Mathematical Tripos Part II Lent Term 2024

General Relativity Dr. J.M. Evans

Example Sheet 4

1. A static spacetime has line element

2
ds2 = −e2φ/c c2 dt2 + gij dxi dxj ,

where φ and gij are independent of x0 = ct, and i, j = 1, 2, 3. Show that

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1 ∂φ ∂φ  1 ∂φ 2φ/c2
Γα0β = nα + nβ and Γ0i0 = g ij e ,
c2 ∂xβ ∂xα c2 ∂xj
where nα = (1, 0, 0, 0).
Let uα be the 4-velocity of a co-moving observer (i.e. an observer at rest in these coordinates, so that
u = 0 and u0 u0 = −c2 ). Show that
i

1
∇β uα = − uβ ∇α φ and so ∇α φ = uβ ∇β uα .
c2
Show further that
g αβ ∇α ∇β φ = Rαβ uα uβ
and hence that
1 ij
g ij ∇i ∇j φ + g ∇i φ∇j φ = Rαβ uα uβ .
c2
[ Hint: you may find it helpful to start from the Ricci identity uα;βγ − uα;γβ = Rδ αβγ uδ . ]
What does the last equation reduce to in the Newtonian limit (weak gravity) with Tαβ = ρ uα uβ ?

2. A perfect fluid has 4-velocity uα which is tangent to the fluid flow lines (the integral curves of uα )
and which satisfies uα uα = −c2 . If the fluid has particle number density n, density ρ and pressure p, then
the particle flux density N α and energy-momentum tensor T αβ are given by

N α = nuα , T αβ = (ρ + p/c2 )uα uβ + pg αβ ,

and both are conserved: ∇α N α = ∇β T αβ = 0.

(i) If the fluid has zero pressure, show that ∇α (ρuα ) = 0 and that the fluid flow lines are geodesics.
Show also that ρ/n is constant on each such geodesic.
(ii) If the fluid has pressure, find an expression for ∇α (ρuα ) and show that
 1  β 1
ρ+ p u ∇β uα + ∇α p + 2 uα uβ ∇β p = 0 .
c2 c

3. Consider a perfect fluid, with definitions and notation as in question 2, and a static, weak-field metric
of the form given in question 1, but with gij = δij . In the Newtonian limit, ϕ/c2 ∼ v 2 /c2 ≪ 1, where v is
a typical speed, so that uα ≈ (c, u). Show that, to lowest order,

∂n
+ ∇·(nu) = 0 ,
∂t
where ∇ is the usual vector operator in 3-dimensional flat space. What is the corresponding equation for
ρ ? Show that, in the Newtonian limit, ρ uβ ui; β = −p, i (i = 1, 2, 3) and hence that

∂u 1
+ (u · ∇)u = −∇φ − ∇p .
∂t ρ

1
 4. The Friedmann-Lemaı̂tre-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric with c = 1 is given by:

dr2
 
2 2 2 2 2
ds = −dt + a(t) + r dΩ
1 − kr2

and
3(ȧ2 + k) 2aä + ȧ2 + k
Gtt = , Grr = − .
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a2 1 − kr2
For a dust universe with Ttt = ρ, show that ρ a3 = ρ0 , where ρ0 is a constant.
(i) In the case k = 0, show that aȧ2 = A2 , where A is a constant, and deduce that the universe expands
for ever. Without further calculation, explain how this conclusion is affected in the case k < 0.
dη 1
(ii) In the case k > 0, we define a new time coordinate η by = , where R2 = k −1 . Derive the
dt Ra
equations
a(η) = B(1 − cos η) , t(η) = BR(η − sin η) ,
where B is a constant, and hence show that the universe recollapses within a finite time.
(iii) For the solution in (ii), set r = R sin χ in the line element and use the formula for the 3-space volume
element
dV = (gχχ gθθ gφφ )1/2 dχ dθ dφ
to determine the volume of the universe at a given scale factor (the angular coordinates run from 0 to π
for χ and θ, and from 0 to 2π for φ). Hence find the maximum volume in terms of M G, where M is the
total mass of the universe, and use dimensional analysis to restore the dependence of the result on c.

5. Obtain the geodesic equations for the closed (k = 1) FLRW dust universe, using η, χ, θ, φ coordinates
and show that there are null geodesics with θ = χ = 12 π. How many times can a photon encircle the
universe from the time of creation to the moment of annihilation?

6. Show that the Einstein-Maxwell equations (i.e. the Einstein equations with energy momentum tensor
for an electromagnetic field T αβ = F αγ F β γ − 14 F γδ Fγδ g αβ ) can be written

Rαβ = κ Fαγ Fβ γ − 41 gαβ Fγδ F γδ .

For a line element of the form

1
ds2 = −f (r)c2 dt2 + dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ) ,
f (r)

the only non-zero components of the Ricci tensor are given by

Rtt /(c2 f ) = −f Rrr = 12 f ′′ + f ′ /r , Rθθ = Rφφ / sin2 θ = 1 − rf ′ − f .

In the case
Q
Ftr = −Frt = and Fαβ = 0 otherwise,
r2
show that a solution can be found that reduces to the Schwarzschild solution when Q = 0.
Find an analogous solution in the case Rαβ = Λgαβ .

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 7. For the Schwarzschild metric, a retarded time coordinate u is defined by u = ct − r∗ , where
dr/dr∗ = F (r) = 1 − 2M/r. Show that, with this definition, the line element can be written

ds2 = −F du2 − 2du dr + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ) .

Consider a spacecraft that is freely falling radially into a Schwarzschild black hole, with 4-velocity V α
and proper time τ . The spacecraft emits monochromatic radio signals, of wavelength λe , which propagate
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radially outwards and are received, with wavelength λo , by a distant observer who is at rest with respect
to the Schwarzschild coordinates.
Show that
λo ∆to ∆uo ∆ue Vu
= = = ≈
λe ∆τ c∆τ c∆τ c
where, for example, ∆to is the proper time interval during which the observer receives one cycle of the
signal and ∆τ is the time for the spacecraft to emit one cycle.
Now show that Vu = −K, where K is a constant, and that
√
K + K 2 − F c2 p
Vu = , V r = − K 2 − F c2 .
F

Deduce that on the world line of the spacecraft near the horizon du/dr ∼ −2/F , and that u ∼ −2r∗
and F ∼ e−u/(4M ) .
Conclude that, just as the spacecraft is about to cross the event horizon, the observer sees the frequency
red-shifted with an observer-time dependence ∝ exp(−ct/(4M )).

8. Show that, for an observer with proper time τ moving in the Schwarzschild spacetime,

c2 = F c2 ṫ2 − ṙ2 /F − r2 (θ̇2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 ),

where ṫ = dt/dτ etc., and F = 1 − 2M/r. Show, that for an observer within the Schwarzschild horizon,
ṙ2 ≥ −c2 F however the observer moves. Deduce that any observer crossing the Schwarzschild horizon will
reach r = 0 within a proper time πM/c.

9. Let M be the torus (S 1 × S 1 ) and define the metric gαβ on M by

ds2 = sin θ (dφ2 − dθ2 ) + 2 cos θ dθ dφ ,

where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π. Show that, for a null geodesic,

φ̇2 + 2 φ̇ θ̇ cot θ − θ̇2 = 0 ,

where dot is differentiation with respect to an affine parameter, and deduce that the curves given by
φ = −2 ln sin(θ/2) + φ0 and φ = −2 ln cos(θ/2) + φ0 are null geodesics. Use another first integral of the
Euler-Lagrange equations to show that in both cases θ = pλ, where λ is an affine parameter and p is a
constant.
Show that one family of null geodesics wraps round the torus an infinite number of times within a
finite range of the affine parameter, never reaching the null curve θ = 2π, and that the other family of
null geodesics crosses this curve.
Is this space geodesically complete? Is the Riemann tensor well-behaved (no calculation required)?

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 10. (i) A weak gravitational field has the spacetime metric gαβ = ηαβ + ǫhαβ + O(ǫ2 ), where ηαβ is the
Minkowski metric and ǫ is small. Show that

Rαβγδ = 1
2 ǫ( hαδ,βγ + hβγ,αδ − hαγ,βδ − hβδ,αγ ) + O(ǫ2 ) .
γ
Let h = hγ γ and define hαβ = hαβ − 12 h ηαβ . Check that hαβ = hαβ − 21 h ηαβ where h = h γ, and show
that
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Rαβ = 12 ǫ( − hαβ + hα γ ,βγ + hβ γ ,αγ + 12 ηαβ  h ) + O(ǫ2 ) ,

where  = η αβ ∂α ∂β . What is the linearised vacuum Einstein equation for hαβ ?
(ii) An infinitesimal coordinate transformation, which is also known as a gauge transformation, is given
by xα → xα − ǫf α (x). Show that

hαβ → hαβ + fα,β + fβ,α + O(ǫ) ,

but that the curvature tensors are unchanged to leading order in ǫ. Deduce that if f α is chosen to satisfy
f α = −hαβ ,β , then in the new coordinates the gauge condition hαβ ,β = 0 holds. Conclude that, with
this choice, the linearised vacuum Einstein equation for weak fields is the wave equation:

 hαβ = 0 .

β
(iii) Consider a gravitational wave solution hαβ = Hαβ eikβ x with Hαβ,γ = 0 (note: this is an ansatz
for hαβ , not hαβ ). Show that, in order to satisfy both the linearised Einstein equation and the gauge
condition in (ii), k α must be a null vector and Hαβ k β = 12 kα Hβ β must hold.
(iv) Corresponding to the remaining freedom to make gauge transformations, show that there is an arbi-
trariness in the solution given by Hαβ → Hαβ + kα vβ + vα kβ for any vα . How many degrees of freedom
are there for a gravitational wave propagating in a given direction k α ? If k α = k(1, 0, 0, 1), show that we
may take the independent components of Hαβ to be H11 = −H22 and H12 = H21 .

Comments to: J.M.Evans@damtp.cam.ac.uk