Computer Networks- BCS502 Module-1

Module -1
INTRODUCTION :DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Syllabus
Introduction: Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, Networks Models: Protocol
Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model, Introduction to Physical Layer: Transmission
media, Guided Media, Unguided Media: Wireless. Switching: Packet Switching and its types.

Textbook: Ch. 1.1 - 1.3, 2.1 - 2.3, 7.1 – 7.3, 8.3.

Handouts for Lecture-1

1.1 Data Communications :

• Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between 2 devices over a
transmission-medium. Transmission-medium can be wired/ wireless.
• A communication-system is made up of
→ Hardware (physical equipment) and
→ Software (programs)
• For data-communication, the communicating-devices must be part of a
communication-system.
•The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
1) Delivery
 The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
 Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device
or user.
2) Accuracy
 The system must deliver the data accurately.
 Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3) Timeliness
 The system must deliver audio/video data in a timely manner.
 This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
 Data delivered late are useless.

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4) Jitter
 Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival-time.
 In other words, jitter is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio/video packets.
 For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of
the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.

Components of Communication System :

• Five components of a communication-system (Figure 1.1):

1) Message
2) Sender
3) Receiver
4) Transmission-Medium
5) Protocol

Figure 1.1:Five components of a communication-system

1) Message:
 Message is the information (or data) to be communicated.
 Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
2) Sender :
 Sender is the device that sends the data-message.
 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

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3) Receiver :
 Receiver is the device that receives the message.
 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
4) Transmission Medium :
 Transmission-medium is physical-path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
 Transmission-medium can be wired or wireless.
 Examples of wired medium:
→ Twisted-pair wire (used in landline telephone)
→ Coaxial cable (used in cable TV network)
→ Fiber-optic cable
Examples of wireless medium:
→ Radio waves
→ Microwaves
→ Infrared waves (ex: operating TV using remote control)
5) Protocol :
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data-communications.
 In other words, a protocol represents an agreement between the
communicating-devices.
 Without a protocol, 2 devices may be connected but not communicating.

Data Representation :
 Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,
audio, and video.
1) Text
 Text is represented as a bit-pattern. (Bit-pattern sequence of bits: 0s or 1s).
 Different sets of bit-patterns are used to represent symbols (or characters).
 Each set is called a code.
 The process of representing symbols is called encoding.
 Popular encoding system: ASCII, Unicode.
2) Number
 Number is also represented as a bit-pattern.

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 ASCII is not used to represent number. Instead, number is directly converted

to binary-form.
3) Image
 Image is also represented as a bit-pattern.
 An image is divided into a matrix of pixels (picture-elements).
 A pixel is the smallest element of an image. (Pixel Small dot)
 The size of an image depends upon number of pixels (also called resolution).
 For example: An image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
 Two types of images:
i) Black & White Image
¤ If an image is black & white, each pixel can be represented by a value
either 0 or 1.
¤ For example: Chessboard
ii) Color Image
¤ There are many methods to represent color images.
¤ RGB is one of the methods to represent color images.
¤ RGB is called so called ‘.’ each color is combination of 3 colors: red,
green & blue.
4) Audio
 Audio is a representation of sound.
 By nature, audio is different from text, numbers, or images. Audio is
continuous, not discrete.
5) Video
 Video is a representation of movie.
 Video can either
→ be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or
→ be a combination of images arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Direction of Data Flow :
• Three ways of data-flow between 2 devices (Figure 1.2):
1) Simplex
2) Half-duplex
3) Full-duplex

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 Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-

duplex as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1) Simplex :
 The communication is unidirectional
(For ex: The simplex mode is like a one-way street).
On a link, out of 2 devices:
i) Only one device can transmit.
ii) Another device can only receive.
For example (Figure 1.2a):
The monitor can only accept output.
Entire-capacity of channel is used to send the data in one direction.
2) Half-Duplex :
 Both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
(For ex: The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with 2 directional traffic).

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 When one station is sending, the other can only receive and vice-versa.
For example (Figure 1.2b): Walkie-talkies
 Entire-capacity of a channel is used by one of the 2 stations that are transmitting
the data.
3) Full-Duplex :
 Both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
(For ex: The full-duplex is like a 2-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at
the same time).
 For example (Figure 1.2c):
 Mobile phones (When 2 people are communicating by a telephone line, both can
listen and talk at the same time).
 Entire-capacity of a channel is shared by both the stations that are transmitting the
data.
1.2 NETWORKS :
• A network is defined as a set of devices interconnected by communication-links.
• This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them.
• Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
• Often, devices are referred to as nodes.
• A node can be any device capable of sending/receiving data in the network.
• For example: Computer & Printer
• The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network Criteria :

• A network must meet following 3 criteria’s:

1) Performance
 Performance can be measured using i) Transit-time or ii) Response-time.
i) Transit Time is defined as time taken to travel a message from one device
to another.
ii) Response Time is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and
response.
 The network-performance depends on following factors:
i) Number of users
ii) Type of transmission-medium

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iii) Efficiency of software

 Performance is evaluated by 2 networking-metrics: i) throughput and ii) delay.
 Good performance can be obtained by achieving higher throughput and
smaller delay times
2) Reliability
 Reliability is measured by
→ Frequency of network-failure
→ Time taken to recover from a network-failure
→ Network's robustness in a disaster
 More the failures are, less is the network's reliability.
3) Security
 Security refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized access or
damage.
 It also involves implementing policies for recovery from data-losses.

Physical Structures :
Type of Connection
• Two types of connections (Figure 1.3):
1) Point-to-Point
 Only two devices are connected by a dedicated-link (Figure 1.3a).
 Entire-capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
 For example: Point-to-Point connection b/w remote-control & TV for
changing the channels.
2) Multipoint (Multi-drop)
 Three or more devices share a single link.
 The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally (Figure
1.3b).
i) If link is used simultaneously by many devices, then it is spatially
shared connection.
ii) If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared
(temporal) connection.

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Physical Topology :
• The physical-topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Four basic topologies are:
1) Mesh
2) Star
3) Bus and
4) Ring

Mesh Topology
• All the devices are connected to each other (Figure 1.7).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between all devices.
• There are n(n-1) physical channels to link n devices.
• Every device not only sends its own data but also relays data from other nodes.
• For ‘n’ nodes,
→ There are n(n-1) physical-links
→ There are n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links
• Every device must have (n–1) I/O ports to be connected to the other (n-1) devices.

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 Advantages:
1) Congestion reduced: Each connection can carry its own data load.
2) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
3) Security: When a data travels on a dedicated-line, only intended-receiver
can see the data.
4) Easy fault identification & fault isolation: Traffic can be re-routed to avoid
problematic links.
 Disadvantages:
1) Difficult installation and reconfiguration.
2) Bulk of wiring occupies more space than available space.
3) Very expensive: as there are many redundant connections.
4) Not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless
networks.
5) High redundancy of the network-connections.
Bus Topology :
• All the devices are connected to the single cable called bus (Figure 1.4).
• Every device communicates with the other device through this bus.
• A data from the source is broadcasted to all devices connected to the bus.
• Only the intended-receiver, whose physical-address matches, accepts the data.

Devices are connected to the bus by drop-lines and taps.

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• A drop-line is a connection running between the device and the bus.

• A tap is a connector that links to the bus or
• Advantages:
1) Easy installation.
2) Cable required is the least compared to mesh/star topologies.
3) Redundancy is eliminated.
4) Costs less (Compared to mesh/star topologies).
5) Mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
• Disadvantages:
1) Difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.
2) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
3) A fault/break in the cable stops all transmission.
4) There is a limit on
i) Cable length
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
5) Security is very low because all the devices receive the data sent from the
source.
Star Topology :
• All the devices are connected to a central controller called a hub (Figure 1.5).
• There exists a dedicated point-to-point link between a device & a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. Thus, there is no direct traffic
between devices.
• The hub acts as a junction:
If device-1 wants to send data to device-2, the device-1 sends the data to the
hub, then the hub relays the data to the device-2.

Advantages:
1) Less expensive: Each device needs only one link & one I/O port to connect
it to any devices.

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2) Easy installation & reconfiguration: Nodes can be added/removed w/o

affecting the network.
3) Robustness: If one link fails, it does not affect the entire system.
4) Easy to detect and troubleshoot fault.
5) Centralized management: The hub manages and controls the whole network.
Disadvantages:
1) Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole network is dead.
2) Cable length required is the more compared to bus/ring topologies.
3) Number of nodes in network depends on capacity of hub.
Ring Topology :
• Each device is connected to the next, forming a ring (Figure 1.6).
• There are only two neighbors for each device.
• Data travels around the network in one direction till the destination is reached.
• Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of token.
• Each device has a repeater.
• A repeater
→ Receives a signal on transmission-medium &
→ Regenerates & passes the signal to next device.

Advantages:
1) Easy installation and reconfiguration.
2) To add/delete a device, requires changing only 2 connections.
3) Fault isolation is simplified. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network-operator to the
problem and its location.
4) Congestion reduced: Because all the traffic flows in only one direction.
Disadvantages:
1) Unidirectional traffic.

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2) A fault in the ring/device stops all transmission.

The above 2 drawbacks can be overcome by using dual ring.
3) There is a limit on
i) Cable length &
ii) Number of nodes that can be connected.
4) Slower: Each data must pass through all the devices between source and
destination.

Questions:
1. What is data communication ?
2. Identify the attributes of communication system ?
3. What is jitter ?
4. Identify the components of a communication-system ?
5. Give an example for Transmission Medium ?
6. Identify the forms of information ?
7. List the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex ?
8. What is network?
9. List the network criteria?
10.What is response time?
11.Identify the basic topologies?

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Handouts for Lecture-2

1.3 Network Types :
• Two popular types of networks:
1) LAN (Local Area Network) &
2) WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN :
• LAN is used to connect computers in a single office, building or campus (Figure
1.8).
• LAN is usually privately owned network.
• A LAN can be simple or complex.
1) Simple: LAN may contain 2 PCs and a printer.
2) Complex: LAN can extend throughout a company.
• Each host in a LAN has an address that uniquely defines the host in the LAN.

A packet sent by a host to another host carries both source host’s and destination
host’s addresses.
• LANs use a smart connecting switch.
• The switch is able to
→ Recognize the destination address of the packet &
→ Guide the packet to its destination.
• The switch

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→ Reduces the traffic in the LAN &

→ Allows more than one pair to communicate with each other at the same
time.
• Advantages:
1) Resource Sharing
Computer resources like printers and hard disks can be shared by all
devices on the network.
2) Expansion
Nowadays, LANs are connected to WANs to create communication at
a wider level.
3) High Data Transfer Speeds
LANs provide fast data transfer rates, typically in the range of 100 Mbps to 10
Gbps, depending on the hardware (e.g., Ethernet, switches, routers). This allows
for efficient file sharing, data access, and communication between devices.
4) Improved Security
LANs are often easier to secure than wider networks (e.g., the internet) since they
can be confined to a specific building or geographic area. Security measures like
firewalls, access control, and encryption can be implemented to protect the
network.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.

WAN :
• WAN is used to connect computers anywhere in the world.
• WAN can cover larger geographical area. It can cover cities, countries and even
continents.
• WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
• Normally, WAN is
→ Created & run by communication companies (Ex: BSNL, Airtel)
→ Leased by an organization that uses it.
• A WAN can be of 2 types:

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1) Point-to-point WAN:
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects 2 communicating devices
through a transmission media (Figure 1.9).

2) Switched WAN :
 A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
 The switched WAN can be the backbones that connect the Internet.
 A switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected by switches (Figure 1.10).

Internetwork :
• A network of networks is called an internetwork. (Internet inter-network)
(Figure 1.12).
• For example (Figure 1.11):
Assume that an organization has two offices,
i) First office is on the east coast &
ii) Second office is on the west coast.
Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate with
each other.To allow communication between employees at different offices, the

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management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a ISP and connects the two
LANs.(ISP(Internet Service Provider) such as a telephone company ex: BSNL).

When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same
office, the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the
destination.
On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the east
coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches the destination.

Difference between LAN and WAN :

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Switching :
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links
together.
• A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.
• Two types of switched networks are 1)Circuit-switched and 2) Packet-switched
networks.

Circuit-Switched Network :
A dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between the two end
systems. The switch can only make it active or inactive.

As shown in Figure 1.13, the 4 telephones at each side are connected to a switch.
¤ The switch connects a telephone at one side to a telephone at the other side.

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¤ A high-capacity line can handle 4 voice communications at the same time.

¤ The capacity of high line can be shared between all pairs of telephones.
¤ The switch is used for only forwarding.
Advantage:
A circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at its full
capacity.
Disadvantage:
Most of the time, the network is inefficient because it is working at partial capacity

Packet-Switched Network
In a computer network, the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks of
data called packets. The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a
packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later.
As shown in Figure 1.14, the 4 computers at each side are connected to a router.
¤ A router has a queue that can store and forward the packet.
¤ The high-capacity line has twice the capacity of the low-capacity line.
¤ If only 2 computers (one at each site) need to communicate with each other, there is
no waiting for the packets.
¤ However, if packets arrive at one router when high-capacity line is at its full
capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded.

Advantages:
A packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit switched network.
Disadvantage:
The packets may encounter some delays.
The Internet Today :
A network of networks is called an internet. (Internet inter-network)

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• Internet is made up of (Figure 1.15)

1) Backbones
2) Provider networks &
3) Customer networks
1) Backbones
 Backbones are large networks owned by communication companies such as
BSNL and Airtel.
 The backbone networks are connected through switching systems, called
peering points.
2) Provider Networks
 Provider networks use the services of the backbones for a fee.
 Provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other
provider networks.
3) Customer Networks
 Customer networks actually use the services provided by the Internet.
 Customer networks pay fees to provider networks for receiving services.
• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service
Providers (ISPs).
• The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs.
 The provider networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.

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Accessing the Internet

• The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it.
• However, the user needs to be physically connected to an ISP.
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN.
1) Using Telephone Networks
 Most residences have telephone service, which means they are connected to a
telephone network.
 Most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet.
Thus, residences can connect to the Internet using a point-to-point WAN.
 This can be done in two ways:
A) Dial-up service
¤ A modem can be added to the telephone line.
¤ A modem converts data to voice.
¤ The software installed on the computer
→ Dials the ISP &
→ Imitates making a telephone connection.
¤ Disadvantages:
i) The dial-up service is very slow.
ii) When line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for
voice connection.

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iii) It is only useful for small residences.

B) DSL Service
¤ DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice & data
communication.
¤ Some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to provide
higher speed Internet services to residences.
2) Using Cable Networks
 A residence can be connected to the Internet by using cable service.
 Cable service provides a higher speed connection.
 The speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same
cable.
3) Using Wireless Networks
 A residence can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access
the Internet.
 A residence can be connected to the Internet through a wireless WAN.
4) Direct Connection to the Internet
 A large organization can itself become a local ISP and be connected to the
Internet.
 The organization
→ Leases a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and
→ Connects itself to a regional ISP.
Questions:
1. Identify the popular types of networks ?
2. What is LAN?
3. What is WAN?
4. List the difference between LAN and WAN
5. What is switching?
6. What is interworking?
7. Whats is circuit switching?

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Handouts for Lecture-3

NETWORK MODELS :
2.1 Protocol Layering :
 A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
 When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol.
 When communication is complex, we need to divide the task b/w different layers.
We need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

Scenarios:
First Scenario
• In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer
(Figure 2.1).
• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbours with a lot of common ideas.
• Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the
same language.

Second Scenario
• Maria and Ann communicate using regular mail through the post office (Figure 2.2).
• However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters
are intercepted.
• They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
• The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver
of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter.

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Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
• Modularity means independent layers.
• A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and outputs, without
concern about how inputs are changed to outputs.
• If two machines provide the same outputs when given the same inputs, they can
replace each other.
• Advantages:
1) It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
2) There are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all
layers.
• Disadvantage:
1) Having a single layer makes the job easier. There is no need for each layer
to provide a service to the upper layer and give service to the lower layer.
Principles of Protocol Layering
1) First Principle
• If we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer able to
perform 2 opposite tasks, one in each direction.
• For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other
direction).
2) Second Principle

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• The two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter.
Logical Connections
• We have layer-to-layer communication (Figure 2.3).
• There is a logical connection at each layer through which 2 end systems can send the
object created from that layer.

Questions:
1. What is protocol layering?
2. What is logical connection?
3. What is first principle of protocol layering?
4. What is second principle of protocol layering?
5. Identify the advantages of protocol layering?
6. List the disadvantage of protocol layering?

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Handouts for Lecture-4

2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is a protocol-suite used in the Internet today.
• Protocol-suite refers a set of protocols organized in different layers.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides
a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the
services provided by one or more lower level protocols.

• Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B (Figure 2.4).

• As the Figure 2.5 shows, we have five communicating devices:
1) Source host(computer A) 2) Link-layer switch in link 1
3) Router 4) Link-layer switch in link 2

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5) Destination host (computer B).

• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in
the internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers.
The source host
→ Creates a message in the application layer and
→ Sends the message down the layers so that it is physically sent to the
destination host.
• The destination host
→ Receives the message at the physical layer and
→ Then deliver the message through the other layers to the application layer.
• The router is involved in only three layers; there is no transport or application layer.
• A router is involved in n combinations of link and physical layers. where n =
number of links the router is connected to.
• The reason is that each link may use its own data-link or physical protocol.
• A link-layer switch is involved only in two layers: i) data-link and ii) physical.

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• As shown in the figure 2.6, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers
is end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop. A hop is a host
or router.
• The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet.

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The domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.

• In top 3 layers, the data unit should not be changed by any router or link-layer
switch.
In bottom 2 layers, the data unit is changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer
switches.

Identical objects exist between two hops. Because router may fragment the packet at
the network layer and send more packets than received (Figure 2.7).
• The link between two hops does not change the object.

Description of Each Layer

Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to
another node.
• Transmission media is another hidden layer under the physical layer.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals.
• The physical layer
→ Receives bits from the data-link layer &
→ Rends through the transmission media.

Data Link Layer

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• Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to another
node over a link.
• The link can be wired LAN/WAN or wireless LAN/WAN.
• The data-link layer
→ Gets the datagram from network layer
→ Encapsulates the datagram in a packet called a frame.
→ Sends the frame to physical layer.
• TCP/IP model does not define any specific protocol.
DLL supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• Each protocol may provide a different service.
• Some protocols provide complete error detection and correction; some protocols
provide only error correction.

Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination transmission of data.
• The network layer is also responsible for routing the packet.
• The routers choose the best route for each packet.
• Why we need the separate network layer?
1) The separation of different tasks between different layers.
2) The routers do not need the application and transport layers.
• TCP/IP model defines 5 protocols:
1) IP (Internetworking Protocol) 2) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
3) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) 4) IGMP (Internet Group
Message Protocol)
1) IP
 IP is the main protocol of the network layer.
 IP defines the format and the structure of addresses.
 IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination.
 It is a connection-less & unreliable protocol.
i) Connection-less means there is no connection setup b/w the sender and the
receiver.
ii) Unreliable protocol means
→ IP does not make any guarantee about delivery of the data.

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→ Packets may get dropped during transmission.

 It provides a best-effort delivery service.
 Best effort means IP does its best to get the packet to its destination, but with
no guarantees.
IP does not provide following services
→ flow control
→ error control
→ congestion control services.
 If an application requires above services, the application should rely only on
the transport layer protocol.

2) ARP
 ARP is used to find the physical-address of the node when its Internet-address
is known.
 Physical address is the 48-bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN
card.
 Internet address (IP address) is used to uniquely & universally identify a
device in the internet.

3) ICMP
 ICMP is used to inform the sender about datagram-problems that occur during
transit.

4) IGMP
 IGMP is used to send the same message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layer
• TL protocols are responsible for delivery of a message from a process to another
process.
• The transport layer
→ gets the message from the application layer
→ encapsulates the message in a packet called a segment and
→ sends the segment to network layer.
• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols:

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1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
3) SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
1) TCP
 TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
 A connection is established b/w the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.
 TCP provides
→ flow control
→ error control and
→ congestion control
2) UDP
 UDP is the simplest of the 3 transport protocols.
 It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
 It does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
 Each datagram is transported separately & independently.
 It is suitable for application program that
→ needs to send short messages &
→ cannot afford the retransmission.
3) SCTP
 SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
 It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two programs
running at this layer).
• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a
response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
• TCP/IP model defines following protocols:
1) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to transport email between a
source and destination.

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2) TELNET (Terminal Network) is used for accessing a site remotely.

3) FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is used for transferring files from one host to
another.
4) DNS (Domain Name System) is used to find the IP address of a computer.
5) SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol) is used to manage the
Internet at global and local levels.
6) HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is used for accessing the World Wide
Web (WWW).

Encapsulation and Decapsulation

Encapsulation at the Source Host

• At the source, we have only encapsulation (Figure 2.8).
1) At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message.
 A message normally does not contain any header or trailer.
 The message is passed to the transport layer.
2) The transport layer takes the message as the payload.
 Transport Layer adds its own header to the payload.
 The header contains
→ identifiers of the source and destination application programs
→ information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control.
 The transport-layer packet is called the segment (in TCP) and the user
datagram (in UDP).
 The segment is passed to the network layer.
3) The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as payload.

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 Network Layer adds its own header to the payload.

 The header contains
→ addresses of the source and destination hosts
→ some information used for error checking of the header &
→ fragmentation information.
 The network-layer packet is called a datagram.
 The datagram is passed to the data-link layer.
4) The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as payload.
 Data-link layer adds its own header to the payload.
 The header contains the physical addresses of the host or the next hop (the
router).
 The link-layer packet is called a frame.
 The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission

B) Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

• At the router, we have both encapsulation & encapsulation and because the router is
connected to two or more links.
1) Data-link layer
→ receives frame from physical layer
→ decapsulates the datagram from the frame and
→ passes the datagram to the network layer.
2) The network layer
→ inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram header and
→ consults forwarding table to find next hop to which the datagram is to be
delivered.
The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3) The data-link layer of the next link
→ encapsulates the datagram in a frame and
→ passes the frame to the physical layer for transmission.
C) Decapsulation at the Destination Host
• At the destination host, each layer
→ decapsulates the packet received from lower layer
→ removes the payload and

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→ delivers the payload to the next-higher layer

Addressing
• We have logical communication between pairs of layers.
• Any communication that involves 2 parties needs 2 addresses: source address and
destination address.
• We need 4 pairs of addresses (Figure 2.9):
1) At the application layer, we normally use names to define
→ site that provides services, such as vtunotesbysri.com, or
→ e-mail address, such as abc@gmail.com.
2) At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers.
 Port numbers define the application-layer programs at the source and
destination.
 Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several programs
running at the same time.
3) At the network-layer, addresses are called logical addresses (IP Address).
 IP address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
 The IP addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope.
4) At the data link-layer, addresses are called Physical addresses (MAC Address)
 The MAC addresses defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or
WAN).
 The MAC addresses are locally defined addresses.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Multiplexing means a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time) (Figure 2.10).

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• Demultiplexing means a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several

next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
1) At transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several
application-layer protocols.
2) At network layer, IP can accept
→ a segment from TCP or a user datagram from UDP.
→ a packet from ICMP or IGMP.
3) At data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or ARP.

Questions:
1. Give an example for TCP/IP protocol?
2. How many layers in TCP/IP protocol suite?
3. What is router?
4. Identify the functionality of Datalink layer?
5. What is role of network layer in TCP/IP protocol suite?
6. What is multiplexing?
7. What is demultiplexing?
8. What is link?
9. What is the functionality of phyical layer?
10. What is DDL?

Handouts for Lecture-5

2.3 OSI Model:
OSI model was developed by ISO.

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• ISO is the organization, OSI is the model.

• Purpose: OSI was developed to allow systems with diff. platforms to communicate
with each other.
• Platform means hardware, software or operating system.
• OSI is a network-model that defines the protocols for network communications.
• OSI has 7 layers as follows (Figure 2.11):
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
5) Network Layer
6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical Layer
• Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to co-operate with the layers above
& below it.

OSI vs. TCP/IP

1) The four bottom most layers in the OSI model & the TCP/IP model are same
(Figure 2.12).
However, the Application-layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Session,
Presentation & Application Layer of OSI model.
Two reasons for this are:
1) TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.
2) Many applications can be developed at Application layer

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The OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers.
In TCP/IP model, the layers contain relatively independent protocols that can be
mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system.

 A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.

 Each layer should perform a well defined function.
 The function of each layer can be chosen as an international standard protocol.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be not too large or not too small (optimum)
 The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
 data frame
 data transfer is error-free.
 Framing, Physical addressing, Error control, Flow Control, Access Control
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, e.g. routing,
internetworking. Packet transfer from one network to another network
 The transport layer performs assembling and disassembling, isolates the upper
layers from the changes in the network hardware, and determines the type of
services.
 The session layer establishes sessions
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics

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 The application layer contains a variety of commonly used protocols such as

HTTP,SMTP etc.

Lack of OSI Model’s Success

• OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had
been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
When OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not
show a high enough level of performance.
Questions:
1. What is OSI?
2. How many layers in OSI reference model?
3. List the lack of OSI models?
4. List the difference between OSI and TCP/IP?
5. Name the bottom most layer in OSI?
6. Name the top most layer in TCP/IP?
7. Identify the protocol used in Application layer?

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Handouts for Lecture-6

7.1 Introduction to Physical Layer :

Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly con-
trolled by the physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to layer
zero. Figure 7.1 shows the position of transmission media in relation to the physical
layer.

 A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry infor-
mation from a source to a destination.
 For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner
conversation is the air.
 The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore.
For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck,
or an airplane.
 In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission
medium is more specific.
 The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic
cable.
 The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from
another form.
 The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started with the
invention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century.
 Communication by telegraph was slow and dependent on a metallic medium.
 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad catego-

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ries: guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,
and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space. Figure 7.2 shows this
taxonomy.

7.2 GUIDED MEDIA:

 The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another.
Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
 Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and fiber
optics, and unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers
through the air.
 Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the
medium.
 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current.
 Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

7.2.1 Twisted-Pair Cable:

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure
7.3.

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 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or
crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a
difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained..
 For example, suppose in one twist, one
 wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the
reverse is true.
 Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influ-
ences (noise or crosstalk).

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable :

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or
braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although
metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise
or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive. Figure 7.4 shows the difference
between UTP and STP.Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is
seldom used outside of IBM.

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Categories:The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to

classify unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are
determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest.
Table 7.1 shows these categories.

Connectors:The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered
jack), as shown in Figure 7.5. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector
can be inserted in only one way.

Performance:One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to

compare attenuation versus frequency and distance

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 A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies.

 Figure 7.6 shows that with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured
indecibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100
kHz.
 gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.

.
Applications:
 Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
7.2.2 Coaxial Cable :
 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted-pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure 7.7).
 A coaxial cable (or coax cable) is a type of electrical cable that consists of four
main layers:
 Inner Conductor:

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 This is the core of the coaxial cable, usually made of copper or aluminum.
 It carries the electrical signal, such as data, video, or radio frequencies.
 It can be either solid (single strand) or stranded (multiple smaller strands).
 Insulator:
 Surrounding the inner conductor is the dielectric insulator, typically made
from materials like polyethylene or Teflon.
 It separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor and ensures the
signal remains confined within the cable.
 The quality of the insulator affects the efficiency and performance of the
cable in transmitting signals.
 Outer Conductor :
 This is typically made of a braided or foil metal shield, often copper or
aluminum.
 It serves two purposes: grounding and protecting the inner conductor from
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 The outer conductor ensures that external noise or interference doesn't affect
the signal carried by the inner conductor.
 Plastic Cover
 The outermost layer of the coaxial cable is a protective plastic sheath.
 It protects the internal components of the cable from environmental damage
such as moisture, heat, and physical wear.
 The plastic cover is often made of materials like PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) or
polyethylene for durability and flexibility.

Coaxial Cable Standards

 Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.
 Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the
wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator,
the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.

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 Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as

shown in Table 7.2.

 Coaxial Cable Connectors:

 To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
 The most common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-
Concelman (BNC) connector.
 Figure 7.8 shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector,
the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator.

 The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a
TV set.
Performance :As we did with twisted-pair cable, we can measure the performance of
a coaxial cable.
 Figure 7.9 that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cable than in twisted-pair
cable.

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 In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal
weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

Applications:
 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
 traditional Ethernet LANs

7.2.3 Fiber-Optic Cable :

 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light.
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
sub-stance.
 If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance density), the ray changes direction.
 Figure 7.10 shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.

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 As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the
line perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical
angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the
interface.
 If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Propagation Modes:
 Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for
propagating light along optical channels, channels, each requiring fiber with
different physical characteristics.
 Multi-mode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index (see
Figure 7.12).

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Multimode:Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move

through the core in different paths.
 these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown
in Figure 7.13.

 In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges.
 A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
 At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density.
 A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this dis-
tortion of the signal through the cable.
 The word index here refers to the index of refraction.

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Single-Mode:
 Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
 The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than
that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction).
 The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to
make the propagation of beams almost horizontal.
Fiber Sizes:
 Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter
of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
 The common sizes are shown in Table 7.3. Note that the last size listed is for
single-mode only.

Cable Composition:
 Figure 7.14 shows the composition of a typical fiber-optic cable.
 The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar
strands to strengthen the cable.

Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors :

 There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure 7.15.

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 The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV.

 It uses a push/pull locking system.
 The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking
devices.
 It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
 MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Performance :
 The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure 7.16 shows a very interesting
phenomenon in fiber-optic cable.
 Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.

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Applications :
 Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks
 Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable,
thus creating a hybrid network.
 Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-
X also use fiber-optic cable.
Advantages of Optical Fiber :
 Higher bandwidth:Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths
(and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates
and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but
by the signal generation and reception technology available
 Less signal attenuation:Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater
than that of other guided media
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference:Electromagnetic noise cannot affect
fiber-optic cables.
 Resistance to corrosive materials:Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials
than copper

 Light weight:Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables

 Greater immunity to tapping:Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping
than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber :

 Installation and maintenance:Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new
technology.Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere

 Unidirectional light propagation:Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we

need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
 Cost:The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media.If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified

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Questions:
1. list the transmission media?
2. List the difference between guided and unguided transmission media?
3. Give an example for Guided transmission media?
4. What is the full form of UTP?
5. What is the full form of STP?
6. Identify the Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables?
7. List the Applications of twisted pair cables?
8. List the advantages of Coaxial cable?
9. List the Advantages of Optical Fiber?
10.List the Disadvantages of Optical Fiber?

Handouts for Lecture-7

7.3 Unguided Media: Wireless

 Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
 Figure 7.17 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz
to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.
 Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in
Figure 7.18.

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 In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth.
 In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are
reflected back to earth.
 Table 7.4 lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some
applications.

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 We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.
7.3.1 Radio Waves :
 electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves.
 waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves
 Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
 This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
 A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
 Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel
long distances.
 This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as
AM radio.
 Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls.
 It is an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building.
 It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or
outside a building.

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 Omnidirectional Antenna:Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send

out signals in all directions.
 Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas. Figure 7.19 shows an omnidirectional antenna.

Applications:
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting,in which there is one sender but many receivers.
 Radio waves are used for multicast communications,such as radio and television,
and paging systems.
7.3.2 Microwaves:
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused.
 This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna :
 Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.

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 Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic
dish and the horn (see Figure 7.20).

 A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line

parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such
that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
 The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and
directing them to a common point.
 A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop.
 Outgoing transmissions are broadcast beams by the curved head. Received
transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar
to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
Applications:
 Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones,satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

7.3.3 Infrared :
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1
mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
 Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another.
 a short-range communication system in one remote control, we do not interfere
with the use of the remote by our neighbors.

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Applications:
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed
area using line-of-sight propagation.

Questions:
1. what is wireless communication?
2. What is the range of radio waves?
3. Identify the propagation methods?
4. What are the applications of radio waves?
5. What are the applications of micro waves?

Handouts for Lecture-8

Switching:

 An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links

together.

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 A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.
 Two types of switched networks are
 Circuit-switched and
 Packet-switched networks.

8.3 PACKET SWITCHING:

 In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to
another.
 If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to
be divided into packets of fixed or variable size.
 The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.
 In a computer network, the communication between the 2 ends is done in blocks
of data called packets.
 The switch is used for both storing and forwarding because a packet is an
independent entity that can be stored and sent later.
 In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet.
 there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing
time for each packet.
 Resources are allocated on demand.
 The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served basis.
 When a switch receives a packet, no matter what the source or destination is, the
packet must wait if there are other packets being processed.
 In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation,resources are
allocated on demand.

 Types of packet-switched networks:

 datagram networks and
 virtual-circuit networks.

8.3.1 Datagram Networks :

 In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.
 Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
 Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.

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 Figure 8.7 shows how the datagram approach is used to deliver four packets from
station A to station X.
 The switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as routers.

 In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but
may travel different paths to reach their destination.
 Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack of resources.
 The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks.
 The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep
information about the connection state.
 There are no setup or teardown phases.
 Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.

Routing Table :
 In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which
is based on the destination address.
 The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
 The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are
recorded in the tables.
 Figure 8.8 shows the routing table for a switch.
 A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the
destination address.

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Destination Address :The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram

network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
Efficiency:
Datagram-networks are more efficient when compared to circuit-switched-network.
This is because
o Resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred.
o If a source sends a packet and there is a delay of a few minutes before
another packet can be sent, the resources can be re-allocated during these
minutes for other packets from other sources.
Datagram-networks may have greater delay when compared to circuit-switched-
network. This is because
o Each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded.
o Since not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same
switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.

The Figure 8.9 gives an example of delay for one single packet.
 The packet travels through two switches

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 There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation delays (slopes 3t of the
lines), and two waiting times (W1+ W2).

8.3.2 Virtual-Circuit Networks :

 This is similar to telephone system.
 A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a
datagram network.
 Five characteristics of VCN:
 As in a circuit-switched-network, there are setup & tear down phases in
addition to the data transfer phase.
 Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-
switched network,or on demand, as in a datagram network.
 As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an
address in the header.
 As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.
 A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data-link layer,
while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a
datagram network in the network layer.
 Figure 8.10 is an example of a virtual-circuit network.

The network has switches that allow traffic from sources to destinations.
A source or destination can be a computer, packet switch, bridge, or any other
device that connects other networks.

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Addressing
Two types of addressing: 1) Global and 2) Local (virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global address. Global address is an address
that can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally if the network is part
of an international network.
Virtual Circuit Identifier
 The identifier used for data-transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier
(VCI).
 A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch
scope.
 VCI is used by a frame between two switches.
When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI. When the frame leaves, it has a
different VCI.

Figure 8.11 show how the VCI in a data-frame changes from one switch to
another.
Three Phases :
A source and destination need to go through 3 phases: setup, data-transfer, and
teardown.
o setup phase, the source and destination use their global addresses
to help switches make table entries for the connection.
o In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the
switches to delete the corresponding entry.
o Data-transfer occurs between these 2 phases.
 To In transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to
have a table-entry for this virtual-circuit.

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The table has four columns.

The switch holds 4 pieces of information for each virtual-circuit that is already set
up.

Figure 8.12 shows a frame arriving at port 1 with a VCI of 14.

When the frame arrives, the switch looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of
14. When it is found, the switch knows to change the VCI to 22 & send out the
frame from port 3.

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As shown in Figure 8.13, each switch changes the VCI and routes the frame. The
data-transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the destination.
The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message.The process
creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and destination.
Setup Phase :
A switch creates an entry for a virtual-circuit.
For example, suppose source A needs to create a virtual-circuit to B.
Two steps are required:1) Setup-request and Acknowledgment.
1) Setup Request
A setup-request frame is sent from the source to the destination (Figure
8.14).

Following events occurs:

 Source-A sends a setup-frame to switch-1.
 Switch-1 receives the setup-frame.
 Switch-1 knows that a frame going from A to B goes out through port 3.
 The switch-1 has a routing table.
 The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual-circuit is only able to fill
3 of the 4 columns.
 The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming-
VCI (14) and the outgoing-port (3) does not yet know the outgoing VCI,
which will be found during the acknowledgment step.
 The switch then forwards the frame through port-3 to switch-2.

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 Switch-2 receives the setup-request frame.

 The same events happen here as at switch-1.
 Three columns of the table are completed: In this case, incoming port (1),
incoming-VCI (66), and outgoing port (2).
 Switch-3 receives the setup-request frame.
 Again, three columns are completed: incoming port (2), incoming-VCI (22),
and outgoing-port (3).
 Destination-B receives the setup-frame assigns a VCI to the incoming frames
that come from A, in this case 77.
 This VCI lets the destination know that the frames come from A, and no
other sources.

2) Acknowledgment
A special frame, called the acknowledgment-frame, completes the entries
in the switching-tables (Figure 8.15).

 The destination sends an acknowledgment to switch-3.

 The acknowledgment carries the global source and destination-addresses so
the switch knows which entry in the table is to be completed.
 The frame also carries VCI 77, chosen by the destination as the incoming-
VCI for frames from A.
 Switch 3 uses this VCI to complete the outgoing VCI column for this entry.

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 Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch-2 that contains its incoming-

VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step.
 Switch-2 uses this as the outgoing VCI in the table.
 Switch-2 sends an acknowledgment to switch-1 that contains its incoming-
VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step.
 Switch-1 uses this as the outgoing VCI in the table.
 Finally switch-1 sends an acknowledgment to source-A that contains its
incoming-VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step.
 The source uses this as the outgoing VCI for the data-frames to be sent to
destination-B.
Teardown Phase
Source-A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a teardown
request.
Destination-B responds with a teardown confirmation frame.
All switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
Efficiency
Resource reservation can be made in 2 cases:
o During the setup: Here, the delay for each packet is the same.
o On demand: Here, each packet may encounter different delays.
Advantage of on demand resource allocation:
The source can check the availability of the resources, without actually
reserving it.
Delay in Virtual Circuit Networks
 There is a one-time delay for setup and a one-time delay for teardown (Figure
8.16).
 If resources are allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait time for
individual packets.
 The packet is traveling through two switches (routers).
 There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation times (3τ), data
transfer delay, a setup delay and a teardown delay.
 The total delay time is

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Questions:
1. What is delay?
2. What is tear down phase?
3. What is connection setup?
4. List difference between circuit ,virtual,packet switching
5. What is Virtual Circuit Identifier ?

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