Manufacturing Technology-I

Advance Casting Processes

Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Institute of Technology Patna
 Shell Mould Casting
• Shell mould casting is a process in which the mold is a thin shell made of sand held together by a
thermosetting resin binder. It was developed in Germany during the early 1940s.
• Shell mould casting is similar to sand casting, where in molten metal is poured into an expendable
mould.
• The mould is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a
pattern.
• Shell mould casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand resin mixture, dumpbox, and
molten metal.
• Reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while disposable moulds enable complex
geometries to be cast.
• Shell mould casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys.
• Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings,
cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
 Steps in shell molding
1. A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box
containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
2. Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell.
3. Box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away.
4. Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing.
5. Shell mold is stripped from the pattern.
6. Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box,
and pouring is accomplished.
7. The finished casting with sprue removed.
Steps in shell molding
1. Pattern heating
2. Inverting box
3. Repositioning box
4. Curing sand shell
5. Shell mold stripping from
pattern
6. Assembling of shell old halves
and pouring
7. Finished casting
 Advantages and disadvantages of shell molding
Advantages of shell molding:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish
– Less sand is required
– Limited floor space
– Moulds can be stored for future use
– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not required
– Less cracks in casting

Disadvantages:
– Maximum casting size and weight are limited (practical limitations)
– Time consuming
– Expensive resin
– Expensive pattern
– Inflexibility in gating and risering
– Shell not reusable
 Investment Casting
➢ Investment casting is an industrial process and also called lost-wax casting, one of the oldest
known metal-casting techniques. It was developed by the ancient Egyptians some 3500 years
ago. Originally done with bees wax and clay. It was demanded in 19th century for dental
application.
➢ A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal. "Investment” comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest"-"to cover completely”, which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern.
➢ It is a precision casting process and capable of producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail. This process is beneficial for casting metals with high melting temperatures
that cannot be molded in plaster or metal such as turbine blades or firearm components,
parts for the automotive, aircraft, and military industries.
➢ Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using aluminum alloys,
bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel. Investment casting
requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry, furnace, molten metal, and machines
needed for sand blasting, cutting, or grinding.
 Steps in investment Casting
1. Preparing the heat-disposable wax, plastic or polystyrene patterns in a die.
2. Assembly of the prepared patterns into a gating system.
3. Ceramic coat is applied and then the refractory material named stucco is applied
4. Melting the pattern assembly (burning out wax) by firing, for removing the traces of
the pattern material.
5. The metal in molten state is poured into the formed mould
6. Once the metal solidifies, the shell is removed (knocked out).
7. Cutting off the unwanted parts like gates, sprue, pouring basin.
8. Finishing operations to get the desired dimensional tolerance and finish.
Steps in investment Casting
 Steps in investment Casting
Investment:
The ceramic mold, known as the investment, is produced by three repeating steps: coating, stuccoing, and
hardening.
The first step involves dipping the cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material and then letting any excess
drain off, so a uniform surface is produced.
In the second step, the cluster is stuccoed.
Finally, the coating is allowed to harden. The investment is then allowed to completely dry, which can take 16 to
48 hours.
Dewaxing:
It is then turned upside-down and placed in a furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or vaporize the wax.
So as the wax is heated it expands and induces great stresses.
In order to minimize these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that the surface of the wax can melt
into the surface of the investment or run out of the mold, which makes room for the rest of the wax to expand.
Burnout & preheating:
The mold is then subjected to a burnout, which heats the mold between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any
moisture and residual wax. Sometimes this heating is also as the preheat.
 Steps in investment Casting
Pouring:
The investment mold is then placed cup-upwards into a tub filled with sand. The metal may be gravity poured,
but if there are thin sections in the mold it may be filled by applying positive air pressure, pressure assisted
pouring.
Removal:
The shell is hammered, vibrated, water jeted, or chemically dissolved (sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release
the casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be cleaned up to remove signs of the casting
process, usually by grinding.

Applications:
Turbine blades for aerospace and power industries.
Firearm parts such as triggers and hammers
Artificial orthopedic surgical implants and parts for artificial limbs
Industrial valves, industrial pumps, automobile components, pipe fittings and pipe elbows.
 Applications
➢ Turbine blades for aerospace and power industries.
➢ Firearm parts such as triggers and hammers.
➢ Artificial orthopedic surgical implants and parts for artificial limbs.
➢ Industrial valves, industrial pumps, automobile components, pipe fittings and pipe elbows.
 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
➢ Excellent surface finish.
➢ Tight dimensional tolerances.
➢ Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
➢ Capability to cast thin walls.
➢ Low material waste.
➢ No parting lines
➢ A wide variety of material can be cast using this method
➢ Additional machining is not required.
Disadvantage:
➢ Limitations on size of casting
➢ Higher casting costs make it important to take full advantage of the process to eliminate all machining
operations.
➢ Individual pattern is required for each casting
 Permanent mold processes
Hard-Mould casting
➢ Economic disadvantage of expendable Mould casting: a new Mould is required for every casting. In
permanent Mould casting, the Mould is reused many times
➢ Instead of using sand as the Mould material, a metal is used as a Mould. Typically cast iron,
Meehanite (a dense cast iron), steel, refractory alloys is used as the Mould material.
➢ Materials that can be cast: Al, Mg, Cu based alloys, CI (affect the mold life, hence not used).
➢ In this process,
➢ Two halves of a Mould are made from materials such as iron, steel, bronze, or other alloys.
➢ The Mould cavity and gating system are machined in to the Mould and sand aggregate are
placed in to the Mould prior to casting for producing cavities.
➢ Molten metal is gravity fed into mould to produce good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish. Castings cool quickly so strength tends to be good.
➢ The surface of the mold is coated with clay or other hard refractory material – this improves
the life of the mold. Before molding, the surface is covered with a spray of graphite or silica,
which acts as a lubricant. This has two purposes – it improves the flow of the liquid metal, and
it allows the cast part to be withdrawn from the mold more easily.
 Permanent mold processes
The processes include:
➢ Basic permanent Mould casting
➢ Die casting
➢ Centrifugal casting

Advantages:
Good surface finish, dimension tolerance, rapid solidification causes fine grains to form
giving stronger products, No pattern is needed, saving time and cost

Limitations:
Restricted to simple part geometries, low melting point metals, mold cost is high. Best
suitable for small, large number of parts.
 Basic Permanent Mould Process
Requirement of the mould material:
➢ Uses a metal Mould constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and closing
➢ Moulds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron.
➢ Moulds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures.
➢ Mould metal must have higher melt temperature than casting metal.
 Basic Permanent Mould Process
Steps:
➢ Mould is preheated (150 oC – 200 oC) and coated (sodium silicate/clay).
➢ Cores are inserted and Mould is closed.
➢ Molten metal is poured into the Mould.
 Basic Permanent Mould Process
It is divided into two parts:
Pressure pouring / low pressure casting
Pressure Casting
Low pressure casting:
• In the earlier casting process, metal flow in mold cavity is by gravity pull, but in low pressure casting, liquid
metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure, app. 0.1 MPa, from beneath the surface so that metal flow is
upward.
High pressure casting:
• In high pressure casting, liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure, app. 7 to 35 MPa, from
beneath the surface so that metal flow is upward.
Advantages of permanent Mould casting:
➢ Good dimensional control and surface finish
➢ More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal Mould results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
Limitations:
➢ Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
➢ Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to open the Mould
➢ High cost of Mould
 Characteristic of the Permanent mold casting
➢ Lower price per piece
➢ Draft angles - 2-3º (1 to 3º on outside surfaces, 2 to 5º on inside surfaces)
➢ Tolerances - Typical tolerances are 2 % of linear dimensions.
➢ Surface finish- ranges from 2.5 µm to 7.5 µm
➢ Size limits – Typical part sizes range from 50 g to 70 kg
➢ Typical materials – small and medium sized parts made from aluminum,
magnesium and brass and their alloys.
➢ Types of parts - gears, wheels, gear housings, pipe fittings, fuel injection housings,
and automotive engine pistons.
 LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING

• The process works like this, first a metal die • In the high pressure die casting process the
is positioned above a sealed furnace metal is forced into a high grade tool steel at
containing molten metal. A refractory-lined high speed and pressure. The casting
riser extends from the bottom of the die into temperature is roughly 700°C during casting.
the molten metal. • A measured amount of metal is poured into the
• Low pressure air (15 - 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi) is shot sleeve and then introduced into the mould
then introduced into the furnace. This makes cavity using a hydraulically-driven piston.
the molten metal rise up the tube and enter Once the metal has solidified, the die is opened
the die cavity with low turbulence. and the casting removed.
• After the metal has solidified, the air pressure • In this process, special precautions must be
is released . This makes the metal still in the taken to avoid too many gas inclusions which
molten state in the riser tube to fall back into cause blistering during subsequent heat-
the furnace. After subsequent cooling, the die treatment or welding of the casting product.
is opened and the casting extracted. • Both the machine and its dies are very
• With correct die design it is possible to expensive, and for this reason pressure die
eliminate the need of the riser also. This is casting is economical only for high-volume
because of the directional freezing of the production.
casting.
LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING
 Die casting
➢ Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal
under high pressure (app. 7 to 35 MPa) into a mold cavity. The pressure is
maintained during solidification. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool
steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection
mold during the process.
➢ Most die castings are made from non-ferrous
metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminum,
magnesium, lead, pewter (85–99% tin along
with copper, antimony, bismuth), tin based
alloys. Tungsten and molybdenum (good
refractory qualities) dies used to cast steels and
CI.

Category: hot chamber machines, cold chamber machines

 Die casting hot chamber machines
➢ The metal for casting is maintained at an appropriate temperature in a holding furnace
adjacent to, if not, part of the machine.
➢ The injection mechanism is located within the holding furnace and a substantial part of it is
therefore in constant contact with the molten metal.
➢ Pressure is transmitted to the metal by the injection piston, which forces it through the
gooseneck and into the die.
➢ On the return stroke metal is drawn into the gooseneck for the next shot.
➢ In this process there is minimum contact between air and the metal
to be injected, thus minimizing the tendency for turbulent
entrainment of air in the metal during injection.
➢ Due to the prolonged contact between the metal and parts of the
injection system hot chamber is restricted to zinc-base alloys. The
Zinc alloys are the most widely used in the die casting process.
They have very desirable physical, mechanical and casting
properties. They also have the ability to be readily finished with
commercial electroplated or organic coatings.
 Steps used in Die Casting hot chamber machines
1. The die is closed and the piston rises, opening the port and allowing molten metal to fill the cylinder.
2. The plunger moves down and seals the port pushing the molten metal through the gooseneck and nozzle into
the die cavity, where it is held under pressure until it solidifies.
3. The die opens and the cores, if any, retract. The casting remains in only one die, the ejector side. The plunger
returns, allowing residual molten metal to flow back through the nozzle and gooseneck.
4. Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die. As the plunger uncovers the filling hole, molten metal
flows through the inlet to refill the gooseneck, as in step (1).
 Characteristics of Die Casting hot chamber machines

➢ High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon

➢ Typical injection pressures are 7 to 35 MPa (average 15 MPa)

➢ The piston is subjected to the melting temperature of the metal and thus the process is

often used for low melting point metals such as zinc, tin and lead alloys

➢ Other casting metals: tin, lead and magnesium

 Die Casting in Cold-Chamber Process
In hot chamber process, the charging unit (goose neck) rests in the melting chamber, whereas in cold chamber
process, the melting chamber is separate and the molten metal is charged into the machine by means of ladles.
Molten metal is poured into un-heated chamber from external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity.
Steps:
➢ The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold-chamber shot sleeve.
➢ The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under pressure until solidification.
➢ The die opens and the plunger advances, to ensure that the casting remains in the ejector die. Cores, if any,
retract.
➢ Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die and the plunger returns to its original position.
 Characteristics of Die Casting in Cold-Chamber Process
➢ Cold chamber process is employed for casting materials that are not possible by the hot chamber process.
For example, aluminum alloys react with the steel structure of the hot chamber machine and as a result there
is a considerable iron pick-up by aluminum. This does not happen in cold chamber process, as the molten
metal has a momentary contact with the structure of the machine.
➢ Typical injection pressures are 14 to 140 MPa.
➢ Used for high melting point metal such as aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys.
➢ High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of die casting:
• High volume at high speed (Economical for large quantities)
• Duplicates intricate design details
• Thin sections are possible (down to 0.5 mm)
• Rapid cooling, fine grain, high strength
• No risers needed (hi-pressure runners feed metal) Die Casting Limitations:
• Close tolerances are possible ( 0.076 mm) ➢ Complex and large machinery: expensive
• Very fast production rates possible ➢ Moulds (dies) machined from hardened tool steel:
• Long Mould life: ~100,000 cycles expensive – shape restriction
• Good surface finish ➢ Moulds cannot take extreme heat so “melt” limited to low-
• No pattern melting point alloys: zinc, copper, aluminum, and zinc-
aluminum alloys.
➢ Effects of high pressure → limited part size
➢ Moulds are difficult to modify once made
➢ Aluminum and zinc most commonly cast - both are ~brittle
when diecast
➢ Part size is limited by injection cylinder size and clamping
force
➢ Air is vented along parting line, but porosity is often a
problem
 Die Casting

Application of Pressure Die Casting

➢ Automotive parts like wheels, blocks, cylinder heads, manifolds etc.
➢ Aerospace castings. Electric motor housings.
➢ Kitchen ware such as pressure cooker.
➢ Cabinets for the electronics industry.
Recommended Application:
➢ Use when quantity of parts justifies the high tooling cost.
➢ Parts are not structural and are subjected to hydrostatic pressure
 Centrifugal casting

➢ In this method, the mold is rotated at high Feature of Centrifugal casting process:
speed (300 ~ 3000 rpm) so that the
➢ Molten metal solidify under pressure of centrifugal force.
molten metal is distributed by the
➢ Production rate is high - It is employed for mass
centrifugal force to the outer regions of
production of circular casting.
the die cavity. Utilizes the inertial forces
➢ The castings produced by this process are free from
caused by rotation to distribute the impurities.
molten metal in to the mold cavities. ➢ Due to centrifugal force, the castings produced will be of
➢ Centrifugal casting, sometimes called high density type and of good strength.
rotocasting, is a metal casting process ➢ The castings produced promote directional solidification
that uses centrifugal force to form as the colder metal is thrown to outside of casting and
cylindrical parts. molten metal near the axis or rotation.
➢ This differs from most metal casting ➢ The cylindrical parts and pipes for handling gases are
processes, which use gravity or pressure to most adoptable to this process.
fill the mold. ➢ Non-metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore
➢ In centrifugal casting, a permanent mould can be machined off.
made from steel, cast iron, or graphite is ➢ Centrifugal casting process can be used for fabricating
typically used. However, the use of functionally graded metal matrix composite material.
expendable sand molds is also possible.
Applications
▪ Pipes for water gas sewage.
▪ Bearing Bushes.
▪ Cylinder Liners.
▪ Piston rings
▪ Paper making rollers
▪ Clutch Plates.
▪ Pulleys.

33
34
 Steps involved in centrifugal casting

➢ Preheat the steel mould. The Mould wall is coated with a refractory ceramic coating
(applying Ceramic Slurry , spinning, dying , baking).
➢ Melt the metal in the furnace.
➢ Starting rotation of the mould at a pre determined speed (300-3000 rpm, typically
around 1000 rpm.).
➢ Pouring of Molten metal directly into the mould (no gating system is employed).
➢ The mould is stopped after the casting has been solidified.
➢ Extraction of the casting from the mould.
➢ Clean, heat-treat and machine the finished casting
 Centrifugal casting

True Centrifugal Casting Semi Centrifugal Casting Centrifuging

Application Application
Application
C.I water supply and
This process is used for making
sewerage pipes, steel gun Products may be irregular
wheels, rings, rollers, sheaves,
barrels, chemical reactor or non-symmetrical : valve
pulleys, flywheels, gear blanks,
vessels, pressure vessel bodies, plugs, valve
Turbo-Supercharger diaphragm
bodies, reactor tubes and bonnets, pillow blocks and
disk, steel railroad wheels, nozzles
pressure piping for nuclear yokes etc, jewelery etc.
and similar parts etc.
power plants, paper mill rolls,
textile rolls etc. 37
 True centrifugal casting
➢ True centrifugal castings are produced by pouring molten metal into the cavity of a rapidly rotating metal
mold to whose walls the metal is thrown centrifugal force and where it solidifies in the form of a hollow
casting. True centrifugal casting is the production of hollow casting by the centrifugal force alone and
without the aid of a central core.
➢ Molten metal is poured into the spinning mold cavity and the metal is held against the wall of the mold by
centrifugal force. The speed of rotation and metal pouring rate vary with the alloy and size and shape being
cast.
➢ The centrifugal casting machines used to spin the mould may have either a horizontal or a vertical axis of
rotation and for short casting the rotational axis vertical. In the vertical axis machine the central hole will not
be completely cylindrical, but will be slightly paraboloidal, which will need machining after the casting is
made.
➢ Molds may be made of cast iron or steel, copper, graphite, ceramic, or dry sand.

There are two types of horizontal axis centrifugal casting machines which differ in the way the metal is distributed
along the length of the mold during pouring :

1. In one, the pouring through (ladle or spout) travels horizontally, while the spinning mold is stationary.

2. In the other type, the ladle is stationary and the mold travels.
Length is less than bore
 True centrifugal casting
Application:
➢ Used for cylindrical hollow castings without use of a central core like Pipes
➢ Bushings, gun barrels, CI pipes, hollow propeller shafts etc.
Advantages:
➢ Large parts can be manufactured
➢ Core is not required
➢ Designing of Gating system: not required
➢ Lighter impurities moves inwards resulting in easy removal
➢ Less Scrap
Disadvantages:
➢ Suitable for axial symmetrical products.
➢ More segregation in alloying components.
➢ Machining is required for inner diameter
➢ High investment cost
➢ Inaccurate internal diameter
➢ Skilled labor needed
 Semi Centrifugal casting
➢ Produces solid castings rather than tubular parts.
➢ Semi centrifugal casting process is used to produce solid castings and hence, requires a core to produce
hollow cavities.
➢ Semi Centrifugal Casting process is used only for symmetrically shaped objects and the axis of rotation of the
mould is always vertical.
➢ Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of rotation.
➢ The core is placed in position and the mould is rotated at suitable speeds, usually less than true centrifugal
casting process.
➢ Gear blanks, sheaves, wheels and the pulley are the commonly produced parts by Semi Centrifugal Casting
process.
• Axes of parts and rotational axis does
not match exactly.
• Generally the density of metal will be
more at the outer sections and not at the
center of rotation.
• So parts in which the center region
(less denser region) can be removed by
machining (like wheels, pulleys) are
usually produced with this method.
 Centrifuging
➢ Used for large number of small-sized castings.
➢ When a group of small molds are arranged in a circle (to balance each other) around the central vertical axis
of the flask and the flask is rotated about the vertical axis, the process is called centrifuge casting.
➢ It is clear that the molds are not symmetrical about the axis of rotation, that is , the axis of casting and the
axis of rotation do not coincide with one another.
➢ Here again the centrifugal force is used to obtain higher pressure on the metal and get more dense castings.
The molten metal will flow to all the molds under centrifugal force from a central feeding sprue.

1. This method mainly differs from true centrifugal

method in that, the axis of rotation and that of the
mould do not coincide with each other.
2. This method is also used for unsymmetrical objects.
3. It can produce casting of irregular shapes such as
bearing caps or small brackets, etc.
 Advantages

True centrifugal casting Semi-centrifugal casting Centrifuging

1. Rapid production rate. 1. Rapid production rate. 1.Rapid production rate.
2.No costly metal tooling required 2.No costly metal tooling required 2.No costly metal tooling required
3.Simple to use technology 3.Simple to use technology 3.Simple to use technology
4.No lift-over of molds 4.No lift-over of molds 4.No lift-over of molds
 Disadvantages/ Limitations
True centrifugal casting
• Are only limited generally cylindrical or annular parts
• Limited in the size of the product depending on the spinning machines.
• The added expenses of installing and maintaining spinning equipment.

Semi-centrifugal casting
• Are generally of the form of circular plates.
• Limited in the size of the product depending on the spinning machines.
• The added expenses of installing and maintaining spinning equipment.

Centrifuging
• Relatively simple shapes can be cast.
• Limited in the size of the product depending on the spinning machines.
• The added expenses of installing and maintaining spinning equipment.
True centrifugal casting Semi-centrifugal casting Centrifuging

Linear bearings Brake drum Carbide bronze

Bushing Brake disk Random equipment

For horizontal centrifugal casting:
mv 2
Centrifugal Force = F = ...(1)
R

Where, F = force, N (lb);

m = mass, kg (lbm);
v = velocity, m/s (ft/sec); and
R = inside radius of the mold, m(ft).

The force of gravity is its weight W = mg,

where, W is given in kg (lb), and
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.8 m/s2 (32.2 ft/sec2).

The so-called G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force divided by weight:

 mv 2 

 R 
 2
= =
F v
GF = ...(2)
W mg Rg
Velocity v can be expressed as 2πRN/60 = πRN/30, Where N=rotational speed, rev/min.
Substituting this expression into Eq. (2),

 N 
2
R 
GF =  
30
...(3)
Rg

Rearranging this to solve for rotational speed N, and using diameter D rather than
radius in the resulting equation, we have

30 2 g (GF )
N = (4)
 D

- If GF is very low, the molten metal will not remain forced against the mold, rather it will rain inside
cavity
- Therefore, GF must be kept between 60-80 (based on experiments), although, this depends to
some extent on the metal being cast.
 Numerical Problem
Problem: A true centrifugal casting is to be performed horizontally to make copper tube sections: OD
=25cm; ID= 22.5cm; GF= 65. Find rotational speed.
Solution:
OD =D= 25cm= 0.25m; g= 9.81m/s2; GF=65
30 2(9.8)(65)
=
30 2 g (GF ) =
30 2(9.8)(65)  0.225
N = 
 D 0.25
= 718.6 RPM (rev/min)
= 681.7 RPM (rev/min)
➢ A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation will be used to make copper tubing. The lengths will
be 1.5 m with outside diameter = 15.0 cm, and inside diameter =12.5 cm. If the rotational speed of
the pipe = 1000 rev/min, determine the G factor.
➢ A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make brass bushings with the following
dimensions: length = 10 cm, outside diameter = 15cm, and inside diameter = 12 cm.
(a) Determine the required rotational speed in order to obtain a G-factor of 70.
(b) When operating at this speed, what is the centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) imposed by
the molten metal on the inside wall of the mould?
 Slush Casting
Slush Casting is a special type of permanent Mould casting, where the molten metal is not allowed to completely
solidify.
Steps:
• Molten metal is poured into the metal Mould
• After the desired wall thickness is obtained, the not yet solidified molten metal is poured out.
• The Mould halves are then opened and the casting is removed
• Useful for making hollow ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamps, statues etc.
 Some Other Special Casting Processes
1. Carbon dioxide moulding
2. Plaster mould casting
3. Expended polystyrene process
4. Ceramic mould casting
5. Stir casting
 Plaster-mould casting
➢ The mould is made by mixing plaster of paris (CaSO4) with talc and silica flour; this is a fine white powder,
which, when mixed with water gets a clay-like consistency and can be shaped around the pattern (it is the
same material used to make cast for people if they fracture a bone). The plaster cast can be finished to yield
very good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. However, it is relatively soft and not strong enough at
temperature above 1200°C, so this method is mainly used to make castings from non-ferrous metals, e.g. zinc,
copper, aluminum, and magnesium.
➢ Since plaster has lower thermal conductivity, the casting cools slowly, and therefore has more uniform grain
structure (i.e. less warpage, less residual stresses).
 Ceramic mold casting
➢ Similar to plaster-mold casting, except that ceramic material is used (e.g. silica or powdered Zircon ZrSiO4).
Ceramics are refractory (e.g. the clay hotpot used in Chinese restaurants to cook some dishes), and also have
higher strength that plaster.
• The ceramic slurry forms a shell over the pattern
• It is dried in a low temperature oven, and the pattern is removed
• Then it is backed by clay for strength, and baked in a high temperature oven to burn off any volatile
substances.
• The metal is cast same as in plaster casting.
➢ This process can be used to make very good quality castings of steel or even stainless steel; it is used for parts
such as impeller blades (for turbines, pumps, or rotors for motor-boats).
 CO2 Moulding
➢ Sodium silicate process.
➢ Hardening process for the moulds/cores.
➢ Mould preparation without drying or baking and even without sand ramming.
➢ As CO2 gas is passed through a sand mixture containing sodium silicate, the sand immediately becomes
extremely strong bonded as sodium silicate becomes a stiff gel giving the necessary strength to the mould.
Na2SiO3+CO2 -------------------------------------------- Na2CO3+SiO2
(Sodium Silicate) (Silica gel)
➢ Pure dry silica is mixed with 3-5% sodium silicate, water and additives (coal powder, wood flour, sea coal
etc.).
➢ The pattern is placed on a flat surface with drag box enclosing it. Parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern
surface to avoid sand mixture sticking to the pattern.
➢ The drag box is filled with the sand mixture and rammed manually till its top surface.
➢ Sprue, riser, vents, gates etc. and ramming the cope box are similar to that of green sand moulding process
➢ CO2 is forced into mould at high pressure (specified time).
➢ Additional hardening may be done by baking.
➢ Sprue, riser and the pattern are withdrawn from the mould, and gates are cut in the usual manner.
➢ The mould cavity is finished and made ready for pouring.
 CO2 Moulding
Advantages
• Instantaneous strength development
• Safe to human operators
• Very little gas evolution during pouring of molten metal
• Long shelf life of cores and moulds
• Same sand can be used for cores and moulds
• Process can be mechanized
• Good surface finish, dimensional accuracy and sharp
corners
Disadvantages
• Poor collapsibility
• Difficult to reclaim sand
• Sand mixed with sodium silicate binder tends to air harden
if kept unused in air
• Sand mixture has the tendency to stick to the pattern
• Sand mixture has relatively poor flow ability
• Significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds
which have been stored for extended periods of time
• Over gassing and under gassing adversely affects the
properties of cured sand