Introduction

to
Psychology
Pavithra Seelan
TOPICS TO
COVER

Definition
Goals
Branches/Scope of Psychology
Schools of Psychology
History and Evolution of Psychology
 WHAT IS
PSYCHOLOGY?
THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF:

BEHAVIOUR
MENTAL/COGNITIVE PROCESSES.
 BEHAVIOUR

Any Observable action or reaction of a living organism

Classified as-
1. Overt- The behaviour that is visible and what occurs
outside of a Human being.
2. Covert- The behaviour that is not visible and that occurs
inside of a Human being.
COGNITIVE
PROCESSES
Every aspect of our mental life-
thoughts, memories, mental images,
reasoning, decision making and so on.

All aspects of human life.

Wilhelm Wundt
Father of Psychology

German Psychologist who established the

initial psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
Sigmund Freud
Founder of Psychoanalysis
&
Father of Modern
Psychology
A theory of how mind works and a
method of treating people in mental
distress.
 GOALS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
1. DESCRIBE

2. EXPLAIN

3. PREDICT

4. CHANGE/CONTROL
1. Describe
“What is happening?”
or
“What is this individual doing?”

Collect information and then describe, name, and/or classify what they see.
Starting point of making sense of things.
2. Explain
"How and Why the behavior occurs".

Why we behave or react in certain ways, or how certain stimuli might affect
our mental health.
3. Predict
“When might this behavior occur again in
the future?”
or
“What would happen if I responded this
way?”
Better predict how and when it might occur again.
Better understand the underlying causes of our actions..
4. Change/Control
“How can I stop this habit?”
Or
“What can I do to be a more generous
person?”

Final goal can help bring about positive changes in life.

Modify the Behaviour.
BRANCHES OF
PSYCHOLOGY
1. Biopsychology

2. Clinical Psychology

3. Counselling Psychology

4. Cognitive Psychology

5. Developmental Psychology
6. Educational Psychology

7. Environmental Psychology

8. Evolutionary Psychology

9. Experimental Psychology

10. Forensic Psychology

11. Health Psychology

12. Industrial Psychology

13. Neuropsychology

14. Occupational Psychology

15. Personality Psychology

16. Positive Psychology

17. Psychology of Women

18. School Psychology

19. Social Psychology

20. Sport Psychology

SCHOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Behaviourism
4. Psychoanalysis
5. Humanism
6. Gestalt Psychology
1. Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt a German psychologist was the father of Structuralism.

Structuralism emphasises on the systematic study of mind through the

analysis of its component and structure by adopting introspection as
the main technique.

According to structuralists, the main objective of psychology is to

study and understand the structure of human mind by analyzing
mental experience and discovering the various elements and the
manner in which they are compounded.
1. Structuralism
The mind is the sum total of various mental experiences (thoughts,
feelings, experiences, pain, joy, sorrow etc.) and the consciousness is
the sum total of mental experiences at a given time.

There are no causal relationship between mind and body. But they are
parallel to each other in such a way that for every event in
consciousness there is a corresponding event in the body.
2. Functionalism
The school of functionalism was originated as a reaction to school of
structuralism and it was initiated by William James, the father of
American psychology.

Functionalism studies mind as its functions to adapting the individual

to the environment.

According to functionalism the aim of psychology is the study

of' 'what for' and 'what of' mental process.
2. Functionalism

It is concerned with the nature and functions of mental processes

which emphasizes how these processes works.

Functionalists believe that the mind and body are intrinsically one,
though they appear as distinct elements. The mental activities are the
result of the adjustment between the mind and body.
3. Behaviourism

J.B Watson an American psychologist is the founder of Behavior school

which came to the existence as a protest against Structuralism and
Functionalism.

The notable psychologists in this school are Skinner, Thorndike and Pavlov
etc. and according to behaviourism, psychology is purely experimented
branch of the natural sciences, the object of which is to elaborate, control
and predict behaviour.

Behaviorism focuses its attention totally on the overt or observable

behavior that can be measured scientifically.
3. Behaviourism

Behaviorism states that behavior is merely an individual's response to his

environmental stimulus.

It is guided by senses and it can be explained in terms of stimulus and

response.

They maintain that environmental factors are more important in behaviour

and shaping the personality of an individual. It further points out that all
behaviour is learned in terms of its interaction with the environment.

Behaviourism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response

behaviours, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.
3. Behaviourism

Learning through association - Classical Conditioning

Learning through consequences – Operant Conditioning

1. Classical Conditioning- Learning through association

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of

unconscious or automatic learning.
This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
In simple terms, classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before
a naturally occurring reflex.
Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations
between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
Conditioning simply means: To shape the behaviour of an individual or animal.
In these experiments, the neutral
signal was the sound of a tone and
the naturally occurring reflex was
salivating in response to food. By
associating the neutral stimulus
(sound) with the unconditioned
stimulus (food), the sound of the
tone alone could produce a One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic
experiments with dogs.
salivation response.
2. Operant Conditioning- Learning through consequences
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning,
is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior
and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner(B.F. Skinner) is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning.
His work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this
principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely
to be repeated.
For example, when lab rats press a lever when a
green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a
reward. When they press the lever when a red
light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As
a result, they learn to press the lever when the
green light is on and avoid the red light.
But operant conditioning is not just something
that takes place in experimental settings while
training lab animals. It also plays a powerful
role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and
punishment take place in natural settings all
the time, as well as in more structured settings
such as classrooms or therapy sessions.
Classical Conditioning Vs Operant Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, a First described by B. F. Skinner, an
Russian physiologist American psychologist
Focuses on involuntary, automatic Involves applying reinforcement
behaviors or punishment after a behavior
Involves placing a neutral signal Focuses on strengthening or
before a reflex weakening voluntary behaviors
4. Psychoanalysis
Pioneer- Sigmund Freud.
Study of human behavior through the analysis of unconscious mental process by
using the free association and dream analysis.
Human mind has three parts conscious, unconscious, and subconscious.
1. Conscious- defines our thoughts, actions and awareness.
2. Subconscious- Reactions and actions when we think of it.
3. Unconscious- Deep recesses of our past and memories (the suppressed
feelings of ones life).

Psychoanalysis gives more importance to unconscious part of the mind.

Human behaviour is generally influenced by forces operating in the unconscious

layer and therefore exploration of unconscious mind is required for the meaningful
study of behaviour
Psychoanalysis points out three aspects of mind which determines our
personality.
1. ID (instinctive desires)
2. EGO (reason based on real life experience)
3. SUPER EGO (moral inhibition).

The super ego and id are in a ‘continual conflict’ and ego stands as a
‘mediator’ between these forces of mind.

Human behaviour and personality while adapting to real physical and

social world is radically altered. However the core of personality remains
as what was laid down in the childhood.
4.Gestalt Psychology
The system of Gestalt psychology was born in Germany and it was forwarded
by Max Wertheimer.

Gestalt psychologists emphasized the importance of the role of

configuration or organization in the perceptual field and highlight the role of
insight and understanding in learning.

The first principle of Gestalt psychology is that it is the “whole which

determines the behaviour of its parts”.

An individual perceives the thing as whole not as mere collections of its

constituents or elements.
"The Wholistic approach"
How do you perceive
this image?

1. A vase?
2. Two faces?
6. Humanism
Humanistic psychology was developed as a response to psychoanalysis
and behaviorism.

Pioneers- Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark Moustakas.

Humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping

people achieve and fulfill their potential.
1. Becoming a fully functioning person.
2. Individual free will
3. Hierarchy of needs
4. Peak experiences
5. Self actualization
1. Physiological needs- include those that are vital to survival. Some examples
of physiological needs include:

Food
Water
Breathing

In addition to the basic requirements of nutrition, air, and temperature

regulation, physiological needs also include shelter and clothing. Maslow
included sexual reproduction in this level of the hierarchy as well, since it is
essential to the survival and propagation of the species.
2. Security and Safety needs- At the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy, the
needs start to become a bit more complex. At this level, the needs for security
and safety become primary.

People want control and order in their lives. Some of the basic security and
safety needs include:

Financial security
Health and wellness
Safety against accidents and injury
3. Social needs- include love, acceptance, and belonging. At this level, the need
for emotional relationships drives human behavior. Some of the things that
satisfy this need include:

Friendships
Romantic attachments
Family relationships
Social groups
Community groups
Churches and religious organizations
4. Esteems needs- Once the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied,
the esteem needs begin to play a more prominent role in motivating behavior.

At this level, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and

appreciation of others.
People have a need to accomplish things, then have their efforts recognized.
In addition to the need for feelings of accomplishment and prestige, esteem
needs include such things as self-esteem and personal worth.
People need to sense that they are valued by others and feel that they are
making a contribution to the world.
Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic
or team participation, and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling
the esteem needs.
5. Self-Actualization needs- At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are the self-
actualization needs.
Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less
concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their
potential.

"What a man can be, he must be," Maslow explained, referring to the need
people have to achieve their full potential as human beings.

It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents,

capabilities, potentialities, etc. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves
and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people who
have developed or are developing to the full stature of which they capable.
 HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY
While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s,
its earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks.
Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a
scientific discipline.
Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact
on psychology, ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies
to the study of human thought and behavior.
Parents of Psychology-Philosophy and physiology.
Father of Psychology-Wilhelm Wundt.
Father of modern Psychology- Sigmund Freud.
First Psychological laboratory in the year 1879 was established by Wilhelm
Wundt in Leipzig, Germany.
American Psychological Association (APA) was formed in 1892.
G Stanley Hall became the first president of APA.
Mary Whiton Calkins first woman APA president.
Psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until 18 th century.
Socrates-emphasised the importance of self examination and personal reflection
Plato in 387 BC suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes.
Aristotle suggested that the heart is the mechanism of mental processes.
During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the
idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two entities that
interact to form the human experience.
Animism is the belief that everything has a spirit: trees, birds, rainstorms, rocks.
 HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY
(SOME ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL PRACTICES)
1.Trephination
Engravings from 1525 showing trephination.
It was believed that drilling holes in the skull
could cure mental disorder.
Trephination is an example of the
earliest supernatural explanation for
mental illness. Examination of
prehistoric skulls and cave art from as
early as 6500 BC has identified surgical
drilling of holes in skulls to treat head
injuries and epilepsy as well as to allow
evil spirits trapped within the skull to be
released.
It is the process of removing a small part
 2. Bloodletting and Purging
Though this treatment gained prominence in
the Western world beginning in the 1600s, it
has roots in ancient Greek medicine. Claudius
Galen believed that disease and illness
stemmed from imbalanced humors in the
body.

Bleeding, purging, and even vomiting were thought to help correct those imbalances and help
heal physical and mental illness.
And these tactics were used to treat more than mental illness: During that period, diseases like
diabetes, asthma, cancer, cholera, smallpox, and stroke were likely treated with bloodletting
using leeches or venesection.
3. Rotation Therapy
In the 19th century, there was a belief that
using centrifugal force could treat mental
illness. Essentially, it was believed that
excessive spinning would reduce “brain
congestion.” Special chairs were even
invented for this treatment and it spread
across Europe.
4. Isolation and Asylums
Isolation was the preferred treatment for
mental illness beginning in medieval
times, which may explain why mental
asylums became widespread by the 17th
century. These institutions were places
where people with mental disorders could
be placed, allegedly for treatment, but
also often to remove them from the view
of their families and communities.
5. Insulin Coma Therapy
This treatment was introduced in 1927 and
continued until the 1960s. In insulin coma
therapy, physicians deliberately put the patient
into a low blood sugar coma because they
believed large fluctuations in insulin levels could
alter how the brain functioned. Insulin comas
could last one to four hours. Patients received
an insulin injection that caused them to lose
consciousness after their blood sugar fell. Risks
included prolonged coma (in which the patient
failed to respond to glucose), and the mortality
rate varied between 1% and 10%.
6. Lobotomy
Popular during the 1940s and 1950s,
lobotomies were always controversial and
prescribed in psychiatric cases deemed
severe. It consisted of surgically cutting or
removing the connections between the
prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes of the
brain. The procedure could be completed in
five minutes. Some patients experienced
improvement of symptoms, but the
treatment also introduced other
impairments.
 7. Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT)
ECT is a procedure done under general anesthesia, in which small electric currents are
passed through the brain, intentionally triggering a brief seizure. ECT seems to cause
changes in brain chemistry that can quickly reverse symptoms of certain mental health
conditions.
ECT often works when other treatments are unsuccessful and when the full course of
treatment is completed, but it may not work for everyone.
Much of the stigma attached to ECT is based on early treatments in which high doses of
electricity were administered without anesthesia, leading to memory loss, fractured bones
and other serious side effects.
ECT is much safer today. Although ECT may still cause some side effects, it now uses
electric currents given in a controlled setting to achieve the most benefit with the fewest
possible risks.
(ECT) can provide rapid, significant
improvements in severe symptoms of several
mental health conditions. ECT is used to treat
Severe depression, Severe mania, Catatonia,
Agitation and aggression in people with
dementia.
The mind is just like a FOOD FOR
THOUGHT
muscle — the more you
exercise it, the stronger
it gets and the more it
can expand.

IDOWU KOYENIKAN
Thank
you :)