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 This chapter covers the basic functions of an operating system (OS) and key terms.
 Booting is the initial setup process of the OS.
 The OS manages all I/O operations, which users must request through system calls.
System calls serve as a communication channel between users and the OS. Different
system call types and execution are essential for understanding OS operations.
 The chapter also explores various architectures developed to meet evolving
hardware technology requirements.

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  The operating system's function begins when the computer system is powered on
and continues until it is powered off.
 This section addresses the location of the operating system within the computer
system, how it is loaded, and how it initiates.
 Before exploring the operation of an operating system, it is important to grasp some
fundamental definitions and concepts.

 The Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) is a software that provides low-level input-
output functions for interfacing with various devices such as keyboard, mouse,
monitor, and ports. It also includes initialization functions to load the operating
system (OS) into memory.
 Initially embedded in ROM or flash-RAM, BIOS has been replaced by more efficient
systems like Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) for modern OSs like Linux and
Windows.
 BIOS is now primarily used for booting and initialization, with device drivers
handling hardware access during regular system operation.

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  When a system is powered on for the first time, it lacks an operating system (OS).
The OS needs to be loaded from secondary storage to memory. This process of
loading the OS into memory is called booting.

 Boot Software The set of instructions required for booting, known as boot software
or boot loader, is responsible for loading the OS into RAM.

 Boot Device The OS is initially stored in non-volatile secondary storage like a hard
disk or CD. During booting, the system searches for this storage device to load the
OS into RAM. This storage device is referred to as the boot device.

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  Certain operations require direct interaction with hardware devices, which users are
not allowed to access. These instructions are passed to the OS, which then interacts
with the devices on behalf of the user. These instructions, not directly executed by
the user but passed to the OS, are called privileged instructions.

 All privileged instructions that interact with hardware and resources and are passed
to the OS for execution are known as system calls. For instance, when a user wants
to display output on the screen, they include the appropriate instruction in the
program, which is a system call.

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  System calls play a crucial role in the operation of the operating system by
facilitating communication between user programs and the kernel. The system
operates in two modes: user mode for executing user processes and system mode
for privileged operations.
 User programs and kernel functions run in separate memory partitions. To perform
privileged operations, user programs must use system calls as an interface to access
kernel-mode functions.
 System calls enable user programs to request the OS to perform operations that
require hardware access or other privileged actions, such as accessing files,
directories, or communicating with other processes.

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  System programs are utilities that assist users in developing and running
applications. They are distinct from system calls, as system programs help users by
utilizing system calls. Examples of system programs include file management tools,
compilers, debuggers, communication programs, and status information programs.

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 System generation programs configure the operating system based on the specific
hardware specifications of a machine. These programs gather information about the
processor type, disk formatting, memory size, CPU and disk scheduling algorithms,
and I/O device details. Using this information, the system generation program
selects and compiles code modules from a library to create the customized OS for
the machine.
• The processor type and its options selected
• Disk formatting information, its partitions
• Size of memory
• CPU scheduling algorithm
• Disk scheduling algorithm
• I/O device type and model, its interrupt number
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 OS was structured into two parts: Resident part or kernel
and Transient part.
The resident part may contain the following programs or
data structures:
 Resource Allocation Data Structures.
 Information Regarding Processes and their States.
 System Call Handler.
 Event Handlers
 Scheduler.

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 OSs were developed to meet various
requirements, such as CPU busyness, multiple
jobs in batch systems, and user friendliness.
However, the initial architecture was not
efficient and consisted of few modules due to
limited functionality. The kernel only added all
functionalities, allowing efficient
intercommunication between modules.
This development process was not planned and
led to unplanned OS development.

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Multi-programming expanded the size of

the operating system (OS), leading to a
complex structure where every module
directly accesses hardware.
Therefore, there is a large gap in
understanding the operations at OS level
and machine level, as the OS consists of
algorithms for process allocation and
scheduling, while hardware operations are
performed at machine instructions.

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 The monolithic architecture of operating systems combined all functionalities in a
single layer, making it challenging to modify modules due to extensive interfacing.
Additionally, the lack of protection in this architecture posed a security risk, allowing
unrestricted access among modules and potential for malicious code.
This structure was not suitable for multi-programming/multi-tasking environments as
any user job could corrupt another job or the operating system.

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MS-DOS
It was original designed and implemented by a
few people.
It was written to provide the most functionality
in the least space.
In MS-DOS, the interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated.
Vulnerable to errant (or malicious) programs,
causing entire system crashes when user
programs fail.

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 UNIX
Like MS-DOS, UNIX initially was limited by hardware
functionality. It consists of two separable parts: the kernel
and the system programs.
The kernel is further separated into a series of interface
and device drivers.
The kernel provides the file system, CPU scheduling,
memory management, and other operating-system
functions through system calls.
This monolithic structure was difficult to implement and
maintain.

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The operating system is divided into a number

of layers (levels), each built on top of lower
layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that
each uses functions (operations) and services
of only lower-level layers

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 Less efficient.
For instance, when a user program executes an
I/O operation. it executes a system call that is
trapped to the I/O layer, which calls the
memory management layer, which in turn calls
the CPU scheduling layer, which is then passed
to the hardware.
Each layer adds overhead to the system call.
The net result is a system call that takes longer
than does one on a non-layerd system.

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Removes all nonessential components from

the kernel and implements them as system
and user-level programs. The result is a small
kernel.
Microkernel provide minimal process and
memory management.
The main function of the microkernel is to
provide communication between the client
program and the services running in user
space.

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 Easier to port from one hardware design to another.

The microkernel also provides more security and reliability.

If a service fails, the rest of the OS remains untouched

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The best current methodology for operating system

design involves using loadable kernel modules.
The kernel har a set of core components and links in
additional services via modules, either at boot time or
during run time.
The kernel to provide core services while other
services are implemented dynamically, as the kernel is
running.
Linking services dynamically is preferable to adding
new features directly to the kernel, which would
require recompiling the kernel every time a change
was made.

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 More flexible than a layered system, because any
module can call any other module.

More efficient than a microkernel, because modules

do not need to invoke message passing in order to
communication.

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In practice, very few operating systems adopt

a single, strictly defined structure.
They combine different structures, resulting
in hybrid systems that address performance,
security, and usability issues.
Three hybrid systems:
 Apple Mac OS X
 iOS
 Android

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