of the dose at any time,
• for tracking the doses received in day-to-day activities
• in special operations (e.g., source loading survey, handling of
any radiation incidents or emergencies).

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.5 Slide 1

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors

Direct reading personal dosimeters fall into two

categories:

‰ Self-reading pocket dosimeters

‰ Electronic personal dosimeters.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.5 Slide 2

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors

‰ Self-reading pocket dosimeter

resembles a pen and consists of
an ionization chamber that acts as
B: mikroscope
a capacitor.
‰ The capacitor is fully charged. The
quartz filament is pushed away
(similar to the old charge meter in
I: ionisization
physics) and reads zero before chamber
use.
‰ On exposure to radiation the
ionization produced in the chamber F: quartz
discharges the capacitor and the filament
exposure (or air-kerma) is directly
proportional to the discharge that
can be directly read against light
through a built-in eyepiece.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.5 Slide 3

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors

‰ The use of pocket dosimeters has declined in recent

years because of their poor useful range, charge leakage
problems, and poor sensitivity compared to electronic
personal dosimeters.

‰ Electronic personal dosimeters based on miniature GM

counters or silicon detectors are now available with the
measurement range down to 30 keV photon energy.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.5 Slide 4

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors

‰ The modern EPDs are calibrated in the personal dose

equivalent, i.e., in terms of Hp(10) or Hp(0.07) for photons
and beta radiation.
‰ EPD provides instantaneous display of accumulated dose
equivalent at any time.
‰ EPDs have auto-ranging facilities and give visual and
audio indication (flashing or chirping frequency
proportional to dose equivalent rate), so that the changes
in radiation field can be recognized immediately.
‰ EPDs are very useful at the emergency situations for
immediate readout of the doses received.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.5 Slide 5

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.6 Calibration

‰ For calibration, the dosimeters should be irradiated on

standardized phantoms that provide approximation of the
backscatter conditions of the human body.
‰ Three types of phantoms are recommended:
• slab phantom to represent human torso,
• pillar phantom for wrist or ankle dosimeters
• rod phantom for finger dosimeters.
‰ The standard phantoms are composed of ICRU tissue.
‰ The International Standards Organization (ISO)
recommends special water phantoms (referred to as ISO
slab phantoms), although in practice PMMA phantoms
are used with the appropriate corrections.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.6 Slide 1

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.6 Calibration

‰ Calibration of personal dosimeters in terms of Hp(d) involves three

steps:

(1) Air-kerma in air is measured in a reference field, using a reference

ionisation chamber, calibrated by a standards laboratory.
(2) Values for: ⎛ Hp ( d ) ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = hkHp
⎜ ( Kair ) ⎟
⎝ air ⎠slab

are theoretically available.

Using these data for the calibration beam quality, a reference
instrument reading can be converted to [Hp(d)]slab.

(3) The dosimeter badge is then placed at the calibration point on a

phantom and its reading M is determined.

NHp = Hp ( d ) M gives the calibration in terms.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.6 Slide 2

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.6 Calibration

Calibration of personal dosimeters on a PMMA slab phantom using a

standard cesium-137 gamma ray beam. The ratio between Hp(d) and
the reading of the dosimeters is determined giving the calibration factor.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.6 Slide 3

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Sensitivity

‰ Dosimeters based on:

• Film
• TLD badges
can measure the dose equivalent as low as
0.1 mSv and can go up to 10 Sv.
‰ Dosimeters based on:
• optically stimulated luminescence
• radiophotoluminescence
are more sensitive with the lower detection limit
of 10-30 μSv.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 1

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Energy dependence

‰ The film exhibits a strong energy dependence and is

empirically designed to reduce its energy response to
within ±20%.
‰ LiF TLD is nearly tissue-equivalent and exhibits good
energy dependence characteristics. CaSO4:Dy shows
significant energy dependence and its energy response
is reduced by empirical adjustments in the badge design.
‰ Commercially available RPL dosimeters (e.g., Asahi-
PTW) have flat energy response from 12 keV to 8 MeV.
‰ Commercially available OSL dosimeters (e.g., Landauer)
have flat energy response from 5 keV to 40 MeV.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 2

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Energy dependence

‰ For direct reading pocket dosimeters the energy

dependence is within ±20% over the range
from 40 keV to 2 MeV.
‰ For EPDs containing energy-compensated detectors,
energy dependence is within ±20% over the energy
range from 30 keV to 1.3 MeV.
‰ The energy response values quoted above can vary in
energy range and in the degree of flatness depending on
the individual monitor material and construction details.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 3

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Uncertainties

‰ ICRP has stated that, it is possible to achieve an uncertainty of about

10% at the 95% confidence level (k=2) for measurements of radiation
fields in laboratory conditions.

‰ However, in the work place, where the energy spectrum and

orientation of the radiation field are generally not well known, the
uncertainties in a measurement made with an individual dosimeter
will be significantly greater and may be a factor of 100% for photons
and still greater for neutrons and electrons.

‰ The uncertainty in the measurements with EPD is about 10% for low
dose rates (2 mSv/h) and increases to 20% for higher dose rates
(<100 mSv/h) in laboratory conditions.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 4

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Dose equivalent range

‰ Personal monitors must have as wide a dose range as

possible so that they can cover both the radiation
protection and accidental situations (typically from 10 μSv
to about 10 Sv).
‰ film and TLD dosimeters:
1oo µSv 10 Sv
‰ OSL and RPL dosimeters:
1o µSv 10 Sv
‰ self-reading pocket dosimeters:
5o µSv 0.2 Sv
‰ Electronic personal dosimeters:
0.1 µSv 10 Sv

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 5

4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Directional dependence

‰ According to the ICRU, the individual dosimeter must be

iso-directional;

‰ i.e., its angular response relative to normal incidence

must vary as the ICRU directional dose equivalent
quantity H’(10,Ω).

‰ The directional dependence must be evaluated and the

appropriate corrections derived.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 6

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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.7 Properties of personal monitors: Discrimination capacity

‰ Film dosimeters can identify and estimate the doses of x

rays, gamma rays, beta particles and thermal neutrons.

‰ TLD, OSL and RPL dosimeters generally identify and

estimate doses of x rays, gamma and beta radiation.

IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.7 Slide 7

54