Fluid mechanics

(Internal Flows)

Ki-Young Song, PhD

Internal Flows
• Flows completely bounded by solid surface
• Pipes: round cross section
• Ducts: not round cross section
• Nozzles
• Diffusers
• Sudden contraction and expansion
• Valves and fittings
• The flow regime is primarily a function of Re
• Laminar flow: analytical solution
• Turbulent flow: experimental data
Pipe flow
• Internal flows are usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through a flow
section
• Water we use in our homes is pumped through piping networks.
• Oil and natural gas are transported hundreds of miles by large pipelines.
• Blood is carried throughout our bodies by arteries and veins.
• Cooling water in an engine is transported by hoes to pipes in the radiator.
• Friction in the pipe is directly related to the pressure drop and head loss
• Flow section
• Circular cross section for liquid flow: pipe
• Noncircular cross section for gas: duct
• Small diameter pipe: tube
Pipe flow vs Open channel flow
• Pipe flow: flows completely filling the pipe
• Pressure gradient is the main driving force
• Open channel flow: flows without completely filling the pipe
• The gravity is the driving force
Laminar flow vs Turbulent flow in a pipe
low velocity

high velocity
Reynolds number
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on
• geometry
• surface roughness
• flow velocity
• surface temperature
• type of fluid
• etc.
• After exhaustive experiment by Osborne Reynolds, it was discovered that
the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces in the fluid.
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷
• Reynolds number: 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜇
Reynolds number
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜇
• 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 : average velocity
• D: characteristic length of the geometry
• Dimensionless number
• At large Re, the inertial forces are large, and thus viscous forces
cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid.
(turbulent)
• At small Re, the viscous forces are large enough to suppress the
fluctuations and to keep the fluid in line. (laminar)
Critical Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟
• flow becomes turbulent
• different for different geometries and flow conditions
• internal flow in a circular pipe: 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟 = 2300
• flow through noncircular pipes, Re is based on the hydraulic diameter
Dh as
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ =
𝑝
• Ac is the cross-sectional area of the pipe
• p is wetted perimeter
Reynolds number
• Hydraulic diameter Dh

4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ =
𝑝

• For flow in circular pipes:

• Laminar flow: Re ≤ 2300
• Transitional flow: 2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000
• Turbulent flow: Re ≥ 4000
The entrance region
• Any fluid flowing in a pipe had to enter the pipe at some location
• Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity
• Because of the no-slip condition, the fluid particles in the layer in
contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop
• The layer causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow
down gradually as a result of friction
The entrance region
• The region of the flow where the viscous shearing forces (friction)
affect the flow is called boundary layer.
• Boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions:
• Boundary layer region: viscous effect and the velocity changes
• Irrotational flow region: frictional effects are negligible and velocity remains
constant in the radial direction
The entrance region
• The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the flow direction
until it reaches the center of the pipe (the flow is fully developed)
• From the pipe inlet to the point where the boundary layer merges at
the centerline is called hydrodynamic entrance region
• The length of the region is called hydrodynamic entry length, Le
The entrance region
• Flow at the entrance region is called hydrodynamically developing
flow
• Beyond the entrance region is called hydrodynamically fully
developed region
• In the developed region, velocity profile is fully developed and
remains unchanged. (parabolic in laminar flow)
Entrance length
• From the pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress reaches within
about 2 % of the fully developed value
• 𝐿𝑒,𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ≅ 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷, 𝐿𝑒,𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≅ 1.6𝑅𝑒 1/4 𝐷

Le
Laminar flow in pipes
• Consider a laminar flow in a horizontal pipe
• A fluid element

R 𝜏
r
D P P + dP
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
𝑑𝑙
 R 𝜏
r
Laminar flow in pipes D P
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
P + dP

𝑑𝑙

• Forces around the element:

• By pressure 𝑃: 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃 − 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃)
• By shear stress 𝜏: −𝜏(2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑙)

• By force balancing: −𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃 − 𝜏 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 0 (no acceleration)

𝑟 𝑑𝑃
𝜏=−
2 𝑑𝑙
• In general form
Δ𝑃𝐷
𝜏=
4𝐿
 R 𝜏
r
Laminar flow in pipes D P
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
P + dP

𝑑𝑙

𝑟 𝑑𝑃
𝜏=−
2 𝑑𝑙
• Distribution of shear stress
• If r = 0 → 𝜏 = 0
• If r increases, 𝜏 linearly increases (𝜏 ∝ 𝑟)
Δ𝑃𝐷
• If r = R→ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝐿 𝜏ma𝑥
 R 𝜏
r
Laminar flow in pipes D P
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
P + dP

dr ↑ → du ↓ 𝑑𝑢 𝑟 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑙

𝜇 =𝜏 = −
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑙
• Thus,
𝑑𝑢 𝑟 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃
𝜇 = → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑙 2𝜇 𝑑𝑙
1 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃 1 2
න 𝑑𝑢 = න 𝑟𝑑𝑟 → 𝑢 = 𝑟 +𝐶
2𝜇 𝑑𝑙 2𝜇 𝑑𝑙 2
Poiseuille’s flow
1 𝑑𝑃 2
𝑢(𝑟) = − (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝜇 𝑑𝑙

𝑅2 𝑑𝑃
if r = 0 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 =−
4𝜇 𝑑𝑙
 R 𝜏
r
Laminar flow in pipes D
𝜋𝑟 2
P

𝜏
P + dP

𝑑𝑙

• We consider the flowrate Q from the cross section of the pipe

• From 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
R
∫ ∫ ∫
R R 1 𝑑𝑃 dQ
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 r
0 0 0
4𝜇 𝑑𝑙 dr

𝜋𝑅4 𝑑𝑃 R
𝑄=
8𝜇 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑃 𝛥𝑃
• For whole length, ⇒
𝑑𝑙 𝐿

Δ𝑃𝜋𝐷4
𝑄=
128𝜇𝐿
Flow velocity in a pipe
• Not uniform
• Zero at the surface (no-slip condition)
• Maximum at center

• It is convenient to work with an average velocity, vavg

• vavg is defined as the average speed through a cross section
• The change in vavg is very small due to density, temperature, and
friction.
• the change is disregarded.
 R 𝜏
r dQ
Flow velocity in a pipe D P
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
P + dP r
dr
𝑑𝑙

• Find average velocity vavg R

• From 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝜋𝑅4 𝑑𝑃
𝑄 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
8𝜇 𝑑𝑙

𝑅2 𝑑𝑃 𝑅2 𝑑𝑃
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8𝜇 𝑑𝑙 4𝜇 𝑑𝑙
• Thus,
1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
For fully developed laminar pipe flow, vavg is half of maximum velocity
Inclined pipes (CCW: +, CW: -) 2
• By force balancing (flow 1→2) 1
• Σ𝐹𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃 − 𝜏 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0
pressure shear stress gravity
• 𝑊sin𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑢 W
• 𝜏=2 𝑑𝑙
− 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟
• Thus, 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑃 1 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑢 = − − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝑟 → න 𝑑𝑢 = − − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 න 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2𝜇 𝑑𝑙 2𝜇 𝑑𝑙
at R, u = 0
1 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 1 2
𝑢=− − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑟 +𝐶
2𝜇 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 2
1 𝑑𝑃
𝑢(𝑟) = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝜇 𝑑𝑙
1 Δ𝑃
𝑢(𝑟) = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝜇 𝐿
 Inclined pipes
• Flow rate (𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 )
1 Δ𝑃
𝑢 𝑟 = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 , 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑢(𝑟) 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0
4𝜇 𝐿
W
𝑅2 Δ𝑃 𝐷2 Δ𝑃
• 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝜃
4𝜇 𝐿 16𝜇 𝐿

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷2 Δ𝑃
• 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃
2 32𝜇 𝐿

• Thus,
𝜋𝐷2 𝐷2 Δ𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃
4 32𝜇 𝐿
𝜋𝐷4
𝑄= Δ𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝐿 sin 𝜃
128𝜇𝐿
 R 𝜏
r
Pressure drop in a pipe flow D P
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜏
P + dP

𝑑𝑙

• The main driving force of internal flow is pressure difference (or

pressure drop), Δ𝑃
• Δ𝑃 is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump
to maintain flow
• From Poiseuille’s law,
Δ𝑃𝜋𝐷4
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
128𝜇𝐿
• we can get the pressure drop as
32𝜇𝐿𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
Δ𝑃 =
𝐷2
 2

Pressure drop in a pipe flow

• Now, we consider a inclined pipe
• Considering friction, 1
v
W

𝑃 𝑣2 𝑃 𝑣2
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 + 𝐻𝑓
𝛾 2𝑔 1 𝛾 2𝑔 2 L
𝜃
• Since the flow is fully developed, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝑃1 𝑃2 Δ𝑃
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + − = Δ𝑧 +
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾

• By force balancing,
Σ𝐹𝑙 = Δ𝑃𝜋𝑅2 − 𝜌𝑔 𝜋𝑅2 𝐿 sin 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑤 2𝜋𝑅 ∙ 𝐿 = 0
pressure gravity shear stress
Δ𝑃 2𝜏𝑤 𝐿 4𝜏𝑤 𝐿
− 𝐿 sin 𝜃 = =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑅 𝜌𝑔 𝐷 = 𝐻𝑓
 2

Pressure drop in a pipe flow 1

W
4𝜏𝑤 𝐿 v

𝐻𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 L
𝜃

• The head loss is proportional to L/D

• From experiment, the head loss for all types of fully developed internal
flows was found as
2
𝐿 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 Δ𝑃
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑓 =
𝐷 2𝑔 𝛾 (for horizontal channel, Δz = 0)
• 𝑓: Darcy friction factor, a dimensionless number
8𝜏𝑤 8(8𝜇𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 /𝐷) 64𝜇 64
𝑓= 2 = 2 = =
𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
fully developed laminar flow in circular pipe
Exercise 7.1
• Oil at 20 °C (𝜌 = 888 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and 𝜇 =
0.8𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ∙ 𝑠) is flowing steadily through a 5-
cm-diameter 40-m-long pipe. The pressure at
the pipe inlet and outlet are measured to be
745 and 97 kPa, respectively. Determine the
flow rate of oil through the pipe assuming the
pipe is (a) horizontal, (b) inclined 15 ° upward,
and (c) inclined 15 ° downward. Also, verify
that the flow through the pipe is laminar.
Turbulent flow in pipes
• Most flows in reality are turbulent
• Turbulent flow is complex
• Random, rapid, and fluctuations
• Theory is undeveloped
• Experiments
• Swirling regions
• Eddies
• Transport mass, momentum, and energy
• Higher values of friction, heat transfer, mass transfer
Losses in turbulent pipe flow
• The head loss in the pipe flow was found as
2
𝐿 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
• Friction factor, 𝑓
64
• In laminar flow: 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒) =
𝑅𝑒
𝑒
• In turbulent flow: 𝑓 = 𝑓( , 𝑅𝑒)
𝐷
• e/D is relative roughness (e: roughness, D: diameter)
• Friction factor is found by experiment
• Moody chart (e/D, Re, f)
Losses in turbulent pipe flow
• Moody diagram
• Friction factor decreases
with increasing Re in
laminar and transition
zones
• Friction factor in
turbulent zone is constant
and depends on the
relative roughness e/D.

Moody chart
 Tube drawing is a process to size a tube by

Exercise 7.2 shrinking a large diameter tube into a smaller one,

by drawing the tube through a die

• Air under standard condition flows through a 4-mm-diameter drawn

tubing with an average velocity of v = 50 m/s. For such conditions, the
flow would normally be turbulent. However, if precautions are taken
to eliminate disturbance to the flow (the entrance to the tube is very
smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not vibrate, etc.), it may be
possible to maintain laminar flow. (𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.222 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
1.8 × 10−5 𝑁𝑠/𝑚)
• (a) determine the pressure drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the
flow is laminar
• (b) repeat the calculations if the flow is turbulent
Minor loss
• Most pipe systems consists of different
components, not only straight pipes.
• Valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, etc.
• Those components interrupt the smooth flow of
the fluid and cause additional losses because of the
flow separation and mixing they induce.
• These losses are minor compared to the total head
loss (major loss) in the pipes, and are called minor
loss.
Minor loss 1 eddy 2

• Imagine a pipe with sudden expansion

• By the eddy, loss occurs. 𝑣2
𝑣1
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
• BE: + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑣12 −𝑣22 𝑃2 −𝑃1
• ℎ𝐿 = − … (1)
2𝑔 𝛾
• By momentum equation: 𝐴1 𝐴2
• 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 + 𝜌𝑄 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝐴1 = 𝐴2
• 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 … (2)
𝑣12 −𝑣22 𝑣1 𝑣2 −𝑣22 𝑣1 −𝑣2 2
• (2) → (1): ℎ𝐿 = − =
2𝑔 𝑔 2𝑔
Minor loss 1 eddy 2

• Imagine a pipe with sudden expansion

• By the eddy, loss occurs. 𝑣2
𝑣1
𝑣1 −𝑣2 2
• ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
• By continuity:
• 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1 𝑑 2 𝐴1 𝐴2
• 𝑣2 = 𝑣 = 𝑣1
𝐴2 1 𝐷

2
𝑣12 𝑑
∴ ℎ𝐿 = 1−
2𝑔 𝐷
Minor loss 1 2

Separated flow
• Imagine a pipe with sudden contraction
• By the separation, loss occurs. 𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
• BE: + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑣12 −𝑣22 𝑃2 −𝑃1
• ℎ𝐿 = − … (1)
2𝑔 𝛾
• By momentum equation: 𝐴1 𝐴2
• 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 + 𝜌𝑄 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
• 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 … (2)
𝑣12 −𝑣22 𝑣1 𝑣2 −𝑣22 𝑣1 −𝑣2 2
• (2) → (1): ℎ𝐿 = − =
2𝑔 𝑔 2𝑔
Minor loss 1 2

Separated flow
• Imagine a pipe with sudden contraction
• By the separation, loss occurs. 𝑣1
𝑣2
𝑣1 −𝑣2 2
• ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔
• Contraction coefficient: 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐴1 /𝐴2 ≤ 1
• By continuity: 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2
• 𝑣2 = 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑣1
𝐴2 1
𝐴2 1
• 𝑣1 = 𝑣 = 𝑣2
𝐴1 2 𝐶𝑐
2
𝑣22 1
∴ ℎ𝐿 = −1
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐
Minor loss
𝐾𝐿
𝑣2 𝑑 2
• ℎ𝐿 = 1− for suddenly expanded pipes
2𝑔 𝐷
𝑣2 1 2
• ℎ𝐿 = −1 for suddenly contracted pipes
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐
• The flow through the additional components is very complex, and
theoretical analysis through the additional component is not possible.
• Experiment provides the loss information.
• Define the loss coefficient, 𝐾𝐿
𝑣2 ℎ𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾𝐿 , 𝐾𝐿 = 2
2𝑔 𝑣 /2𝑔
Minor loss
• Once all the loss coefficients are available, the total head loss in a
piping system is determined as
𝐿𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 𝑣𝑗2
𝐻𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝐿,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = Σ𝑖 𝑓𝑖 + Σ𝑗 𝐾𝐿,𝑗
𝐷𝑖 2𝑔 2𝑔
• i: each pipe section with constant diameter
• j: each component that causes a minor loss
• If the entire piping system has a constant diameter, the total head loss
is
𝐿 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓 + Σ𝐾𝐿
𝐷 2𝑔
𝑣: average velocity (constant)
Minor loss
• The actual value of 𝐾𝐿 is strongly dependent on the geometry of the
component considered.
Minor loss
Minor loss

flange (disc)

threaded
Exercise 7.3
• A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 9-cm-
diameter pipe. The walls of the expansion section are angled 30° from
the horizontal. The average velocity and pressure of water before the
expansion section are 7 m/s and 150 kPa, respectively. Taking the
kinetic energy correction factor to be 1.06 at both the inlet and
outlet, determine the head loss in the expansion section and the
pressure in the larger-diameter pipe.
Piping networks
• Most piping systems in reality involve
numerous parallel and series connections
• Pipes in series
• Constant flow rate through the entire system
• The total head loss = the sum of the head loss
in individual pipes in the system
• Pipes in parallel
• Total flow rate = sum of flow rates in each
individual pipe
• Equal head loss in each branch
Exercise 7.4
• Three reservoirs are connected
by three pipes as shown. For
simplicity we assume that the 𝐿 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
diameter of each pipe is 1 ft,
the friction factor for each is
0.02, and because of the large
length-to-diameter ratio,
minor losses are negligible.
Determine the flowrate into or
out of each reservoir.
(g = 32.2 ft/s2)