CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATION --- AN OVERVIEW

Introduction

Communication is perhaps as old as the human civilization. Its origin can be traced to the
growth of the human society, people satisfied their wants, which were limited to the basic needs
for food, clothing and shelter and by their own individual efforts. At the time life was isolated
and there was little communications. But while people hunted for food, they too were hunted by
other wild animals. They lived in constant danger. The common need for protection and
security led to group life. Then communication was evolved in the form of sounds, indications,
signals, and expressions.

A group life developed and human wants continued to increase, form of communication also
developed gradually, with the increased in population, emergence of division of labor and
specialization, and birth of exchange economy human beings had to be in constant
communication.
At some stage, the sign and symbols created language with the growth of business industry and
commerce, ways of expressing ideas in languages developed. Gradually, people were able to
shape their attitudes, norms, values, culture, religion, etc. through communication.
1.1. Meaning and Importance of Communication
What is communication?
The term Communication is freely used by everyone in modern society, including members of
the general public, OB scholars, and management scholars. Despite its widespread usage, very
few members of the general public and not a great many more management people can precisely
define the term.

The term ‘Communication ‘is derived from the Latin word ‘communis’ which means ‘’ common
‘’. For instance, when Mr. Solomon effects a communication of his ideas with Ms. Sheba he
establishes a common ground for understanding with Ms. Sheba. In other words, Communication
is an act of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others.

Communication is the act of inducing others to interpret an idea in the manner the speaker or the
writer intends it to be done. Thus, Communication literally means ‘sharing of ideas in common ‘.

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In business management ideas, objectives, instructions, suggestions, etc. have to be exchanged
among the managerial staff for the purpose of planning and executing the business policies.
Communication includes proper understanding of the message, its acceptance and action on it.

It should be clear from what has been said above that in business communication is not merely
sending or receiving message. It is much more than that. To put it in a nutshell, communication
is a purposeful process through which people share message (ideas, feelings, thoughts,
experiences, skills, information, etc) through the transformation of symbolic messages.
For our purposes, we can define communication as:
The process by which people attempt to share meaning (ideas, feelings, thought, experience,
knowledge, skill, etc) for some purpose through the transmission of symbolic messages.
Our working definition of communication calls attention to the following five essential points.
 Communication is a process
Communication refers to a series of activities to be accomplished in a sequence; it does not refer
to incidental events and transaction among people.
 Communication is purposeful
Communication is not just the transfer of messages but purposeful transfer of messages between
senders and receivers. Thus it does not refer to incidental transaction between people.
 Communication involves people
Communication shows the degree of understanding among sender’s receivers and how they
relate to each other. Therefore, it refers to communication among people only and the exchange
of interpersonal behaviors among them.

 Communication involves shared meaning

This suggests that in order for people to communicate, they must agree on the definitions of the
terms and symbols they are using. The symbols used by the sender should be similar interpreted
by the receiver in order to ensure equal or similar understanding between them.
 Communication is symbolic
In communication symbols such as, letters, numbers, words, gestures, sound, etc can only
represent or approximate the ideas they are meant to communicate. In other words symbols are

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not perfect representations of our ideas. Thus we have to take care in selecting symbols that best
approximate the sender’s ideas
1.2 Characteristics of communication
Gerald Miller articulated three basic characteristics:
-Dynamism
-Uniqueness
-Transactional
Dynamism: Communication changes continuously. Every communication event stems from a
series of past event that triggers a series of new ones. Thus, communication is affected by prior
attitudes, planned thoughts, people (audience), etc. Therefore, communication is a dynamic
phenomenon without beginning and ending in a two way response and reaction manner.
Uniqueness: Stems from the dynamic nature of communication. No two communication events
are similar-even in reading word-for-word, changes occur in the sender-audience situation.
Transactional: In communication all persons are engaged in sending and receiving messages
simultaneously, that is, communication is two way functions; in other words, communication
involves reciprocal exchange of information or feelings.
1.3 The Role and Importance of Communication
The Importance of communication cannot be overstressed. Just as communication is vital to our
existence in civilized society, it is essential to the functioning of organizations our society has
produced. As such communication is important to both the individual and organizational levels.

a) Communication from the Individual Aspects

Communication is important at two levels at individual and organizational levels. From the
individual point of view, communication serves:
 Job success, and
 Meeting social obligations
Job success
Although, job success factor may vary from simple chance to professional competence,
management cites two key factors:
 Technical ability, and

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  Understanding of people achieved by communication skill. Thus, people should learn the
art of human relations to succeed in their life.
Meeting social obligations
People conflict with them selves, with other people, with the environment. It is through
communication that people continuously learn to adjust themselves, to other people and to the
environment by cooperating or living with others.
b) Communication from the Organizational Aspects
Today, communication has become one of the important aspects of management and it helps
management in attaining the following:
1. Helps in achieving co-ordinations
Modern businesses, which are organized on a large scale, consist of large number of workers on
the basis of division of labor and specialization. To attain the goal of the business unit, there is
a need for co-ordination among the workers and this is achieved only through communication.
2. Helps in smooth working
Communication helps in the smooth running of an enterprise. To achieve the goals of an
enterprise, cooperative actions of the people working in its different activates is necessary.
Cooperation action in return depends on the communication process prevailing in the
organization. “Communication serves as a lubricant fostering for the smooth operations of the
management.”
3. Increase Managerial Efficiency.
It is said that a bout 75 percent of the manager’s time is spent in communication to other
business targets, rules, policies, etc. Communication helps the manager in performing his duties
quietly and systematically and also facilitates in increasing his effectiveness.
4. Helps in Decision making
For taking decisions by the management, and also for its effective implementation, a good
communication system in the enterprise is a primary requirement. Information from different
levels, which helps the process of decision making, is received through the system of
communication. Again, the decisions are passed on through communication to those who are
involved in executing them.
5. Helps in maintaining organizational peace

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Very often, lack of communication or improper communication may result in organizational
disputes between management and workers. Communication helps both management and
workers in putting forth their views to each other and thus it facilitates in maintaining
organizational peace.
To conclude, it is through Communication that an organization becomes an open system
interacting with its environment. Without question, communication is the ingredient that makes
organizations possible.
1.4 Organizational Communication
1.4.1 Communication Functions
The communication functions influence the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. An
organization communicates with external bodies as well as with its internal members. Regardless
of its type and coverage communication performs the following basic functions.
a) Information exchange
One function that occupies a central role within all organizations is information exchange. In the
broad sense, any organization that doesn't exchange information with its environment will die.
The organization both effects change in its environment and responds to change in order to
survive. Such changes would not be possible without the possession of considerable information
on which to base intelligent behavior.

Thus, the exchange of information serves the basic function of organizational maintenance.
As members of organizations, we must possess adequate information to function productively on
daily basis. We must also exchange information sufficiently so that our goals are somehow
integrated and coordinated with those of others in the organization.
b) Idea and attitude imposition
Information exchange and idea impositions are not distinct. When a supervisor tells us how to
replace the paper in the copying machine or tells us how to do other things, he/she is informing
us about how to perform our jobs.
But such information clearly does more than inform. It also persuades that the procedure in
question is not only acceptable but often preferred or even required.

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Whenever we join an organization, we immediately encounter some of the more common forms
of idea and attitude imposition. We may be told succinctly and directly how to function in our
daily jobs and how those jobs fit into the overall organizational plan.
At a more subtle level, our initiation may involve a strategic indoctrination aimed at encouraging
us to conform to values, standards, and needs of the organization.
c) Evaluation
When we evaluate, we process, interpret and judge. The notion of evaluation is inherent in the
organization's hierarchy. Supervisors evaluate their subordinates and managers evaluate lower
level supervisors. Here again, communication serves maintenance purpose.
d) Soliciting/initiating feedback
Historically, several factors have impeded feedback in organizations. Some employees simply
are not interested in communicating with management or participate in decision-making. Some
are afraid to communicate and some are unaware that management expects them to communicate
with them. While others simply believe that management has no interest in their thoughts and
concerns or that management will not respond to them.

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CHAPTER 2 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2.1 The Communication Process

Communication can be thought of as a process or flow or the steps or sequence involved in
transferring of information from sender to receiver.
The key elements in the communication process are:
1. People (Senders-Receivers)
These are the main actors in the communication process.
I) Sender (Source) – a person or group who initiates (originates) and encodes meaningful
information to be transmitted to the receiver. Through encoding, the sender translates the idea or
information into symbols that can be understood by the receiver.
ii) Receiver (Destination) – the person or group who is the intended to receive the information.
The receiver decodes_ converts the *message to determine (interpret) the meaning of the
information.
* Message – the information or idea that the sender wants to convey. The message can convey
using speeches, writing, paintings are the messages when we speak, write or paint.
2. Channel(s)
A channel is anything that links the sender with the receiver; or it is the medium through which
the message travels.
Each media/medium has different capacities to carry information. So in selecting a channel, its
effectiveness must be considered.
3. Noise
Noise represents anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message.
Noises are of two types: physical noise (factors such as speech impairment, poor telephone
connection, illegible handwriting, and poor hearing & eyesight) and psychological noise, which
refers to any interference within the individual and it is often a state of mind.
Since noise hinders & affects all linkages of the communication process, the sender should
choose a channel that is free from noise.

4. Feedback

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It is the means to complete the communication process and makes it two-way. It is the response
of the receiver to the sender; and confirms whether the message received is as intended by the
sender. Feedback can be of two types: Direct feedback and indirect feedback.
5. Setting
It is the physical environment in which the communication process takes place.
Figure: Process of communication and its elements

FEEDBACK

RECEIVER
CHANNELS
Receiving 
SENDER (Medium through
which message is Decoding
Thought  Encoding  Message
Message Purposes: transmitted)
(Understanding or
-Informing action)
-Presiding
-Reminding

NOISE

Source: Dalmar Fisher [1999:P28]

Concluding Remarks
The communication model discussed above provides the basic framework of the communication
process. It identifies the components/elements, and shows their relationships. This in turn, helps
managers to pinpoint communication problems and make remedial measures to solve them.

2.2. Barriers to Effective Communication

Most of us tend to take communication for granted and when we find that we have not
communicated effectively, we blame the other person. And in spite of the best intentions of
sender and receiver to communicate, several barriers inhibit the effective exchange of
information.

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Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful
communication. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver, and the communication situation
can create barriers to effective communication.
Effective managerial skills help overcome some, but not all, barriers to communication in
organizations. Awareness and recognition are the first steps in formulating ways to overcome the
barriers to communication.
Although barriers exist in almost infinite varieties, they may be categorized into four groups.

i) External /Mechanical barriers

It is apparent in:
a) Using inappropriate channels
b) Organizational communication system’s defects
c) Physical barriers such as distance, time, and noise.
ii) Semantic Barriers or Jargon
These refer to barriers created by the language itself. People use different languages and even
those who speak the same language may apply different meanings to certain words.
For example, the word lift means elevator in UK and a ride in USA.

iii) Difference in perception

Perception is the process of analyzing and understanding things or phenomena based on the
backgrounds of our knowledge and experience. We perceive what we want to perceive, not what
we sense. Perceptual differences can be caused by:
a) Abstracting – focusing on selected limited facts from an overall message.
b) Inference – induction, i.e., relying on few facts and our own generalization.
c) Slanting – hasty generalization.
d) Faulty representation of facts
e) Difference in age

iv) Socio-psychological barriers

Manifestations of socio-psychological factors include:
a) Credibility of the source

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 b) Value judgment
c) Status/ position awareness
d) Poor communication skills
e) Closed mind
f) State of health
g) Self-image
h) Emotionality
i) Inconsistency between verbal and nonverbal communication
j) Group identification

2.3 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

A critical part of the communication model is the channel through which information is
transferred. There are two main types of channels: verbal and nonverbal.
Verbal communication includes any oral or written method of transmitting meaning through
words. However, nonverbal communication is any part of communication that does not use
words.

2.3.1 Verbal Communication

A message transmitted by words is verbal communication. Words are the vessels that carry most
of our ideas to others. We sometimes forget, though, that they are only vessels, and often
imperfect ones; they are not the ideas themselves. Words, however, may be either spoken or
written.
Oral communication consists of formal presentations, speeches, meetings, television and radio
advertisements, telephone conversations, informal discussions, and so on. Written
communication includes memos, letters, reports, resumes, scripts, newspapers, and many other
types of documents.

Verbal methods are widely used in organizations and evidence suggests that over three fourths of
managerial communication occurs in this way. The majority of verbal communication occurs in a
face-to-face (interpersonal) way and its importance is increasingly recognized.

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Although the spoken and the written language are similar in many ways, they also have many
significant differences. Both types of verbal communication have advantages and disadvantages.
Each is appropriate and useful for certain situations.

To be an effective communicator, become aware of these differences, and learn to use both
written and spoken language as channels for your messages.

a) Oral Communication
It takes place through words of mouth – through speaking and listening.

Advantages of Oral Communication

1) It is faster and quicker than the written messages.(provides immediate feedback)
2) It is relatively less expensive as compared to written communication.
3) It tends to be more effective due to personal contact between the sender and the receiver.
Words can be supported with gestures.
4) Response to the message is available directly and immediately. The receiver can ask
questions if he has any doubt.
5) It is more flexible as the words can be changed to suit the reaction of the receiver.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

1) It may in some cases prove time-consuming and costlier.
2) It does not provide an authentic record or proof unless the conversation is tape-recorded.
(No formal records of communication held and full retention is difficult).
3) It is not suitable when the message is very long because the listener will not be able to
understand the whole message and the cost involved.
4) It is not possible when parties are at distant places and no telephone service is available.

b) Written Communication
This exists in black and white or in records.

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Advantages of Written Communication
1) It tends to be more clear and precise. It provides enough time for serious thinking, and as
a result the message can be prepared carefully.
2) The message can be transmitted to several persons at the same time e.g. uniform
messages, policies, procedures, rules, regulations, etc.
3) It provides a permanent and authentic record for future reference.
4) It is the only way out when the messages is very lengthy.
5) It is cheaper when the parties to the communication are situated at distant places.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

1) It is more expensive and time-consuming.
2) There is less flexibility; once a written message is sent, it is not possible to make amends
for the inaccuracy that may have crept in.
3) Poorly drafted written messages may create misunderstanding and confusion.
4) It is formal and rigid. It is not possible to convey one’s feelings and emotions through it.
5) It is very difficult to maintain secrecy in written communication.
6) Lack of immediate feedback.

2.3.2 Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is messages sent without words. Every time we use oral
communication, we also use nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes
facial expressions, voice intonation, physical distance, gestures, and even silence. One form of
nonverbal communication, called paralanguage, involves the pitch, tempo, loudness, and
hesitations in the verbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes also the setting of
the communication and body language.
The most common nonverbal communication channels in organizational communication include:
 Facial expressions: a sneer, raised eyebrows, a look of horror or astonishment, a
frown, a wink or a smile, frown, a dirty look
 Vocal cues: the tone, pitch and general expression of speech (refers to how words are
said i.e., calm/excited/upset/slow or fast)

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  Body gestures: what we do with our hands, head and body to explain or support what
we are saying (the use of body motion such as using hands, pointing, and signaling,
and nodding of head)
 Body posture: the way in which we stand or sit such as sitting up straight or
slouching, leaning back or forward, crossing arms and/or legs
 Personal space: the distance that we maintain between ourselves and the other person
 Personal appearance: the image that we try to create through our clothes and
grooming
 Eye contact: how much we look at the other person and for how long
 Body contact: a slap on the back, a gentle touch on the hand or arm
 Orientation: facing the other person or at an angle to them
 Physical environment: the color, lighting, area of the office, the neatness of your
office
 Time: the value that we give to time, e.g., punctuality is the sign of respect

People have a great capacity for conveying meaning through nonverbal means of expression.
Nonverbal communication is especially necessary where physical distance or noise prevents
effective verbal exchanges and the need for immediate feedback precludes written
communication. But even in close face-to-face meetings, most information is communicated
nonverbally.

Nonverbal communication differs from verbal communication in two ways. First, we normally
know what words we say or write, whereas nonverbal cues are typically automatic and
unconscious. Second, nonverbal communication is less rule-bound than verbal communication.
A lot of formal training is given on how to understand spoken words, but very little to understand
the nonverbal signals that accompany those words. Consequently, nonverbal cues are more
ambiguous and more susceptible to misinterpretation.

To make nonverbal communication effective:

 You should be aware of your nonverbal communication and make sure it is consistent
with your oral and/or written communication.

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  Be aware of, or read, other people’s nonverbal communication because it tells you their
feelings and attitudes toward the communication and you as a person/manager.
 When talking to people, use nonverbal communication to convey openness to messages.
 Smile, face the person, and use eye contact comfortable for all.
 Lean forward a bit and gesture frequently to show that you are listening and interested.
 Speak in a pleasant, calm tone of voice.
 Do not cross your arms or legs (signs of being closed to communication).

In summary, nonverbal communication is an important supplement to verbal communication and

sometimes, even changes the meaning of verbal communication. Nonverbal communication is
also an effective way of communicating emotions. When nonverbal communication is combined
with verbal communication, it gives managers powerful tools for transmitting information to
employees.

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CHPTER 3 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication Channels
Based on the type of channel used, channels could be formal or informal.
3.1 Formal Communication
Formal communication is the organizational communication that involves the formal transfer of
information through the organizational hierarchy. Formal communication follows prescribed
channels of communication throughout the organization- typically, the chain of command.
Transmission of messages is made as per the procedures specifically set up for the purpose in the
organization. Flow of orders and instructions from superiors to the subordinates and the reports,
suggestions, and recommendations from the subordinates to the superiors as per the routine
evolved in the organization structure constitutes formal communication.

Formal communication normally occurs in four varieties: downward, upward, horizontal, and
diagonal. These structural factors can both facilitate and hinder communication.
3.1.1 Vertical patterns

3.1.1.1 Downward Communication

Downward communication implies the flow of information and command from the top to the
bottom levels of the organization. Downward communication normally follows the hierarchical
lines established by an organization’s structure. Managers communicate downward in the
organization, i.e., to individuals below them in the organizational hierarchy.

Managers typically use downward communication to provide directives to employees, to

indoctrinate company goals, strategies, policies, and procedures, and to appraise subordinates’
performance. Managers can encourage face-to-face communication with subordinates by
scheduling frequent staff meetings, making periodic contact by telephone or using letters or
email, etc.

Even the best organization often doesn’t use downward communication as effectively as
possible. Either, there isn’t enough information or messages sent downward are not clear and
complete: The problems are:
1) Lack of awareness- Managers give instructions naturally, but no explanation behind the
rationale and giving feedback are not so obvious.

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 2) Insufficient and unclear messages- It might be too brief, lacking enough details to make it
clear or it might be too vague to be useful. E.g. a manager telling his subordinate that ‘I
want to see you later in the day’; this instruction is vague, as the manager is not exact on
the time he wants to his subordinate.
3) Message overload- Sometimes the problem is not too little information but too much; e.g.
there can be too many messages, making it difficult to pay attention to any of them.
Similarly, messages can be too long, disguising important information in a sea of details.
4) Bad timing- Giving a good and clear message at the wrong time can cause trouble. For
example, a boss giving instructions to his subordinate while his phone is ringing or both
are in a hurry should not expect complete understanding.
5) Filtering and distortion- It is very difficult to listen openly and objectively to someone
who talks about your sloppy work or bad attitude, especially when that person has the
power to reward and punish you.
6) Serial transmission- As information passes from one person to another it becomes less
accurate. The problem of serial transmission is especially great in ‘tall’ organizations that
have several levels of authority.
7) Built-in-resistance

3.1.1.2 Upward Communication

Although downward communication is the dominant form, many organizations try to make some
provisions for information to flow in the opposite direction. Upward communication refers to
messages employees sent to their managers or to others who hold higher positions in the
organization.
Upward communication is helpful in knowing the effectiveness of downward communication.
Upward communication provides feedback to supervisors about their subordinates thoughts and
performance. Upward communication is meant to keep the superiors informed about progress in
the work, difficulties in working out the orders, to suggest measures for improvement, grievances
to be settled, etc.

Indeed, it can be often be beneficial for managers to receive open, honest, and accurate
information for control purposes. Management is able to know how well its plans, policies, and
objectives are understood by those working at lower levels of the organization.

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Upward communication can increase employees’ morale by giving them an opportunity to
participate in the affairs of the organization. Thus upward communication is necessary in order
to discover clashes of interests, to reconcile conflicts, and to coordinate efforts.

To put it in a nut shell, upward communication is important to extract information on the

following:
 What subordinates are doing
 Unsolved work problems
 Suggestions for improvement
 How subordinates feel about each other and the job

Limitations of upward communication include:

1) It can be intimidating to many employees: Employees have much to gain by opening up
to the boss, but there is a chance of big losses as well. Expressing frustration with your
present job might earn you a promotion, but you might also get fired.
2) It is subjected to substantial distortion: One fact of organizational life is that negative
information is less likely to be communicated upward than positive information. This
makes sense: reports that a project is going badly, for example, might make the boss
unhappy, and he bearer of grim tidings could wind up-fairly or not-being associated with
the unpleasant message. Distortion is not entirely the fault of subordinates. Since many
managers dislike bad news the subordinates often twist or screen it out.
3) Some superiors may actively discourage upward communication using their autocracy:
Many bosses are members if the “I talk, you listen” school of management. They have
the idea that listening to the factual reports of subordinates is all right but that ideas and
opinions should flow downward.
4) Lack of awareness of employees to initiate or respond to upward communication
(barriers for feedback)

Since most of the responsibility for improving upward communication rests with managers,
they should:
 Announce their willingness to hear from subordinates.

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  Seek other ways such as ‘open – door’& ‘open-floor’ policies, grievance procedures,
periodic interviews, group meetings, suggestion box, etc.
 Utilize informal contacts such as chats during breaks, in the elevator, or at social
gatherings.

3.1.2 Horizontal/Lateral Communication

In addition to transmitting messages up and down the organization, the formal communication
network also carries messages horizontally from one department to another.
Horizontal communication refers to the flow of messages among people in the same
organizational level or with similar status. An example of horizontal communication is when the
manager of the marketing department communicates with the manager of production department,
or other departments.

Horizontal communication is formal communication, but it does not follow the chain of
command.
Examples of horizontal communication messages are: information sharing, feedback, task
coordination efforts, efforts to seek assistance, etc.

Horizontal communication is needed to save time and facilitate control. Horizontal

communication is especially important in an organization for the following purposes:
To coordinate tasks: when several employees or departments are each working on part of
an important project.
To solve problems: such as how to reduce waste, etc.
To share information: such as an easier way to perform a task.
To resolve conflict: such as disagreement between co-workers.
To build rapport: group member’s interactions, to build understanding and friendship.
To give feedback

Production

Sales
Purchase

Public Relations 18
Accounts

Administration
 Source: Drewnodgers [1995:P25]

3.1.3 Diagonal Communication

It constitutes the flow of messages between people in different organizational levels, but without
direct reporting relationships. It is designed to support the vertical and horizontal communication
systems.

3.1.4 External Communication

Just as information flows up, down, and across the organization, it flows in and out of the
organization. The external communication network links the organization with the outside world
of customers, suppliers, investors, and competitors.
Organizations constantly exchange messages with customers, vendors, distributors, competitors,
investors, journalists, and government and community representatives.
Much of this communication occurs informally, and some communication is carefully
orchestrated.
Even though much of the communication that occurs with outsiders is casual and relatively
unplanned, most organizations attempt to control the information they convey to customers,
investors, and the general public.

3.2 The Informal Communication – (The Grapevine)

Every organization has an informal communication network – a grapevine – that supplements
official channels. Grapevine is the flow of information in any direction throughout the
organization.
Grapevines develop in organizations to handle communication that formal communication
channels do not handle. For example, if employees believe they do not get enough information
from their boss, they may cultivate other sources of information.

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Employees may also participate in a grapevine to meet social needs. The grapevine serves as an
excellent source of information about employee attitudes as well as an emotional outlet for
employees.

It is informal communication because it is not official or sanctioned by management.

The information that travels through a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (beliefs about
other people) and rumors (efforts to predict future events). Thus, gossip might describe an
incident in which a manager lost his temper, and a rumor might concern expectations that a new
sales office will open next year.

Although the grapevine is not officially sanctioned, the quality of information is surprisingly
good. It is faster than the formal communication. Research into the grapevine has also found that
about 80 percent of the messages are work related, and 70–95 percent of the details are accurate.

Common grapevine configurations

According to Professor Keith Davis, there are four operational networks of grapevine.

a) The single strand chain involves the passing of information through along line of
persons to the ultimate recipient. A tells B, who tells C, who tells D, and so on, till the
information has reached most of the persons concerned.

Figure: Single Strand Grape Vine

A B C D E F G

Source: Drewnodgers [1995:P29]

b)Gossip chain –
In the gossip chain, A actively seeks and tells every one. This chain is just like the
wheel where A is at the center and the information passers along the spokes of the
wheel to others stationed on the rim.

Figure: Gossip Grape Vine

H
A
G
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 Source: Ibid [1995:P33]

C) Random-probability chain – The probability chain is a rand our process in which

transmits the information to others in accordance with the laws of probability and then
these others tell still others in a similar manner. This chain may also call Random.
Figure: Probability Grape Vine

B F

A
C

G I

M H

Source: Ibid [1995:P37]

d) Cluster chain – In the cluster chain, A tells selected persons who may in turn relay the
information to others selected individuals.
Figure: Cluster Grape Vine

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 A E
L

D E

B
C

G
F M
G H

Source: Ibid [1995:P39]

Negative Attribute of the Grapevine

Sometimes pass distorted information from sources carried by rumor.
Grapevine is often fragmentary and incomplete resulting in misunderstandings,
confusion, and wrong action.
Rumors travel like a wild fire across the boundary of an organization thereby
spoiling the public image of the organization.
Lack of accountability: grapevine is informal; consequently members do not have
to answer to their superiors for any misstatement of facts.

Importance of the Grapevine

The grapevine serves some important purposes to organizational members, as follows:
i) It is used by employees as a safety valve: all confined emotions, fear, and
frustrations within an individual can easily be brought out and discussed
through the informal channel.
ii) The grapevine promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion: People
have inborn interest to interact and they satisfy their need for friendliness.
It also helps members to share love and acceptance by their peers.

22
 iii) Provides accurate feedback to management: It enables managers to know
the real responses of employees towards a policy or other issues from the
grapevine leaders informally.

To sum up, management should accept the grapevine as inevitable fact organizational life; and
be in touch with informal networks, participate in them, learn from them, and use them tactfully
to disseminate information.

Concluding Remarks
Effective internal communication integrates and facilitates the managerial functions at all levels;
and effective external communication relates and integrates an enterprise successfully to its
external environment.
3.3. Organizational culture and communication climate
3.3.1. Meaning and Nature of Organizational Culture
Just like individuals, organizations have personalities. Some are casual, energetic, even zany;
others are formal, slow moving, and serious. Social scientists call this personality an
organizational culture - a relatively stable picture of the organization that is shared by its
members. In everyday language, culture is the insiders’ view of “the way things are around here”
Like human personalities, organizational cultures that appeal to one kind of person repel others.
Many people abhor bureaucracies; others feel most comfortable in that sort of setting. Some
people welcome the chaotic disorganization and constant that often characterizes new companies
in emerging fields; others feel more at home in organizations with clearly defined jobs and
products.
Issues such as fair compensation, concern for employees’ welfare, encouraging innovation and
valuing employees’ ideas, are all part of positive organizational culture. Managers who dislike
and fear subordinates often barricade themselves in offices, cutting off communication with the
rank-and-file employees, who in turn feel increasingly alienated.

An organization’s culture is shaped by the kinds of communication that took place in its earliest
days, especially communication involving the founder.

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3.3.2. Culture and communication
An organization’s culture may be strong or weak, depending on variables such as cohesiveness,
value, consensus, and individual management to collective goals. We should be aware that the
nature of the culture’s central values is more important than its strength. For example, a strong
but change-resistant culture may be worse, from the stand point of profitability and
competitiveness, than a weak but innovative culture. Thus, when we evaluate an organization’s
culture, we need to consider the strategic appropriateness of its central values as well as its
strength.

The most important aspect in organizational culture is the quality of communication between
members of organization. Social scientists use the term communication climate to describe the
quality of personal relationships in an organization. The weather metaphor suggested by the term
climate is apt. Some workplaces could be described as sunny and calm, cold and stormy, or such
similar terms.

What makes a climate positive? The answer is simple: A communication climate is determined
by the degree to which people they are valued. When people who work with others, feel
respected by the people they work with, it will result into a positive climate.

Positive organizational cultures are due in great part to a healthy communication climate; which
is a function of the degree to which people believed they are valued. This sense of being valued
is enhanced by six management practices:
i) Giving employees job autonomy
ii) Recognizing and rewarding achievement
iii) Showing genuine concern for employees’ welfare (Emotional support)
iv) Providing opportunities for growth
v) Allowing risk taking (Risk tolerance)
vi) Accepting constructive conflict (Conflict tolerance)

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CHAPTER 4: THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN MANAGING CONFLICT

4.1. What is Conflict?

Conflict is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or
negatively affected by another party.
So, organizational conflict is a disagreement between two or more organization members or
groups arising from the fact that they must share scarce resources or work activities, and / or
from the fact that they have different statuses, goals, values or perceptions.
Organization members or subunits in disagreements attempt to have their own cause or point of
view to prevail over that of others.
Conflict can escalate (strengthen) or deescalate (weaken) over a period of time. Today’s
organizations may face greater potential for conflict than ever before in history as conflict can
arise from differences among people in terms of personality, values, attitudes, perceptions,
languages, cultures, and national backgrounds.
Conflict has both positive and negative outcomes, depending on its nature, intensity, and how it
is managed. Every organization has an optimal level of conflict that can be considered highly
functional and which leads to positive performance. For instance, when people handle a conflict
with mutual respect and trust and achieve an outcome that is favorable to the organization,
conflict can be a positive force.
A total absence of conflict is therefore as undesirable as excessive conflict. Lack of conflict may
be a sign that employees are complacent, non participative, the employees are not creative or the
organization doesn’t support creative thinking. Likewise teams, departments, or organizations
that experience too little conflict tend to be plagued by apathy, lack of creativity, indecision, and
missed deadlines.
A high level of conflict tends to be disruptive because it damages morale, interferes with
coordination, and prevents employees from efficiently accomplishing their objectives. So,
excessive conflict erodes organizational performance because of political infighting,
dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork, and turnover.
4.2 Conflict outcomes
Using this approach, we can define conflict in terms of the effect it has on the organization, that
is, we shall look at functional and dysfunctional conflict.

25
Functional conflict:
 promotes participation
 opens up problem and issues
 develops clarification for issues
 enhances communication
 improves problem-solving skills
 promotes growth and development
 strengthens and promotes relationship
 enhances productivity
 increases group cohesion and builds confidence
Dysfunctional conflict:
 produces irresponsible action and behavior
 takes away attention and energy from work
 frustrates and destroys morale
 polarizes individuals and groups
 discourages co-operations and team spirit
 lowers productivity
 creates suspicion and distrust
 erodes confidence
 loosens group cohesion
 threatens the existence of groups and organizations
4.3 Types of conflicts and their roles in organizations
Based on the levels of communication, there are four settings of conflict: intrapersonal,
interpersonal, inter group, and inter organization.
i) Intrapersonal Conflict
It refers to conflict within an individual’s values, goals, and needs. This sets two forms:
a) Frustration: - It is caused by the inability of a person to attain his/her goals hampered by
some barriers. For instance, one may have a strong desire to perform in a superior fashion; yet,
because of some limitation (limited ability, inadequate education, or a superior who does not like
him) his performance evaluations consistently are 'average'. He then might try somehow to

26
improve matters perhaps by working harder, taking evening courses at a local college or trying to
obtain transfer to another department. If these measures fail, frustration results and less
productive behaviors are likely to follow. It could result in sabotage, higher absenteeism, higher
turnover, and poorer health.
b) Goal conflict: - It is caused when the attainment of one goal excludes the probability of
another goal. This takes three forms:
o Approach-Approach conflict occurs when a person has to make a choice between two
equally attractive alternatives. For example, say that a person is offered two equally
attractive jobs.
o Approach-Avoidance conflict occurs when a person has to make a choice among a set of
options that have good and bad outcomes. For example, the individual faces this kind of
conflict when he/she is offered a promotion and high pay, but must move from the
regional office to wereda to take the new job.
o Avoidance-Avoidance conflict occurs when a person has to make a choice between two
equally unattractive alternatives. For example, chief executives of loss making companies
face this Avoidance-Avoidance conflict when they have to decide between whether to let
the company performance slide further down or to remove employees so as to improve
the company performance.
ii) Interpersonal Conflict
Interpersonal conflict occurs when two or more individuals have differing values, goals, and
needs. Many interpersonal conflicts arise because of personality clashes. Parties involved in a
personality clash are unable to cooperate with or appreciate one another.
Interpersonal conflict is likely to occur when individuals are competing for the same resources,
such as promotions, work facilities, or work assignments. Interpersonal conflict is also likely in
groups that are heterogeneous in either diversity of the work force or people representing
different functions (for ex, cross-functional team).
iii) Inter group Conflict
Inter group conflicts are conflicts between two or more groups in the same organization.
Inter group conflicts occur when there are differences in values, goals, or needs between two or
more groups in the organization.

27
Inter group conflicts in organizations often arises between line employees (those directly in
selling products) and staff products (those who provide support services to line employees). Line
and staff conflict is conflict arising from the role and perceptual differences between line and
staff employees. Inter group conflict could also take in the form of functional conflict, which is
the result of organizing problems.
iv) Inter organizational conflict
Inter organizational conflicts are conflicts between two different organizations. Inter
organizational conflict can also arise because of competition among organizations. For example,
a car manufacturing organization may have conflict with the parts supplying organization
regarding prices or quality of the parts.

4.3.1 Causes of Conflicts

The following are some of the common contributors to organizational conflict.
i) Competition for limited resources
Resources in an organization are finite and not infinite and as a result there are times when
groups or individuals in an organization fight for resources.
For example, fight for more organizational resources between marketing and production
departments. Competition may also arise from two individuals seeking the same position.
ii) Workflow problems
It occurs when:
a) there is task interdependence, and/or
b) inadequate interaction occurs between employees who must work cooperatively
iii) Incompatible norms between formal and informal organizations
Norms of the informal organization may run against the policies, procedures and rules of the
formal organization.
iv) Role incompatibility
Occurs when the job behavior expected of an individual by more than one group is inconsistent;
or when there are different roles to be played by the individual. It may take three forms:
a) Intra role: - There is one actual role but expected to play more than one role.
b) Inter role: - There are two roles to be played but differently in time or in priority.
c) Interpersonal role: - There is one role to be played by two persons.
v) Interpersonal incompatibility

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It may be caused by prejudices and personal feelings, probably without reason or because two
persons do not like each other.
vi) Other causes
a) Communication barriers: - Communication barriers such as physical distance/ separation
and language can create distortions in messages, and these can lead to conflict.
b) Overlapping or unclear job boundaries: - It means unclear lines of responsibility
within an organization. When a problem occurs for which there is no definite source of
responsibility, employees tend to ‘pas the buck’, or avoid dealing with the problem.
c) Unresolved or suppressed conflicts
d) Unclear authority structure
e) Difference in perception, values, attitudes, etc
f) Unfavorable environment (political, social, cultural, etc)
4.4. Managing conflicts
Conflict management refers to interventions that alter the level and form of conflict in ways that
maximize its benefits and minimize or prevent its dysfunctional consequences.
There are three types of conflict management:
4.4.1 Stimulating conflicts in organization – refers to increasing the level of functional conflict
and competition in work situations. Stimulation methods include:
a) bringing in outsiders
b) inducing healthy competition
c) restructuring
d) assigning active managers
4.4.2 Prevention or reduction Conflict – refers to reducing the level of conflict by diverting the
attention of conflicting parties away from the area of disagreements. This is often done by
providing favorable information about each other or by increasing pleasant social interactions
or contacts.
4.4.3 Solving or resolution of Conflicts: - Different approaches and methods may be used in
resolving conflicts. Some of the techniques applied in handling conflicts may be positive and
creative while others may be less effective or even destructive.

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In developing your conflict resolution skills, you should determine (1) the strategy you feel most
comfortable using, (2) the strategy the group members prefer, and (3) when each strategy is the
most productive. According to Thomas, Blake and Mouton, there seem to be five main strategies
for coping with conflict.
1. Avoidance/Withdrawal
The person using this strategy:
a) Maintains neutrality at all costs; views conflict as a worthless and punishing experience
b) Removes self either physically or mentally from groups experiencing any type of
conflict, stays away from any situation that might possibly produce conflict
c) Feels little concern people or production of results but great desire for noninvolvement
d) Tends to lead in a closed management style

This may be the best response to conflict in the following situations:

1. Issues really are trivial
2. Parties lack the communication skills necessary to prevent destructive escalations
3. Potential losses from an open conflict outweigh possible gains
4. There is insufficient time to work through the issue adequately
The drawback to handling conflict by avoidance is that the confrontation is usually only delayed
or transferred to another issue.
2. Accommodation/Smoothing
The person using this strategy:
a) Feels a high concern for people regardless of the production of results and, therefore, tries
to smooth over or ignore conflicts in an attempt to keep everyone happy
b) Believes that surface harmony is important to maintain good relationships and receive
personal acceptance; has the motto “If you can’t say anything nice, don’t say anything at
all”
c) Views open conflict as destructive, gives in to the will of others if necessary
d) Tends to lead in a hidden management style

This may be the best response when:

1. The issue is minor

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 2. The damage to the relationship would harm both parties
3. A temporary reduction in conflict is needed to give time for additional research or
information
4. Tempers are too hot for productive discussion
The drawback to handling conflict by accommodation is that it only temporarily solve the
problem – it is like putting a Band-Aid on a serious cut.

3. Compromising
The person using this strategy:
a) Believes that everyone should have an equal chance to express opinions
b) Tries to find a solution that everyone can live with
c) Uses voting or other methods of compromise as a way to avoid direct confrontation;
believes that a high-quality solution is not as important as a workable or agreeable
solution
d) Tends to lead in the open management style
This may be the best response to conflict when:
1. Both parties stand to gain
2. An “ideal” or “quality” solution is not required
3. Time is short
4. A temporary solution is needed for a complex problem
5. The parties in the conflict are equal
The drawbacks to handling conflict by compromise are that everyone loses something and the
best solution is probably not reached.
4. Competition/Forcing
The person using this strategy:
a) Views production of results (usually his/her own personal goals) as much more important
than people and, therefore, sees nothing wrong with using force when necessary
b) Views conflict as a win-lose situation or as a contest-of- power situation – one person
must fail so the other can succeed; no possible compromise
c) Has great respect for power and will submit to arbitration only because the arbitrator’s
power is greater

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 d) Tends to lead in the blind management style

This may be the best response to conflict in the following situations:

1. A decision or action must be immediate
2. The parties in the conflict expect and appreciate the force and power necessary in
a win-lose situation
3. The combatants recognize the power relationship between themselves

The drawbacks to handling conflict by force are that the real cause of the conflict is usually not
resolved, and because of the unmanaged emotions of the losers, the solution may be only
temporary – when the losers gain more power, they may reinstate the conflict.
5. Collaboration/ Problem solving
The person using this strategy:
a) Gives equal consideration to people and production of results
b) Views conflict as beneficial if handled in an open manner; lays all cards on the table
c) Guides group through the basic problem-solving procedure
d) Tends to lead in an open management style
This is especially useful in handling conflict when:
1. Members are trained in problem solving
2. The parties have common goals that need the cooperation of all to be achieved
3. The conflict arises from misunderstandings or communication breakdown
The drawback to handling conflict by collaboration is that it may not be successful when the
parties have different values or goals. For example, a person who feels that conflict should be
resolved in a competitive manner has goals and values completely opposed to the “everyone
wins” view of the collaborator. And another drawback to the problem-solving strategy is that it
usually requires a long time.

The success o the five conflict strategies can be analyzed by dividing them into three categories:
 Win-Lose (only one party achieves objective). Forcing and voting are win-lose strategies.
 Lose-Lose (neither party achieves objective; nor both get only a small part of what was
wanted). Compromise, arbitration, smoothing, and avoidance are examples of lose-lose
strategies.

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  Win-Win (all parties receive acceptable gains). Problem solving and consensus are
examples of the win-win strategy.
Arbitration
Arbitration is a conflict resolution strategy where a neutral third party acts as judge and issues
binding decision affecting parties in the negotiation process. However, the authority of the
arbitrator may also vary according to the rules set by the negotiators. For instance, the arbitrator
might be limited to choosing one of the last offers or suggesting an agreement point that is non-
bidding or free to chose and make any judgment he/ she wishes. When opposing parties agree to
submit their cases to the decision of a third party they may agree to accept the decision of the
arbitrator as final or to make it appeal able. On the other hand , arbitration can be voluntarily
(requested ) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract).

Negotiation
Negotiation occurs when two or more parties-either individuals or groups-discuss specific
proposals in order to find a mutually acceptable agreement. It is a common way of settling
conflicts in business. For instance, organizations use it to solve internal disputes (between labor
and management or between units competing for scarce resources such as money or personnel)
and external conflicts (tax audits, deals with customers or suppliers)
Negotiation can be approached in three ways having different outcomes:

Win -Lose approach - assumes that only one can reach its goals and that any victory by
that party will be matched by the other's loss. Negotiations over the price of goods and services
are clear examples. Information about the other party is perhaps the most powerful asset a
negotiator can possess in win-lose negotiations. For example, imagine how much stronger your
position would be when negotiating a salary with a potential employer if you knew the answers
to such key questions as
- What is the financial condition of the company?
- How much are management-paying people in equivalent positions?
- Who else are they considering for the position?
- What salary would these people is willing to pay?
- How much does management want you?

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 Before and during a negotiation session the negotiator should do everything possible to
collect adequate information. After assessing all possible sources of information the negotiator
can ask his opponent for information.
Sometimes the win-lose approach can be destructive. For example, working groups often
set themselves up for win-lose outcomes by following the principle majority rules. If 51 percent
of the group votes for a proposal, then 49 percent are losers-hardly a prescription for future
harmony.
Lose-Lose approach-Nobody seeks a lose-lose outcome-however, there is a situation
when both parties leave a negotiation unsatisfied. This occurs most frequently when both parties
try to win at each other's expense. For instance an employee who wants to spend more time with
her child may be requested for seven-hour day work. If the employee refuses the seven-hour day
work request, either she will quit or be fired as a result of her non-negotiatiable demand. In this
case both the employer and the employee suffer: the employee loses the job; the employer loses a
talented worker and the employee's career and the job suffers.
Lose-lose outcomes occur on large issues as well: unreasonable union demand can drive
employers into bankruptcy, and employers can destroy their workers effectiveness by taking
advantage of them.
Compromise is an alternative solution for lose-lose problem. Compromise is the best
obtainable outcome. For instances if two managers each need a full-time secretary but budget
restrictions make this impossible, they may have to compromise by sharing one secretary. While
compromises may be necessary, by definition the outcome is that both parties lose at least some
of what they were seeking. Buyers for instance, may pay more than they can afford, while sellers
receive less than they need compromises are not the best kind of outcome.
Win -Win approach - assumes that the solution has to satisfy the need of all parties.
Most importantly, it sees beyond the conflicting means of both parties (My way versus your
way) and focuses on satisfying the ends each seeking.
Problem solving approach is the key to finding win-win solutions to seek ways to satisfy
the needs of both parties, Win - win outcomes are possible wan conflicting parties' goals are
compatible.

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Mediating Conflict
The mediator is a person who participates in resolving a conflict between the two principal
parties by helping them reach a mutually acceptable agreement. It is a neutral third party that
facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, etc.
The role of the mediator is different from that of an arbitrator, who decides the conflict issues
himself and imposes his decision upon the principal parties. The success of mediation depends
on the motivation of conflicting parties to negotiate and resolve conflict, the intensity of conflict
and the perception of the mediator (the mediator must be perceived as neutral and non coercive).

Concluding Remarks
Logically, organizational performance should be best with a moderate level of conflict. At a
moderate level of conflict, conflict could be a source of needed change and can increase
employees’ motivation to think creatively and do their best.
In most cases, the problem is not the existence of conflicts, since they are inevitable, but their
management. In this regard, communication plays a great role. Hence, effective communication
creates common understanding, good human relations and cooperation, which in turn minimize
dysfunctional conflicts.

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CHAPTER 5 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Your careful planning of the message is most important for effective communication since your
goal is to gain desired reaction or action from the recipient. Thus, think and plan before you
communicate. This means, to determine what points to include in your message, and to
determine how to arrange those points for greatest effectiveness you need to analyze the
communication context by asking yourself what is the purpose of the message, what is your
reader’s point of view, and what is necessary to achieve the principles of effective
communication. Planning in communication requires applying the following steps:

1. Know the purpose of the message

Your reader appreciates knowing the purpose of your message. Hence, your first step
is making known the purpose of your message. Every message has two categories of
purpose:
a) Business objective (What of a message) - establishes the subject content- your
business objective is to obtain the information that will help your dealer help you.
Example: informing your reader that you are offering a new product or service or
persuading him to purchase the new product or service or informing him the delay
of the shipment. You may also inquire the availability of sufficient goods.
b) Human objective (How of a Message) - establishes the feeling content. Your human
objective is to establish empathy with the reader so that a spirit of cooperation will
prevail. This part of purpose is important to build goodwill.

Thus, be sure to keep both your business purpose (specific) and human purpose (general) in mind
as you plan every message.

2. Visualize your reader (Audience analysis)

The second step in planning communication is to understand your reader and your
reader’s point of view you should try to clarity your reader the best way you can.
Your reader can be a business or professional person or labor; superior, colleague or
subordinate; man or woman; young, middle aged, or elderly new or longtime
customer; and so on. The different people with whom you are communicating will not
have the same point of view. Visualizing that there is an individual difference, adapt
your message accordingly. Write your message with the individual reader in mind

3. Choose the ideas to include

The third step is to choose the ideas that the message is to include. Identifying the
purpose and the ideas that the purpose is to include is helpful to avoid irrelevant ideas
and overall wordiness. The ideas you will include in the writing depend upon the
type of message you are considering.

4. Get all the facts to support your ideas

Once you have determined the ideas, you must ensure that you have the necessary
figures, facts and quotations to support these ides. Be sure you know your company
policy, procedures and product details if this message requires them.

36
 5. Organize your ideas
Before you write your message, outline your ideas in a sequence order so that the
flow of ideas can be smooth

6. Write, revise, and proofread

Write and revise your message carefully no matter your writing is routine short
communication or complex long communication you must read your draft
objectively, from the viewpoint of your reader. Make sure that your message meets
all principles of effective business writing. Finally, after your message is typewritten
(handwritten), it needs careful proofreading. Proofreading is essential to correct any
possible error; so that your message will reflect favorably on you and your business.

In communication, particularly written communication, how something is said is equally

important as what is said because it is the verbal language alone that we use.

THE SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION (7Cs)

The principles of communication used to achieve both specific and general objectives of a
message are collectively justified as the 7Cs. The commonly used principles are:

1. Completeness 5. Clarity
2. Conciseness 6. Courtesy
3. Consideration 7. Correctness
4. Concreteness

5.1. COMPLETENESS
Your business letter is “complete” when it contains all facts the reader needed for the reaction
you desire. To achieve both the specific purpose of your message and goodwill, examine your
messages to make sure that you have covered everything you intended to cover and that you have
provided sufficient detail for your reader to know what you expect of him or her. Complete
letter also minimizes the possible cost of additional letter. Make sure the reader knows who is to
do what as well as where, when and why he is to do it. Ask yourself the following questions.

1. Have I answered all my reader's questions?

2. Have I anticipated questions reader may have but forgot to ask?
3. Have I provided all the information necessary for my reader to make a logical decision?
4. Have I explicitly asked the reader to perform an action?
5. Is the subject content sufficiently clear to accomplish the business objective?
6. Is the feeling suitable to accomplish the human objective?

5.2. CONCISENESS
Conciseness is one of the most important principles of effective communication; because a
wordy message requires more time and money to type and read. Conciseness is writing a
message in the fewest possible words without sacrificing completeness and courtesy.

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Conciseness contributes to emphasis. By eliminating unnecessary words, you help make
important ideas stand out.
The following are suggestions that could help to achieve conciseness.
1. Eliminate wordy expressions
A. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible with out changing
meanings.

Example:

Wordy Concise

Above – captioned loan this loon Mr. Smith's loan

Enclosed please find enclosed is
Enclosed here with enclosed
It has come to my attention I have just learned
Please don’t hesitate to call upon us please write
Personate to your inquiry as you requested
B. Omit trite expressions – expressions usually longer than necessary and have become stiff,
formal and relatively meaningless because of overuse. They are stereotyped expressions
that should be removed from business letters, memos and reports.
Example:
Trite expressions Concise (original) expressions
Allow me to say Please be advised
Please find attached Attached is/are
Please find enclosed Enclosed is/are
C. Omit “which” and “that” clauses whenever possible
Example:
Wordy: She bought desks that are of the executive type.
Concise: She bought executive-type desks.

2. Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements- Avoid unnecessary repetition even
though it is sometimes necessary for emphasis.
Here are some ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition

a) Use a short name after you have mentioned the longer one once: instead of the Inter-
Allied Johnson Manufacturing company, “use Johnson company”
b) Use pronouns rather than repeating long names: instead of “the East Coast fire insurance
company Inc.” again and again, use “it” or “they”
c) Omit unnecessary articles, relative pronouns prepositions, and conjunctions
Example:
Wordy Concise
Article: the evidence we have Evidence we have

Relative:
Pronoun: He said that he agreed he said he agreed

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 Prepositional:
Phrase: date of the policy policy date

3. - Include only relevant facts-with courtesy

- Include only those ideas that develop the purpose of the message. The extent of the
length of a message depends on the job it is expected to perform effectively.

The major causes of irrelevancy include:

a) Not sticking to the purpose of the message
b) Including information obvious to the reader.
c) Using big words to make an impression
d) Beating around the bush-not coming to the point
e) Being excessively polite, etc…

5.3. CONSIDERATION
The relationship of the message, sender and receiver profoundly affects communication
effectiveness. Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind
and try to put yourself in his or her place. Try to visualize your readers (or listeners) – with their
desires, problems, circumstances, emotions and probable reactions to your request. Then handle
the matter from their point of view. This thoughtful consideration is also called “you - attitude,”
empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human nature. In all four specific ways you can
indicate you are considerate:
1. Focus on “you” instead of “I” and “we”
Your readers are usually more concerned about themselves than about you or the company
you represent. They are more likely to read your message when they see their name and the
pronoun “you” rather than “I, We, Us.”

Usually it is desirable to get your reader into the first paragraph, If psychologically
desirable, begin with “you” or “your,” and keep your reader in the message (tactfully) until
you finish. The opposite of the you –attitude is the we-attitude, in which the writer views
every matter from his or her own (or organization’s) standpoint rather than from the reader’s:
We – attitude You - attitude
I want to send my Congratulations… Congratulations to you on your….
We will ship the goods in your May 4 orders. You should receive the Apex
Screen you ordered may 4.
Evaluate the following example:

We – attitude: May I take this opportunity to express my thanks for the account
you recently opened with our store. We are pleased to furnish a
wide variety of products for the home or individual
You – attitude: Thank you for the account you recently opened at Bekinson’s.
Serving you with your needs for clothing and a home furnishing is
a pleasure.

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 As the foregoing example illustrates, a letter is likely to have better you – attitude when it
contains more “you’s” than “I’s.” However, in two kinds of situations it is advisable not
to use “you”
When the reader has made a mistake:
Poor: You failed to enclose your check in the envelope.
Better: The envelope we received did not have your check in it.
When the reader has expressed an opinion different from your own.
Poor: You are entirely wrong in your attitude.
Better: The proposed plan has three aspects which are extremely important
and which we need to explain now.

2. Show interest (benefit) in reader

Whenever possible and true, show how your readers will benefit from whatever the message
asks or announces. They will be more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest if
you show that benefits are worth the effort and cost. Even a simple request gets better
response when a reader-benefit plug accompanies it.

For example, an insurance company that wanted to up-date its address files sent to one-half
of its policyholders a double post card with this message:

Since we haven’t written you in some time, please help us bring our records up-
to-date by filling in and returning the other half of this card. Only 3 percent of these
cards came back.
To the remaining half of its policyholders the firm sent the same request-reworded to
show reader benefit:

So that divided checks, premium notices, and other messages of importance may
reach you promptly, please fill out and return the other half of this card. This request
brought 90 percent of the cards back in a few days.

Reader-benefit appeals help collect payments on bills, soften the blow in a turndown and
sell products. They are desirable also in job applications, favor requests, and
announcements to your customers, prospective buyers, stockholders and employees.

If your company provides employee benefits-such as health insurance and various

retirement plans-management should make every effort to assure that all employees
understand and appreciate those benefits. To inform employees effectively, management
can use such media as memos, employee manuals, bulletins, reports, etc.

3. Emphasize the pleasant, positive facts

A third way to show consideration for your reader (or listener) is to accent the positive.
This means,
(1) stressing on what can be done instead of what can not be done and
(2) Focusing on ideas your reader can view favorably.

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 The reader wants to know what you can do for him or her. For most, people negative
words like no, won’t, cannot, never, impossible, trigger unpleasant emotional reactions.
By making clear what you can or will do, you (by implication) often make clear what you
cannot do, without using a single negative word.
Negative-Unpleasant Positive-Pleasant
It is impossible to open an As soon as your signature card
account for you today. reaches us, we will gladly open an…..

When a customer closes an account, try to begin your follow-up letter to the former
customer with a favorable positive paragraph. A negative opening emphasizes ideas you
would rather not have the reader think about. Consider the following example.
Negative opening:
We regret that, since you closed your account, your name will be missing from
our long list of satisfied customers. We sincerely…..
Better opening:
It was a pleasure to have had you as a member of federal savings. Thank you for
giving us the opportunity to serve you. We noticed recently that you closed your
account with us. Perhaps….
4. Apply integrity to your messages
To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity-high moral standards, personal
honor, truthfulness, sincerity-to your messages. In our day-to-day living, in our jobs, in
business transactions, in everything we do, integrity is indispensable. Without it business
communications would prove worthless and our confidence in people would be shattered.

Because you are an agent of your company, always remember that your messages
help build your company’s image. And to make this image one of integrity requires
consistently fair treatment of customers and emphasis on basic honest instead of
insincerity and bluffing. “Honesty is the best policy”.

A sentence like the following adapted from a sales message is misleading and
exaggerated:
“Nationwide, three out of four people prefer this amazing new XYZ widget”
(Actually, the product was not nationally known, and only three persons in each of four
states were surveyed!)
Consideration involves the golden rule-showing to others the same fairness and honesty
we expect for ourselves. Remember both your own integrity and that of your company
are revealed in the business message you write.

5.4. CONCRETENESS
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general. The following guidelines should help you write concretely:

1) Use specific facts and figures

Whenever you can substitute an exact fact or a figure for a general word to make your
message more concrete and convincing do so.
Vague, general, indefinite. Concrete and convincing

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 Our product has won several (Name) product has won first prize
prizes. in four national contests within the
past three years.
Please send your check for the please send your check for $500
full amount soon. on or before June 5.
A quick shave. A three-minute shave.

Often vague, general words are opinion words; they may have different meanings to the
sender and the receiver. For instance how fast is fast? How large is large? The list that
follows gives words, which can lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or confusion.

A few more short

High most slow
Large nice small
Low quick soon
Many several tall

Using plenty of examples, prefixed by phrases like “for instance,” “for example,” “such
as,” also helps make your writing concrete as well as clear.

2) Put action in your verbs

Strong verbs can activate other words and help made your sentences definite. To write
strong sentences, you should :
1. use active rather than passive verbs, and
2. put action in your verbs instead of in nouns and infinitives.

Generally, you should use active rather than passive verbs, because active verbs help
make your sentences more:
1. Specific
“The board of directors decided” is more explicit than “A decision has been made.”
2. Personal
“You will note,” is both personal and specific; “It will be noted” is impersonal.
3. Concise
The passive requires more words and thus, slows both the writing and reading.
Compare:
“Figures show” with “It is shown by figures.”
4. Emphatic
Passive verbs dull action. Compare
“The child run a mile” with “A mile was run by the child.
Action must also be put in verbs, not in nouns and infinitives. Notice the following
examples:
Action hiding in a Noun Action in the verb
The function of this office is the This office collects accounts
Collection of accounts and the and compiles statements.
Compilation of statements.

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 Mr. Jones will give consideration Mr. Jones will consider the report.
to the report.
Action hiding in Infinitive Action in the verb
The duty of a stenographer is A stenographer checks and
to check all incoming mail and records all incoming mail.
to record it.
3) Choose vivid, image-building words
Among the devices you can use to make your messages forceful, vivid, and specific are
comparisons, figurative language, concrete instead of abstract nouns, and well chosen
adjectives and adverbs.

5.5. CLARITY
Clarity is the transfer of messages with out being misunderstood. A misunderstood message is
worse than no message at all. A message that is not clear to a receiver cannot possibly
communicate the sender’s intentions. Thus, clarity is the sender’s first responsibility. Here are
some specific ways to help your messages clear:
1. Choose short and simple words rather than long and complicated words
In general short, familiar, everyday words communicate more effectively than longer,
less well-known words. Therefore, use short and familiar words if your reader is to
understand your message.
Example:
Complicated word simple word
Interrogate ask
Subsequent to after
Give consideration to consider
Under date of on
As of this writing now
Ameliorate improve
Cognizant aware
In addition, when you select words you should make sure that the words you have
selected will mean the same thing to your audience as they do to you. Words have both
denotations (dictionary meaning) and connotations (associated, personal meanings). For
instance, the words inexpensive and cheap can denote the same thing. But their
connotations are decidedly different. For most people, inexpensive simply means low in
cost while cheap means poorly made or a poor value.

Whenever possible, avoid technical jargons when you talk or write to a person who is not
familiar with such words. If you must use technical words, define them briefly and
clearly, other wise you will confuse, embarrass, or irritate your reader, and perhaps be
forced to explain later.

Example:
Technical jargon Expressions familiar to layperson
Annual premium annual payment
Assessed valuation value of property for tax purpose
Charge to your principal increase the balance of your loan

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 Maturity date final payment date
Per diem daily
2. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
Clear writing depends on logical structure. A clear message requires a definite
beginning, middle and end. In addition to the logical structure, the writer also needs
to consider unity, coherence, and emphasis.
Unity, to express main ideas
In a sentence, unity means you have one idea, and any other ideas in the sentence
must be closely related to it.
A unified message has continuity of thought and singleness of purpose. Unity and
structure requires planning. You should group related ideas together and then
arrange the groups into a logical sentence. Eliminate ideas that do not pertain to
either your subject content or your feeling content. So that your reader will always
know where your message has been and where it is going as you move from idea to
idea, provide your reader with a clear, specific reference to the preceding idea or
anticipate your next idea with an explicit statement of direction.
Example:
The manager of the firm-X is Abraha and Alemu won a gold medal in the maraton, game.
This two ideas do not related, the second idea is irrelevant to the first ideas.

Coherence, for clear meaning

Sentences and paragraphs should have logical sequence showing the reader the relationship
between them. The use of linking words is important in this case.

Emphasis, for forceful, clear expression

As you move from sentence to sentence repeat key words or ideas or use pronouns to
stand for key words and concepts, but avoid unnecessary repetition.

3. Achieve appropriate readability

Readability contributes to clarity. A clear message is readable. Although readability is a
broad term, using short paragraphs, placing key ideas in short sentences and using
specific language contribute to its function. You should understand that readers
appreciate receiving messages that the can read quickly, easily and with out
misunderstanding.

4. Include examples, illustrations, and other visual Aids, when desirable

Visual aids- such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, pictures, charts- are definite
aids to clarity and easy reading.

5.6. COURTESY
Courteous messages help to strengthen present business friendship, as well as make new friends.
Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions
of “pleases” and “thank-you’s”. To be courteous, the consideration communicator should follow
the following suggestions regarding tone and promptness of messages.
1. Be sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative

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 A truly courteous person sincerely likes people, is thoughtful of their feelings, and tries
honestly to help them. The courteous communicator tries to make messages tactful
instead of blunt, and shows thoughtful appreciation in special messages as well as in
every day communication.

Tactless; blunt Tactful.

Your letter is not clear at all: If I understand your letter
I can’t understand it. correctly…..

Apparently you have already As mentioned in my May 15, 2005 letter

forgotten what I wrote you (or memo) to you , (continue with the facts)…
two weeks ago.

In letters to customers, you usually avoid a one-sentence body because it sounds blunt.
Instead you need to add a few tactful words. But in a memo to someone within your
organization (a fellow employee), you can omit the public relations pitch.

When a reader has had sorrow, bereavement, or hardship the writer should be especially
considerate of feelings and emotions. Words which send cordial, courteous messages of
deserved congratulations and appreciation (to persons both inside and outside the
organization) help build goodwill.

2. Omit Expressions that Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle

The thought-full business communicator should avoid expressions that might offend the receiver.
Therefore, in order to keep you letter courteous you have to avoid:
- Irritating expressions such as:
“Contrary to your inference”
“I do not agree with you”
- Questionably humorous statements
Before you try to be funny, be sure your humor is good-natured and appropriate
for the situation.
- Belittling statements
Talking down or undermining a reader is another form of discourtesy that can
have a profoundly unfavorable effect.
3. Grant and Apologize Good-naturedly
Whenever you have occasion to comply with a customer’s request, begin your letter with the
best news first and inject a courteous, ungrudging tone. Notice the difference in tone of the
following two paragraphs:
Grudging:
Your request causes a great deal of extra paper work to change monthly
payments. However, in compliance with your request, we…
Good-natured:
As you requested, we will reduce the monthly interest and principal payments
called for in your note to….

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4. Answer your mail promptly
For courtesy as well as better results one should answer a business inquiry promptly - in
two or three days if possible. Even a reply on the bottom of the inquiry or a hand written
note one a postcard is usually better than a late (or no!) reply. If you need time to gather
information, or have a stack of other urgent work, before you can answer a request,
sending a short note like the following distinguishes you as a courteous person:

I will gladly send you the information you need. It may take a few days to assemble the
facts. You will hear from me by….

5.7. CORRECTNESS
In its broadest sense, the term correctness, as applied to a business letter or report means the
communicator should apply the following guidelines in his/her communication.
a) Use the correct level of language
There are three overlapping levels of language – formal, informal, and substandard. The
formal and informal languages are both correct but they are quite different from one
another, have different uses, and should not be interchanged. The former is used for
writing scholarly dissertations, a legal document, or other material for which formality is
expected; while the latter refers to the language of business – for letters, reports, and
other business communications. In other words, the expressions used in formal level of
language are often long, unconversational, and impersonal – just what the term formal
implies. In contrast, the informal level uses short, well-known, and conversational words
instead of formal words.
The third level of language – substandard – is, however, the one you want to avoid
because people generally do not accept it.

b) Include only accurate facts, words, and figures

It is obvious that without correct figures and statements, accurate communication
is impossible. One erroneous digit can make a difference of thousands of money.
Even small errors of a few cents can be annoying to customers and undermine
goodwill.
To be sure of the accuracy of your facts, you should verify all statements before
writing and again before you sign approve the message. You also need to be up-
to-date on lows that affect your organization.

Guessing or assuming that you are right can be costly. Just because a certain fact
was true about a customer last year- or even last month- does not assure it is true
now. You should also realize that, like most things in life, language is alive and
ever changing. This is to say that language is in a continuous development. New
words emerge; old words die. The change in words may result confusion in
usage:

Example:
Advice - noun: opinion; information
Advice - verb: to give an opinion; announce
All ready - entirely ready

46
 Already- previously
Complement – noun which makes something complete
Compliment - greetings
Council – noun: group of persons appointed, elected, or chosen to give
advice, make rule, etc.
Counsel – noun: advice or consultation

c) Maintain acceptable writing mechanics

Acceptable writing mechanics include correct punctuation, capitalization, syllabication,
and spelling-plus correct sentence and paragraph structure, already mentioned under
clarity.
1. Spelling
Misspelled words are the single most common error in business letters. The
following words are examples students frequently misspell:
Accommodate Congratulate
Convenience Definite
Embarrass Occurrence
Opportunity Maintenance
Mileage Envelope
Fulfill Loose (lose) questionnaire

2. Punctuation
- Review the rules for using commas, semicolons, and quotation marks.
- Use colon before a list of items, Example: Use the first five English alphabets:
A, B, C, D, and E.
- Use commas to separate items in a series.
- Use quotation- example. for direct quotations when said, “I will go to USA”
3. Subject -verb agreement
. Subjects and verbs must agree in number and in person.
Example: The manager (singular) is (singular) quite young.
4. Pronoun - antecedent agreement.
Pronouns and their antecedents must agree in person, number and gender.
Example: Abraham (singular, masculine, third person) is pushing his (singular,
masculine, third person) product.
5. Tense progression.
Use the simple tenses (past, present, and future) whenever possible. Make sure that
the verbs used for each event accurately depict the time appropriate for that event.
6. Parallel construction.
Like ideas should be expressed in like grammatical structures. Pay particular
attention to series, lists, appositives, and ideas proceeded by correlative
conjunctions (either--- or, neither--- nor, not only--- but also).
a, As he should either quit his job or learn to operate the machine.
b, Neither his supervisor no his assistant filed the paper
c, The manager prepared not only the reports but also the tapes.

7. Correct placement of modifiers

47
 To avoid misplaced and dangling modifiers, place modifiers close to the word or idea
that it modifies.

Example:
Dangling: by working hard, the report will be finished soon
Correct: by working hard, I will finish the report soon.
Misplaced: I know a man who sells filing cabinet named smith,
Correct: I know a man named smith who sells filling cabinets.

d) Choose nondiscriminatory expressions

Another important requirement for correctness is “equal treatment of the sexes” and non-bias
to ward people of different races, ethnics, and physical features.

e) Apply all other pertinent “C” qualities

Finally, you remember to proofread, when correspondence has your nonce on if, it represents
the best work you are able to do. If your secretary can’t type a decent letter or memo, that is
still you responsibility, and your business associates will judge you rather than your
secretary, by the material you sign.

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Chapter Six: Medias of Communication

6.1 Written Media

Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. It is
one of the two main types of communication, along with oral/spoken communication. Written
communication is very common in business situations, so it is important for small business
owners and managers to develop effective written communication skills. Some of the various
forms of written communication that are used internally for business operations include memos,
reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail. Examples of written
communication avenues typically pursued with clients, vendors, and other members of the
business community, meanwhile, include electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals,
telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases.
6.1.1 Business Letters
Introduction
Customers and other organizations base their impression of a firm in its letter as much as
anything. By definition a letter is a written message in a particular format. Properly planned,
designed and neatly typed letter contribute toward reputation and goodwill of business
organization. The following elements usually constitute the structure of a business letter.
Components of Business Letter
When writing a letter requesting something, ask yourself this all–important question: What kind
of letter would I like to receive if I were being asked for something? You would probably decide
that you would want the writer to be as brief as possible – to avoid wasting your time. On the
other hand, you would want the writer to give you complete information so that you wouldn't
need to write for more details. And you would probably expect the writer to be courteous and
tactful.
1. Heading
The letterhead helps the reader know where the letter is coming from and where to reply to the
letter. Letterheads contain the name (return address), the postal address, the telephone number,
fax, and e-mail address.
2. Date

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Date establishes the correspondence as a matter of record and provides a reference point for
future correspondence. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the letterhead. It is indicated
either in the upper right-hand corner or upper left-hand corner as: 20 May, 2007 or
May 20, 2007.
3. Reference - The code given to a letter for easy identification.
4. Inside Address
The full address should be written two spaces below the date and reference number and tow
spaces above the attention line or if there is no attention line two spaces above the salutation in
the left margin.
5. Attention
To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter, which is addressed to a company, is marked to a
particular officer in the organization. The attention line is written two spaces below the inside
address and two spaces above the salutation. This line is generally underlined.
Example: Attention: Dr Habtamu
Attention: General Manager
6. Salutation
Salutation is similar to greeting. It is placed two spaces below the attention line; if there is no
attention line, below the inside address.
7. Subject
The purpose of the subject is let the reader know immediately what the message is about. It
saves time if the letter has to pass to some other officer or department. It can be done quickly.
8. Body
The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message and the main purpose of a message is to
produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done mainly through the body of the letter.
9. Complimentary Close
Complimentary close is a polite way of ending a letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line
of the letter. Eg: Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Cordially, Yours faithfully etc.
10. Signature

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Signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below the complimentary close. The
name of the writer is generally typed four space below the close line providing enough space for
signature.
11. Identification Mark
Identification mark is put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter one or two space
below the signature.
12. Enclosure
If anything is attached to the letter, it must be indicated against the enclosure line typed two
spaces below the identification marks. The enclosure notation reminds the reader that material is
enclosed with the letter.
Example: Enc._______ Or Enclosure(s) ______
13. Copy to
Copy to is used when there are other organizations or individuals required to receive and know
the message.
Structure of a Business Letter
(i) Heading
______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_____________________________________

(ii) Date __________________

(iii)Your Reference ___________________
Our Reference ___________________
(iv) Inside address
_____________________________________
________________________________
_____________________________
(v) Attention
_____________________________
(vi) Salutation
__________________
(vii)Subject
____________________________________________________

(viii) Body

51
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

(ix) Complimentary close

_____________________________

(x) Signature
___________________________
(xi) Identification marks
__________________________
(xii) Enclosure
__________________________

(xiii) Copy to __________________

Styles of presentation
There are several styles, which are used for writing business letters. A business organization can
choose what suit it best. The following three styles are examples of styles used by business
organizations.
(1) Block style: the date, the complementary close and the signature are aligned with the right
margin; all other parts except the letterhead are flush left.
___________Heading________________________________________
_________________________________________
_______________________________
__Date___________
________________________
________________________
________________________
__________
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________
_________________________

_________________________
_______________________

52
(2) Semi-block style: this is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the body of
the letter are indented. It is believed to be easy for reading.
_______________________________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________

_________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________

_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________

______________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________

(3) Complete – Block style

In complete-block style, all parts of the letter, except the printed letterhead, are aligned with the
left margin. Example of complete-block style letter:
____________________________________________________
________________________________________
__________________________
________________________
_________________________
_________________________
________________________
_______________

53
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
______________________________
__________________________
____________________
____________________
kinds of Business Letters
In business you write many types of letters. You may write:
 To apply for a job
 To ask for information, advice, or favors
 To collect money
 To apologize for a mistake
 To say "no" to an unreasonable request
 To sell your company's products or services etc.
The following kinds of business letters are among those most frequently written.
 Employment letters
 Asking and transmittal letters
 Letters answering requests
 Claim and adjustment letters
 Credit and collection letters
 Sales letters
 Employment letters
Sometime in your life–perhaps several times–you will probably seek a job through a written
presentation. Therefore, you will have occasion to write one or more of the following
employment letters.
 A letter of application. This may be written:
- in response to a newspaper advertisements
- at the suggestion of a relative, friend, teacher or business acquaintance.
- at your own instigation

54
  Letters to various persons asking permission to use their names as references
 A follow up letter to thank an employment interviewer for the time he gave you
and to reemphasize some of your qualifications that particularly fit you for the
job.
 A letter accepting a position
 A letter refusing a position
 A thank you letter to each person who helped you in your job seeking campaign.
 A letter resigning from a position
1. Letter of Application and Resume (curriculum vitae/ bio-data)
Written document of any type must stand on its own. This general rule also applies to an
application letter and the resume. The writer of the application and resume will not be present
when they are read and explain or illustrate the intended meaning of his message

Of course, a letter of application can get into an executive's office even when it may not be
possible for you to do so. Thus, it is your personal representative. The employer looks upon the
application letter as a screening device. Those who write good letters get through the screen;
those who do not are left outside. The application letter, then, is important enough to warrant
careful and thorough planning.

The resume is a document you will use to sell yourself in the job search process. Its
purposes are to convince potential employers that they should interview you. A well designed
resume will emphasize your skills, abilities, talents and experiences for potential employers.

Checklist for a Resume

 Opening Section:
Your name, address, telephone numbers
Job title, career goal
Summary of basic qualifications:

 Education:
Advanced schooling and training – school names, locations, dates attended, degrees and
certificates. (including high school and military, if significant)

 Work Experience:

55
 Employer names, location; dates (month, year); titles and positions held; duties;
accomplishments; etc.

 Activities, Achievements, Awards:

School and community memberships, offices held, honors, publications, language, and
self–support.
 Other relevant facts (if not included under 1–4 above)
 References: name some persons who can certify your data is correct.
2. Asking and Transmittal Letters

Asking Letters
Asking letters are letters that request for something. Many asking letters are written in every
business. As a business person you may write to:
 a supplier, asking for a catalog or a price lists
 a publisher, asking for reprints of an article or for subscription
 a hotel, asking that a conference room be arrange (reserved), for a meeting, and son
on.

While these characteristics are applicable to any kind of business letter, they are especially
important in asking letters. Therefore, asking letters should be: brief i.e. concise, complete, and
courteous.

Particularly pleasant words like thank you, pleas, grateful, and appreciate will do more to make
readers to go out of their way to help you than will a brusque demand.

Here are some typical beginnings for effective asking letters:

“May I please…?”
“I shall be grateful if you will …"
“Will you please…?”
“I should appreciate having…. "
“Please send me ….”
Following are typical endings for effective asking letters:
“I am certain we can count on your cooperation."
“I would appreciate your help."

56
 “We shall be grateful for this special service."

When the stated reason for a request will promote the reader to give you better service, then you
should state such a reason in your letter. If the reason for a request is obvious, and the reader is
expected to grant it without question, there is no need to state the reason.

Here are specific suggestions for writing asking letters:

 Write to a particular individual, if possible, rather than to a company to speed up the
handling of your request.
 Be clear in your own mind as to what you want or want to know.
 Do not make unnecessary work for the reader by asking for information that you
could have obtained from reference books or other sources available to you.

Letters of Transmittal

Transmitting Letters should do the following:

 Identify what is being sent and how many (if money, the amount)
 Specify any action necessary on the part of the recipient.
 If transmitting money, identify the purpose for which the money is to be used –
for purchases made, for services rendered, in settlement of a certain invoice no,
etc.

3. Letters Answering Requests – Acknowledgements

A usual business practice – and always very good business practice – is to acknowledge by letter
any money or business papers received, favors granted, appointments made, and agreements
reached orally.

The first reason for writing letters of acknowledgement is that writing such letters is the
courteous thing to do. A letter from you acknowledging or confirming something tells the
recipient that he need not worry–you have received safely what he sent.
A second, and equally important, reason for writing acknowledgement letters is to avoid
misunderstandings or mistake. If you have received an order and will make shipment as soon as

57
possible, the customer will want to know. If he does not hear from you, he may assume that you
did not receive his order, or he may wonder what you are doing about it if you did. A written
acknowledgement assures him that you have the merchandise in the quantity he requested and
that you are going to fill his order quickly.
A third reason for writing acknowledgement letters is to provide a record. Records are the
memory of business. You would not want to trust your own memory as to the date on which you
promised delivery of an order; the carbon copy of your acknowledgement, therefore, provides
the information.

4. Sales Letters
To write a good sales letter you have to draw an effective letter plan. This plan calls for four
steps, the ABCD's of sales letters.
 Attracting attention – by opening with a striking paragraph (e.g. a question. A
challenging statement).
 Building interest and desire – by making an appeal to some buying motive. (E.g. health,
personal appearance, economy, future prospects. Etc).
 Convincing the reader – by supporting the claims made, giving guarantees, providing
evidence of tests, etc.
 Directing favorable action – by persuading the reader to do what you want him to do.
(E.g. to seek for further information, visit your show room, place an order).
5. Memos: In some cases it is called interoffice memorandum, are used for internal commutation
purpose. They are used for the routine and day-to- day exchange of information within an
organization with people or departments. Memo ensures quick and smooth flow of information
in all directions. It serves as a reference and evidence for the future.
Different organizations may have their own forms of memo formats; some may print the date,
receiver’s name, the sender’s name and the subject (date, to, from, subject) to save time.
Eg.
_____________Company
Interoffice Memo
Date______________________
To_______________________
From_____________________

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Subject____________________
Message(body)
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
6.1.2 Report Writing

Introduction

Report writing is a time consuming business so it is a great shame if, having devoted all that time
to writing your report, the quality is such that hardly anyone can be bothered to read it. Quite
frankly, most report readers do not actually read all the report; they are too short of time. You
might as well know it and accept it -- that is normal. They only read the parts that interest them.
Frequently these are the summary, the conclusions and recommendations.

Of course, some readers do need all the details you so carefully included, they are specialists, but
most do not. Most readers just need two things: that the information they want is where they
expect it to be so they can find it, and that it is written clearly so that they can understand it.

It is similar to reading a newspaper. You expect the news headlines to be on the front page; the
sports coverage to be at the back; the TV listings on page whatever and the editorial comment in
the middle. If what you want is not in its usual place then you have to hunt for it and you may get
irritated. So it is with a report.

There is a convention as to what goes where. Stick with the convention and please your readers.
Break the convention and people may get slightly irritated - and bin your report.

So what is that convention, the standard format?

Standard Sections

Title Section: In a short report this may simply be the front cover. In a long one it could also
include Terms of Reference, Table of Contents and so on.

Summary: Give a clear and very concise account of the main points, main conclusions and main
recommendations. Keep it very short, a few percent of the total length. Some people, especially
senior managers, may not read anything else so write as if it were a stand-alone document. It isn't
but for some people it might as well be. Keep it brief and free from jargon so that anyone can
understand it and get the main points. Write it last, but do not copy and paste from the report
itself; that rarely works well.

Introduction: This is the first part of the report proper. Use it to paint the background to 'the
problem' and to show the reader why the report is important to them. Give your terms of
reference (if not in the Title Section) and explain how the details that follow are arranged. Write
it in plain English.

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Main Body: This is the heart of your report, the facts. It will probably have several sections or
sub-sections each with its own subtitle. It is unique to your report and will describe what you
discovered about 'the problem'.

These sections are most likely to be read by experts so you can use some appropriate jargon but
explain it as you introduce it. Arrange the information logically, normally putting things in order
of priority -- most important first. In fact, follow that advice in every section of your report.

You may choose to include a Discussion in which you explain the significance of your findings.

Conclusions: Present the logical conclusions of your investigation of 'the problem'. Bring it all
together and maybe offer options for the way forward. Many people will read this section. Write
it in plain English. If you have included a discussion then this section may be quite short.

Recommendations: What do you suggest should be done? Don't be shy; you did the work so
state your recommendations in order of priority, and in plain English.

Appendices: Put the heavy details here, the information that only specialists are likely to want to
see. As a guide, if some detail is essential to your argument then include it in the main body, if it
merely supports the argument then it could go in an appendix.

Formal report writing in professional, technical and business contexts has evolved certain
conventions regarding format, style, referencing and other characteristics. These will vary in
detail between organisations, so the information given below should be treated as general
guidelines which hold good in the absence of any more specific `house styles'.

Format
The full format of a long report can be as follows:
Title page
Acknowledgements
Summary
Table of Contents
Introduction/Terms of Reference/Scope
Procedure
Findings (the evidence)
Conclusions
Recommendations
References/Bibliography
Appendices

Referencing

The Harvard (author-date) system is the one usually encountered in the sciences and social
sciences, and is the system promoted in Professional Writing & Communication subjects and the
University of South Australia generally. All the examples below relate to the author-date system
of referencing.

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5.6.1 Citations

When you write an assignment you must cite in your text references to all material you have
used as sources for the content of your work. These citations must be made wherever and
whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarise someone else's opinions, theories or data (in
your text). Your references may be to books, periodicals, articles, newspapers, reports or
personal communications. A list of references, in alphabetical order of authors' surnames, must
be attached to the end of your report, giving complete details of all references actually used in
the report (see 5.6.2).

5.6.1.1 For the citations in your text, only the author's surname, year of publication for the
material cited, and page numbers, if required, should be listed. Page numbers for your references
are necessary only when you quote or paraphrase particular passages, lists or figures from your
sources:

Smith (1971, p. 45) has argued that 'the relative seriousness of the two kinds of errors differs
from situation to situation.'

5.6.1.2 If you paraphrase material from your sources you must make it clear from your reference
that you are giving a modified version of someone else's work in your own words:

A recent study (Jones and Smith, 1974) has shown . . .

5.6.1.3 Reference to material written by more than two authors should include the surnames of
all authors the first time the citation appears. In later citations of the same reference, include only
the surname of the first author and the abbreviation et al. (meaning 'and the others'):

A recent study (Jones, Smith, Brown and White, 1973) has shown . . .

The research previously cited (Jones, et al., 1973)

5.6.1.4 Reference to different authors with the same surname should be distinguished by use in
the authors' initials:

A recent study (C.L. Jones, 1974) has shown . . . but A.G. Jones (1956) has suggested . . .

5.6.1.5 When you have read an account of original work by one author (primary reference) in
another book or article (secondary reference), both sources must be acknowledged in your
reference:

Smith (Jones, 1961) states that . . .

or

Smith's experiment in 1952 (cited in Jones, 1961) states . . .

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or

Jones (1961), in reporting Smith's 1952 study, states that . . .

Smith is the primary reference, Jones is the secondary reference.

5.6.1.6 If you need to cite several references at the same point, separate the authors' names by
semi-colons, with surnames in alphabetical order:

Recent studies (Brown, 1971; Miller and Smith, 1972; Jones, 1966) show . . .

5.6.1.7 References to two or more publications in the same year by a given author should be
distinguished by adding a, b, and so on:

A recent study (Jones, 1974b) has shown . . .

Recent studies (Jones, 1972, 1973a and b) have shown . . .

6.2 Oral Media

Introduction
In this medium of communication the two parties in communication exchange their ideas or the
message with the help of words of mouth. The message – instruction order, directive, etc, is
conveyed through spoken words. This method can be observed in a number of forms of
communication, such as conferences, committee meetings, interviews, telephone conversations,
face– to–face talks etc.
6.2.1 The Telephone

Characteristics
 It is brief or short
 Speakers may be in different environments making it susceptible to disruptions
 Deprived of nonverbal communication
Conversing in telephone
 When the receiver responds identify yourself immediately
 Ask whether it is convenient to talk
 Be attentive and active in listening
 Close your call courteously (say thanks)
Receiving calls

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  Be prepared to receive calls
 Answer the call immediately when it rings
 Identify yourself
 Make every effort to get the message correctly
 Explain any delays (if any)

6.2.2 Interviews
Interviewing like all interpersonal communication, normally involves face–to–face interaction
between two parties (interviewer and interviewee) who take turns acting as sender and receiver.
This definition makes it clear that interviewing is a special kind of conversation differing from
other forms of conversations.
Characteristic of Interviews
The first characteristic of interviews is that they are purposeful, conducted to achieve some
specific objective. Second, interviews are more structured i.e. it has some pre–established
agenda that is followed during the conversations. Third, interviews also have an element of
control not present in casual interaction. Fourth, interviews are more carefully prepared than
are informal conversations.
Types of Interviews in organizations
 Employment interviews
It is a formal, in–depth conversation conducted aimed at evaluating the qualities of
candidate by direct face to face discussion. Interview is an effective technique to measure
the knowledge, understanding, competence, and interest in the work, personality and to
finally evaluate an applicant’s acceptability.
 Disciplinary Interviews
When an employee violates a policy or breaks a rule, the employer usually will initiate a
disciplinary interview with that employee. Generally, these interviews attempt to show
the employee what he or she did wrong, remind him or her of the rules involved, inform
him or her of the disciplinary actions, if any, to be taken, and lay out clear expectations
for performance improvements in the future.
 Appraisal Interviews

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 Their functions is to review the performance objectives established for the employee in
the previous appraisal interview, review the employee's performance in relations to those
objectives, establish new or revised objectives for upcoming months or years and to
layout specific strategies for performance improvement.
 Grievance Interviews
The grievance interview is initiated and largely controlled by the employee. The range of
employee discontent is wide and may focus on such matters as poor working conditions,
incompetent fellow employees, unfair treatment, and inadequate salaries.
 Counseling Interview
It is usually directed toward personal consideration of employee. Personal problems can,
and often do, create and intensify problems at work, for example, alcoholism, marital
discord, fear of retirement, drug abuse, unanticipated change, failure to get promotion,
etc. In these cases, counseling interviews are often legitimately used to obtain valuable
preliminary information and to encourage workers to obtain professional assistance.
 Exit Interviews
The exit interview occurs at the end of those productive years or at a time of change in
the employee's organizational affiliation. It is normally carried out to establish the
reasons for employee's leaving and also to give insights that might make the job a more
rewarding one for future employees.
 Persuasive Interviews
The Most common example of this type is the sales transaction in which a salesperson
attempts to sell a specific product to a prospective customer.
Basic steps for the interview process
Although interviewing is a common organizational activity, it is not an easy one. It is therefore
necessary to properly organize sequential steps for the interview process, thus:
 Interview Planning
It is essential to effective employment interviews. The physical location of the interview
should be both pleasant and private, providing for a minimum of interruptions. The
interviewer should have a pleasant personality, empathy, and the ability to listen and
communicate effectively. He/she should become familiar with the applicants
qualifications by reviewing the data collected from other selection tools.

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  Creation of Rapport
Rapport is aided by beginning the interview on time and starting with non–threatening
questions. The interviewer may use body language to help relax the applicant. A smile, a
handshake, a relaxed posture, and moving a side paper work, all communicate without
words.
 Information exchange
The interview process is a conversation in which information is exchanged. An
interviewer will ask questions in a way that elicits as much information as possible
especially about the applicant's background, skills, and interests.
 Termination
As the list of questions dwindles or the available time ends, the interviewer must draw the
session to close.
 Evaluation
Immediately after the interview ends, the interviewer should record specific answers by
the candidate and his/her general impression about the candidate.
Using Questions in the Interview
A key communication tool used by interviewers is the question. Whatever the overall design,
many questions are asked as a primary means of collecting data needed to assist in planning and
decision making. There are two basic types of questions: Open or closed questions.
 Open questions
They are broad in nature and basically unstructured. Often they indicate only the topic to
be discussed and allow the interviewee considerable freedom in determining the amount
and kind of information he/she will provide. Example of open questions is: (i) Tell me
about yourself? (ii) Why did you major in management?
The advantages of open questions are: they allow the interviewee to talk with relative
freedom; they are not very threatening and tend to reduce interviewee anxiety; they allow
interviewee to volunteer information for which the interviewer would not have thought to
ask; it also gives the interviewer insights into the interviewee's prejudices, values, and
commitments.
The disadvantages of open questions are: they take a good deal of time; collect much
irrelevant information; require several follow–up questions; demand excellent listening

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 skills on the part of the interviewer; and can be difficult to evaluate following the
interview.
 Close questions
These are structured, restricted, and often include several possible answers from which
to choose. Thus, potential responses are limited example- How many years did you spend
in the university? Others are extreme yes/no questions Example "do you smoke?.
The merits of closed questions are: it save time; increase the probability of obtaining
relevant responses; and are relatively easy to tabulate following the interview.
The major draw backs of closed questions are: they generate limited information and
often cause interviewees to respond less accurately; they decrease interviewee talking
time and increase the number of questions the interviewer must generate; and they fail to
explore reasons behind attitudes and behaviors.
Interview Guidelines

to duties and responsibilities of the position, as well as conditions of the work.
 The questions should be job-related and not of a personal nature.

position.
 -prepared and informed about Equal
Employment Opportunity laws.

a series of job-related interview questions, and seek job-related work examples in the
interview.
 , and consistency.


 Although all applicants are asked the same set of questions, the interviewers may ask
more specific questions based on responses to initial questions or to clarify relevant work
experience and education identified on the applicant’s employment application or
resume.


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  treatment
of all applicants and consistent interpretation of the information obtained during the
interview.

6.2.3 Meetings
 Meetings take place when individuals get together with the idea of talking about
or sharing their knowledge, ideas, views, experiences
 Many managers put "meeting " at the top of their lists of the greatest time–wasters
ever
 Practically however managers spend not less than 70 percent of their time in
meeting and this increases through the hierarchy
 Meetings are powerful communication tools in managerial performance
 They are, however, costly communication tools
 They must thus stem from clear goals
 Meetings can have four goals
- obtaining information
- giving information
- solving problems
- selling ideas
 When to call meetings
First, you should call a meeting when:
 You need to reach a group judgment as the basis for a decision.
 You need to discover analyze or solve a problem.
 You need to gain acceptance from the group for an idea, program, or decision.
 You need to achieve a training objective.
 You need to reconcile conflicting views
 You need t provide essential information for work guidance or for the relief of
insecurities or tensions.
 You need to assure equal understanding or company policy, methods, or decisions.
 You need to obtain immediate reactions to a problem that requires a speedy response.

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 On the other hand you should not call meeting:
 When other communication, such as telephone telegram, letter, or memo, will produce
the desired result.
 When there is not sufficient time for adequate preparation by participants or the meeting
leader.
 When one or more key participants cannot be available.
 When the meeting is not likely to produce satisfactory results because of personality
conflicts or conflicts with overall management strategy.
 When expected results do not warrant spending the money it will cost to hold the
meeting.
 Announcing Meeting
The written announcement should contain the following information:
 Why the meeting is held: members should know what the purpose of the meeting
is and what their role is to be.
 When the meeting starts and ends. Most announcements indicate the starting time;
too few say how long the meeting is expected to last.
 Where the meeting is to be held: If attendees are likely to be unfamiliar with the
location, a map or some description of how to find it should be included.
 Who is going to attend: The complete list of attendees should be provided for
everyone to see.
 What is going to be considered in the meeting: An agenda or outline of the
meeting's proceeding should be included.

 Conditions that make meeting effective

- Appropriate combination of members
- Agenda must be prepared and distributed well ahead of time
- Minutes of every meeting must be prepared, approved, signed, distributed and filed.
- Every meeting should begin and end at the specific time stated.
 Conducting the meeting
 Beginning the meeting

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 Effective openings get the meeting off to a good start. First, every one is given a clear
picture of what is to be accomplished. Secondly, a definition of how the group will try to
reach its goal. Finally, set a stage for good teamwork and, thus, good results.
 Encouraging participation
Members can be encouraged to participate in meetings through over head questions,
direct questions, reverse questions, and relay questions.
 Keeping discussions on track –Ensuring that issues to be discussed are specifically
focused on.
 Solving problems creatively
Meetings is a success when the groups have developed high –quality solutions when they
follow the reflective thinking sequence i.e. by defining the problems, analyze the
problem, develop solutions, decide on a solution and decide on how to implement
solution.
 Problems and Advantages of Meeting
a. Problems with meetings
 Time – even when they are productive, meetings take up a considerable amount of time.
Considerable time is often wasted in meetings for instance, in socializing that
accompanies the get together, time wasted for everyone to arrive, and in discussions that
have little or nothing to do with the purpose of the meeting. Sometimes group takes a
longer time to reach an agreement. It may result to delay of decisions on matters that need
urgent decisions.
 Domination by a few; especially when individuals who rank higher in status in the
organization are present.
 Minority domination or bad decisions – sometimes the quality of group action is reduced
when group gives into those who talk the loudest and the longest.
 Some group meeting experiences indecisiveness and back passing problems.
 Groups think and compromise – a tendency to suppress critical comments in the interest of
maintaining group solidarity and feeling of togetherness.
b. Advantages of Meetings
Meetings if well organized and well–managed produce more solutions than individuals, and the
solutions are likely to be better. In this sense, meetings are like marriages: when handled well,

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there is nothing likes them; handled poorly, they can be disastrous. The reasons why meetings
can be advantageous are:
 Greater Resources – The saying that "two good heads are better than one" hold true, because
good groups contain diversity of knowledge and skills that few individuals can match. To be
productive, of course, the group meeting must have capable members. A collection of
incompetents won't accomplish much of anything.
 Greater Accuracy – people working together can catch one another's errors.
 Increased Commitment – Group decision making also boosts members Commitment to
carrying them out. There are three reasons for this increased commitment:
 Participative decision-making – the members of the group would feel that it was their plan
and our plan and they would work harder to implement it.
 A final way in which meetings boost commitment involves peer pressure.

6.2.4 Public Speaking

Public speaking is the art of speaking to a group of people in a structured manner intended to
inform, influence or entertain the audience. Most careers will require that you give presentations
or deliver speeches. But for many people, public speaking is at best a chore marked by great
anxiety and at worst a potential career stopper. Speaking in public is one of the most feared
activities. Public speaking can be a downright terrifying experience, and few have the training
and confidence required to overcome the fear of public speaking and connect with an audience.
The reluctance to get up in front of an audience is often a major impediment to career
advancement. Mastering the art of public speaking will boost your confidence and give you a
competitive edge.
The following public speaking tips will help you learn about the common causes of speaking
anxiety and overcome stage fright. The articles herein provide information on public speaking
techniques to help in overcoming fear of public speaking, acquiring confident speaking skills and
improving your presentation skills. Readers will learn techniques to develop confidence, express
ideas with authority, and communicate with charisma to influence and win over an audience.
The importance of mastering public speaking techniques to address audiences effectively and
powerfully has been an issue since the beginnings of recorded history. The Bible's Old
Testament makes no bones about the fact that the most influential prophets and leaders were
those who could sway their audiences verbally. Throughout history, oratory skills have

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repeatedly proved to the decisive factor that turns the tide of public opinion. The Powerful
oratory skills of many leaders have won wars, averted mass panic and saved companies from
financial disaster.

Successful public speaking involves more than just choosing the right words (though this is
certainly an important factor). Effective public speaking techniques include establishing a
rapport and relationship with the audience in many different ways.

Most of us have to overcome an initial fear of speaking in public (technically known as 'gloss
phobia' or 'stage fright). When an audience senses this fear in a speaker, it tends to shut him or
her out for that reason alone. Fear of public speaking has visible manifestations that any audience
can pick up immediately. These include:

· Shuffling from foot to foot

· Not knowing what to do with one's hands
· Stuttering and stumbling over words
· Speaking too fast
· Not looking at the audience while speaking
· Referring to written notes too many times
· Clearing one's throat repeatedly

These are reactions to public speaking that each of us experiences to begin with. Overcoming
them is a matter of practice and rising confidence levels. There is no shortcut or easier, softer
option. In mastering public speaking techniques, we must stand a trial by fire. It is very similar to
learning to ride a horse or bicycle. If we fall off, we must immediately get on again. Failing to
face one's fears in the public speaking arena will reinforce the fear. The result could be a
permanent aversion to public speaking.

The most effective public speakers make their audience comfortable in subtle, calculated ways.
These ways soon become second nature as the public speaker's confidence levels rise. Among
the most useful techniques is the use of humor. Cracking a joke - preferably at one's own
expense - is a sure-fire means of warming up an audience. This is why orators who use humor
are more effective than the serious, lecturing types.

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Controlling one's voice is equally important. A public speaker must pitch his or her voice high
enough to be clearly audible to everyone in the audience. At the same time, it should not be so
high-pitched to irritate or aggravate the audience. Thanks to modern amplification technology, it
is possible for us to address an audience in a conversational pitch of voice and still be audible.
Using this technology effectively is, once again, a matter of experience.

Building a relationship with one's audience is very important. A lecturing style of public
speaking does not include the audience as a participant. While lecturing is useful if the speaker
must convey a lot of information in a limited period, it can also be incredibly boring to an
audience. Involving one's audience by asking it questions, making it laugh and inviting any other
kind of feedback numbers among the most effective public speaking techniques.

Some successful orators advocate unorthodox methods, such as speaking on a relatively empty
stomach. Others even advise speakers not to empty their bladder before a speech, claiming that
this maintains the necessary edge in the situation. Finally, we must all discover our own most
suitable public speaking techniques. However, nothing beats practice and proper preparation
before the event.

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