Introduction to

Numerical
Methods

Numerical Methods (ME 212)

Author: Dr. Shoeb Ahmed Syed

Papua New Guinea University of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering

1
Binary Representation
 How a Decimal Number is
Represented

257.76 = 210 2 + 5101 + 7 100 + 7 10 −1 + 610 −2

3
 Base 2

 (1 23 + 0 2 2 +1 21 +1 20 ) 

(1011.0011) 2 =  
 + (0 2 −1 + 0 2 −2 +1 2 −3 + 1 2−4 ) 
 10
= 11.1875

4
 Convert Base 10 Integer to
binary representation
Table 1 Converting a base-10 integer to binary representation.
Quotient Remainder
11/2 5 1 = a0
5/2 2 1 = a1
2/2 1 0 = a2
1/2 0 1 = a3
Hence
(11)10 = (a3 a2 a1a0 ) 2
= (1011) 2

5
 Start

Integer N to be
Input (N)10 converted to binary
format

i=0

Divide N by 2 to get
quotient Q & remainder R

i=i+1,N=Q ai = R

No
Is Q = 0?

Yes

n=i
(N)10 = (an. . .a0)2

STOP

6
 Fractional Decimal Number
to Binary
Table 2. Converting a base-10 fraction to binary representation.
Number before
Number Number after decimal
decimal
0.1875  2 0.375 0.375 0 = a−1
0.375 2 0.75 0.75 0 = a−2
0.75 2 1.5 0.5 1 = a−3
0.5 2 1.0 0.0 1 = a−4

Hence
(0.1875)10 = (a−1a− 2 a− 3a− 4 )2
= (0.0011)2

7
 Start

Fraction F to be
Input (F)10 converted to binary
format

i = −1

Multiply F by 2 to get
number before decimal,
S and after decimal, T

i = i − 1, F = T
ai = R

No
Is T =0?

Yes
n=i
(F)10 = (a-1. . .a-n)2

STOP

8
 Decimal Number to Binary
(11.1875)10 = ( ?.? )2
Since
(11)10 = (1011) 2
and
(0.1875)10 = (0.0011) 2

we have
(11.1875)10 = (1011.0011) 2

9
 All Fractional Decimal Numbers
Cannot be Represented Exactly
Table 3. Converting a base-10 fraction to approximate binary representation.
Number Number
Number after before
decimal Decimal
0.3 2 0.6 0.6 0 = a−1
0.6 2 1.2 0.2 1 = a−2
0.2  2 0.4 0.4 0 = a−3
0.4  2 0.8 0.8 0 = a−4
0.8 2 1.6 0.6 1 = a−5

(0.3)10  (a−1a−2 a−3a−4 a−5 ) 2 = (0.01001) 2 = 0.28125

10
 Another Way to Look at
Conversion

Convert (11.1875)10 to base 2

(11)10 = 23 + 3
= 23 + 21 +1
= + 21 + 20
3
2
= 1 23 + 0 2 2 +1 21 +1 20
=
(1011)2
11
 (0.1875)10 = 2−3 + 0.0625
−3
= 2 + 2 −4
= 0 2 −1 + 0 2 −2 +1 2 −3 +1 2 −4
= (.0011)2

(11.1875)10 = (1011.0011)2
12
Floating Point Representation
Floating Decimal Point : Scientific Form

256.78 is written as + 2.5678×10 2

0.003678 is written as + 3.678×10 −3

− 256.78 is written as − 2.5678 ×10 2

 Example

The form is
sign × mantissa ×10exponent
or
σ × m ×10e
Example: For
− 2.5678×10 2
σ = −1
m = 2.5678
e=2
Floating Point Format for Binary
Numbers

y = σ × m × 2e
σ = sign of number (0for + ve,1for - ve)
m = mantissa [(1)<
2
m < (10)2 ]
1 is not stored as it is always given to be 1.
e = integer exponent
 Example
9 bit-hypothetical word
▪the first bit is used for the sign of the number,
▪the second bit for the sign of the exponent,
▪the next four bits for the mantissa, and
▪the next three bits for the exponent

(54.75)10 = (110110.11) =2(1.1011011)2 × 25

≅ (1.1011)2 × (101)2
We have the representation as

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

mantissa exponent
Sign of the Sign of the
number exponent
 Machine Epsilon
Defined as the measure of accuracy and found
by difference between 1 and the next number
that can be represented
IEEE 754 Standards for Single
Precision Representation
IEEE-754 Floating Point
Standard
• Standardizes representation of
floating point numbers on
different computers in single and
double precision.

• Standardizes representation of
floating point operations on
different computers.
 One Great Reference

What every computer scientist (and even if

you are not) should know about floating point
arithmetic!

http://www.validlab.com/goldberg/paper.pdf
 IEEE-754 Format Single
Precision

32 bits for single precision

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sign Biased Mantissa (m)

(s) Exponent (e’)

.
Value = (−1) × (1 m )2 ×2 e'−127
s
Exponent for 32 Bit IEEE-754
8 bits would represent
0 ≤ e′ ≤ 255
Bias is 127; so subtract 127 from
representation
−127 ≤ e ≤ 128
Exponent for Special Cases
Actual range of e′
1 ≤ e′ ≤ 254
e′ = 0 and e′ = 255 are reserved for special numbers

Actual range of e
−126 ≤ e ≤ 127
Special Exponents and Numbers
e′ = 0 all zeros
e′ = 255 all ones
s e′ m Represents
0 all zeros all zeros 0
1 all zeros all zeros -0
0 all ones all zeros ∞
1 all ones all zeros −∞
0 or 1 all ones non-zero NaN
 IEEE-754 Format

The largest number by magnitude

(1.1........1)2 × 127
= 3.40×10 38

The smallest 2number by magnitude

(1.00......0)2 × 2 −126
= 2.18×10 −38

Machine epsilon
ε mach = 2−23 = 1.19 ×10−7
Taylor Series Revisited
 What is a Taylor series?
Some examples of Taylor series which you must have
seen
x2
x 4 x6
cos(x) = 1− + − +
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin(x) = x − + − +
3! 5! 7!
x2 x3
e = 1+ x +
x
+ +
2! 3!
 General Taylor Series
The general form of the Taylor series is given by
f  (x ) 2 f (x ) 3
f (x + h ) = f ( x ) + f (x )h + h + h+
2! 3!
provided that all derivatives of f(x) are continuous and
exist in the interval [x,x+h]

What does this mean in plain English?

As Archimedes would have said, “Give me the value of the function at
a single point, and the value of all (first, second, and so on) its
derivatives at that single point, and I can give you the value of the
function at any other point” (fine print excluded)
 Example—Taylor Series
Find the value of f (6) given that f (4) = 125, f (4) = 74,
f  (4) = 30, f (4 ) = 6 and all other higher order derivatives
of f (x ) at x = 4 are zero.
Solution:
f (x + h ) = f (x ) + f (x )h +f  (x ) + f (x ) +
h2 h3
2! 3!
x=4
h=6−4= 2
 References
1. http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu

2. http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/binary_repr
esentation.html

3.http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/floatingpoint_re
presentation.html

4. http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/topics/taylor_seri
es.html
THE END