ESUTL2330 MIDTERM REVIEWER ➢ Pump Drives

- Pumps are driven by a drive, usually an

❖ Pumps
electric motor in building plumbing systems.
- is a mechanical device used to move a fluid
A fuel-powered engine can also drive a
by converting mechanical energy to
pump, but this type of drive is typically
pressure energy called head.
reserved for temporary or emergency
- In buildings, pumps are used to circulate or
applications.
pump water in domestic hot and cold-water
➢ Pump Drives Configuration
systems, hydronic (hot water) and chilled
1. Closed Coupled
water distribution systems, feed water
- It is on the same shaft as the pump impeller.
systems for boilers and chillers, condensate
- Drive and pump are directly connected.
return systems, well systems, wastewater
- The design approach is less costly and is
treatment systems, sump installations, and
acceptable on small pumps where vibration
other process piping systems
and noise are not problems.
➢ Types of Pumps
2. Flexible Coupled
1. Positive Displacement Pumps
- Minimize vibration and wear between the
- Have a spinning impeller that draws the
pump and pump drive.
fluid into the pump and forces it out of the
- Used in typically large pumps used in
outlet point at an increased velocity.
building plumbing and heating and cooling
- Can’t handle viscous fluids as well as PD
systems
pumps because of the frictional losses.
• Constant Speed Drives
- Need liquid in the unit to kick-start the
- - are drives designed to operate at a specific
pressurized control.
speed (e.g., 1750, 3500 rpm).
- Positive displacement pumps maintain a
- These drives are usually sized to handle the
constant flow rate, even as pressure
largest loads so they are typically oversized
changes.
for normal operating loads.
2. Centrifugal Pumps
- They are economical in terms of initial cost
- Draw fluid into a cavity, or displace the fluid,
but not economical in lifetime operating
and then force the fluid out of the cavity
cost.
through suction.
➢ Types of Speed Control
- Can handle highly viscous fluids and shear
1. Multispeed Drives
sensitive fluids – or fluids that change when
- Have separate speed settings (e.g., high,
force, stress, or pressure is applied.
medium, and low) so they can be adjusted
- The flow rate can increase as the fluid gets
to control speed and, thus, pump flow rate.
thicker.
2. Variable-Speed Drives
- Can handle intermittently dry periods and
- Provide speed control over a continuous
can start without being primed by liquid in
range.
the system.
- Variable speed drives control pump speed
- The fluid moving out of centrifugal pumps is
by changing the speed of the driver and
a varying flow rate based on pressure.
thus flow rate.
➢ Pump Applications
- They are the most expensive type of drive-
in initial cost but the least costly to operate.
➢ Pumping Configurations
1. Pumping in Parallel
- Entails installing two pumps side by side in a
piping system.
- When installing two identical pumps in
parallel, the combined flow rate will be less
than double.

Leonoras, MJ
 - Pumps with different flow rates can be Note: subscript d = discharge
installed in parallel and configured such that s = suction
the small pump operates during periods of
low to average demand while the larger 3. Static Head (Z)
pump operates during periods of high - is the actual vertical distance measured
demand. from the water level in the reservoir from
- One major benefit of parallel pumping is the which the pump draws the fluid to the
high level of standby capacity provided by highest point in the discharge piping.
single-pump operation. 4. Pressure Head (hp)
2. Pumping in Series - Is the height of the column of water of
- Involves installing two pumps one in line liquid necessary to develop a specific
with the other in a single pipe in a piping pressure.
P
system. hp =
ϒ
- Pumps in series double the head at the
Where: hp = Pressure head
same flow condition point.
- This mode of operation is a very cost- P = pressure
effective way of overcoming high discharge
ϒ = specific weight of water
heads when the flow requirement remains
the same. = 9.81 kN/m3
➢ Pump Performance = 62.4 lb/ft3
• Pump Capacity
• Total Dynamic Head 5. Velocity Head (hv)
• Power and Hydraulic Efficiency - Is the head required to produce the flow of
• Net Positive Suction Head fluid.
𝒗𝟐
• Pump Speed hv =
𝟐𝒈

1. Pump Capacity (QPUMP) Where: hv = Velocity head

- is the flow rate at which liquid is moved or V = velocity

pushed by a pump to the desired point in
G = acceleration due to gravity
the system. It is commonly measured in
either gallons per minute (gpm), liters per = 9.81 m/s2
minute (L/min), or cubic meters per hour
= 32.2 ft/s
(m³ /hr).
QPUMP = Av 6. Friction Head (hf)
Where: QPUMP = volume flow rate of liquid
- Is the head lost by the flow in a stream or
conduit due to frictional disturbances set up
A = Area by the moving liquid and its containing
v = velocity conduit and by intermolecular friction.

2. Total Dynamic Head

- Total dynamic head (TDH) is the total energy
developed by the pump expressed in height
of liquid. It is the algebraic sum of static
head, pressure head, friction head and
velocity head.
TDH = static head + pressure head + velocity head + friction
head

= (Zd – Zs) + (hpd – hps) +(hvd – hvs) + (hfd – hfs)

Leonoras, MJ
7. Power and Hydraulic Efficiency
- Brake horsepower (BHP) is the actual
horsepower delivered to the pump shaft
under stated operating conditions of the
pump where horsepower is 550
foot/pounds per second.
- Water horsepower (WHP) is the pump
output delivered by the pump.
- Water efficiency (nwater) (sometimes called
the hydraulic efficiency) is expressed as a
percentage of hydraulic horsepower to BHP
over the recommended operating range of
the indicated impeller size(s). it describes ❖ Water Heaters
the change of centrifugal force (expressed ➢ Types of Water Heaters
as the velocity of the fluid) into pressure 1. Storage Tank Water Heaters
energy. - A storage tank water heater consists of a
𝑾𝑯𝑷 storage tank and a heating medium.
nwater =
𝑩𝑯𝑷 Typically, storage tank sizes include 30, 40,
8. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 50, 60, 65, 75, 80, 100, and 120-gal (120- to
- The term used to describe this suction 400-L) capacity. They are available in natural
pressure of a pump. gas, propane (LP), fuel oil, and electric
• Net positive suction head required (NPSHr) models.
- The minimum head required to prevent
cavitation with a specific liquid at a specific Heating Medium for Storage Tank Water Heaters
flow rate.
A. Electric water heaters have coil-like elements
- It is directly related to pump design.
that extend into the tank, which heat water as
• Net positive suction head available
electric current passes through the elements.
(NPSHa)
See Figure 13.11.
- The difference between the actual head of
the liquid available (as measured at the B. Gas and fuel oil fired water heaters have
pump’s suction inlet) and the vapor burners located on the bottom of the tank and a
pressure of that liquid. vent that passes up through the center of the
- This is the amount of NPSH available to the tank. The vent tube extracts residual heat from
pump from the suction line. the combustion products before the gases are
- It is directly related to system design. exhausted to the top of the tank into a vent that
- It is defined as atmospheric pressure + carries them outdoors. See Figure 13.12
gauge pressure + static pressure - vapor
pressure - friction loss in the suction piping. Types of storage tank water heaters include the
9. Pump Speed following:
- Pump speed (N) is tied to the rotational • Residential storage tank water heaters are
speed of the drive (motor). It is expressed in designed for the residential market, but can be
revolutions per minute (rpm). appropriate for many small commercial facilities.
10. Pump Affinity Laws These water heaters, which are available with tank
- Pump affinity laws are scientific sizes up to 120 gal and gas inputs up to 75 000
relationships that describe changes in pump Btu/hr, are manufactured in large quantities. As a
capacity, total dynamic head, and BHP when result, they are relatively inexpensive and widely
a change is made to pump speed, impeller available.
diameter, or both.

Leonoras, MJ
• Commercial storage tank water heaters are with an indirect water heater. Like the
similar to residential models except that they are tankless coil, the indirect water heater
available with much higher gas input ratings (1 000 circulates water through a heat exchanger
000 Btu/hr or more) and larger storage tanks (up to in the boiler. But this heated water then
250 gal). They also feature larger pipe connections, flows to an insulated storage tank. Because
more rugged controls, and a few features that are the boiler does not need to operate as
only rarely found in residential heaters, such as flue frequently, this system is more efficient than
dampers and electronic ignition. the tankless coil.
5. Heat Pump Water Heaters
• Ultraefficient water heaters use power burners
- Heat pump water heaters extract energy
and enhanced heat exchangers to force hot
from outdoor air and use it to produce hot
combustion gasses into chambers and tubes that are
water very efficiently. Heat pump water
submerged in the stored water. Ultraefficient water
heaters use an electric motor to run a
heaters are vented with plastic pipes that go directly
compressor. The compressor draws a
through an outside wall. Because they draw
gaseous refrigerant through an evaporator
combustion air directly from outside, through one of
raising its pressure until it liquefies in the
those pipes, their combustion processes are sealed
condenser. This heat pumping process heats
off from the occupied space.
the condenser and cools the evaporator. In
2. Instantaneous on-demand (tankless) water removing heat from air, the heat pump both
heaters cools and dehumidifies the air, thus helping
- Instantaneous water heaters, sometimes to also meet cooling needs.
called tankless water heaters or demand 6. Solar Water Heater
water heaters, supply hot water on - A solar water heater typically includes
demand. They do not rely on a standby collectors mounted on the roof or in a clear
storage in a tank to artificially boost their area of the yard, a separate storage tank
capacity. Instead, they have a heating device near the conventional heater in the home,
that is activated by the flow of water when connecting pipes, and an electronic
a hot water valve is opened. Once activated, controller.
the heater delivers a constant supply of hot 7. Desuperheater
water. The output of the heater, however, - A desuperheater is an attachment to an air
limits the rate of the heated water flow. conditioner or heat pump that allows waste
They are more efficient because they do not heat from that device to assist in heating
have any tank standby losses. domestic water. In hot climates, a
3. Circulating Water Heaters desuperheater can provide most of a
- Circulating water heaters consist of a home’s hot water needs.
separate storage tank that stores water
heated by a heat exchanger. The heat ❖ SANITATION, PLUMBING DESIGN &
exchanger may be a separate unit that is INSTALLATION (Sanitary Drainage and
heated by stream or hot water from a boiler Ventilating System)
or may be contained in a boiler. ➢ Sanitary Drainage System
4. Tankless Coil and Indirect Water Heaters - A sanitary drainage and vent system,
- No separate storage tank is needed in the sometimes referred to as the drain, waste,
tankless coil water heater because water is and vent (DWV) system, is a network of
heated directly inside the boiler in a pipes that remove wastewater from a
hydronic (hot water) heating system. The building.
water flows through a heat exchanger in the ➢ DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
boiler whenever a hot water faucet is • HOUSE SEWER – part of the drainage
opened. A separate storage tank is required system beginning just outside the
foundation wall and terminating at the main

Leonoras, MJ
 sewer. The terminal of a house sewer can laundry tray and three (3) floor drains and
also be a septic tank. four (4) faucets/hose bib
• HOUSE DRAIN – part of the plumbing • FIXTURE DRAIN - the drain from the trap of
system which receives the discharge of all a fixture to the junction of the drain.
soil and waste stacks within the building ➢ Traps Used in Plumbing System
and conveys it to the house sewer (referred • Trap – a device to prevent the passage of
to as the collection line) sewer air through it; also called anti-siphon
• The House Trap – a device placed in the traps
house drain immediately inside the • Two forms of water-sealed traps
foundation wall of the building; serves as
barrier; prevents gases which occur in the 1. Common Seal – 2” depth
public sewers from circulating through the 2. Deep Seal – 4” liquid content
plumbing system
• DRAINAGE SYSTEM - takes the waste water Deep seal – 3” minimum, 4” maximum liquid content
from the plumbing fixtures and deliver it to
• Types of Permissible Traps
the sewer
• SEWERAGE, SEWERAGE WORKS - 1. P-Trap – ½ S
(construction, collection, transportation,
pumping treatment and final disposition of 2. Drum Trap
sewage) 3. Grease Trap
• BUILDING SUBDRAIN - underground
system; cannot drain by gravity into the • Objectionable Traps/Non-Permissible Traps
building sewer
1. Full S and ¾ S Traps
• SUBSOIL DRAIN - underground drainpipe;
receives only subsurface or seepage water 2. Bag Trap
and convey it to a sump for disposal by
gravity flow or by lift pump 3. Mechanically Sealed Trap
• BUILDING DRAIN (HOUSE DRAIN) - lowest 4. Internal Partition Trap
horizontal piping of drainage system;
conveys to the building sewer beginning 0.6 5. Light Metal Partition Traps
m. outside the building wall
➢ Seal - vertical distance between the dip
• BUILDING SEWER (HOUSE SEWER) - starts
and the crown weir of a trap/the water
at the end of the building drain
in the trap between the dip and the
• HOUSE DRAIN - part of the lowest crown weir
horizontal piping of a plumbing system; ➢ TRAP - a fitting or device so constructed
conveys it to the house sewer as to prevent the passage of air, gas
• HOUSE SEWER - part of plumbing system ➢ TRAP ARM - that portion of a fixture
extending from about 4 or 5’ from inner drain between a trap and the vent
face of foundation wall ➢ TRAP SEAL (WATER SEAL) - maximum
• FIXTURE UNIT - one fixture unit equivalent vertical depth of liquid that a trap will
to a flow rate of 7 ½ gallons of water per retain, measured within the crown weir
min; 28.3 liters per min (1 cu.ft/minute) and the top of the dip of the trap
• PLUMBING UNIT - minimum standard ➢ Interceptors
quantity of one (1) water meter, one (1) - Interceptors are passive devices designed
water closet, one (1) lavatory, one (1) into a plumbing system that trap, separate,
shower head and drain for a bathtub or and retain these toxic or undesirable
shower stall, one (1) kitchen sink, one (1) substances from wastewater before it is
discharged into the sewer line.

Leonoras, MJ
 • Drum Trap, Grease Trap 3 Material Deterioration and Removal of
o Grease Trap- receives wastewater Objectionable Gases -wastes of the plumbing system
from sources such as sinks, contain chemical elements creating compounds of
dishwashers, floor drains, and acid nature detrimental to piping materials
washing area drains before
➢ VENTILATION
draining to the municipal sewer
system. 5 ways in which a trap seal may be lost:
• (CLARIFIER) - intercept or to separate, and
prevent the passage of oil, grease, sand 1. Siphonage: minus pressure in the drainage
• CLARIFIER - (interceptor) system
• GREASE INTERCEPTOR - interceptor of 3 • Direct Self-Siphonage - found in
cubic meters capacity unventilated traps serving oval-bottomed
• GREASE TRAP - device to retain grease from fixtures (lavatory, slop sink); result of
one to four fixtures (maximum) unequal atmospheric conditions caused by
• SAND INTERCEPTOR - (INTERCEPTOR) the rapid flow of water to the trap
• AIRBREAK - physical separation into indirect • Indirect or Momentum Siphonage - the
waste receptor from fixture, device result of a minus pressure in the waste
indirectly connected piping caused by discharge of water from a
fixture installed on a line which serves a
• AIR GAP, DRAINAGE - unobstructed vertical
fixture placed at lower elevation
distance between the lowest opening from
• Siphonage by Momentum – the result of a
any pipe to the flood level rim of the
minus pressure in the waste piping caused
receptor
by discharge of water from a fixture
• AIR GAP, WATER DISTRIBUTION -
installed on a line which serves a fixture
unobstructed vertical distance through free
placed at lower elevation.
atmosphere between the lowest opening
2. Back Pressure: plus pressure; blows the
from any pipe or faucet conveying potable
water out of the fixture into the room; at
water to the flood-level rim
those located at the base of soil stacks, or a
• DOUBLE-BEND FITTING - fitting shaped like
soil pipe changes its direction abruptly.
the “S”
3. Evaporation: use of deep seal trap
• INDIRECT WASTE PIPE - a waste pipe that
recommended to prolong the interval of
does not connect directly with the building
total loss of the trap seal
drainage
4. Capillary Action: a suspension of a foreign
• RECEPTOR - approved plumbing
object (rag, string, lint) into the trap seal
fixture/device to adequately receive
5. Wind Effects: wind passing over the top of
discharge from indirect waste pipes
soil pipe roof terminal; a downdraft ripple
• SPECIAL WASTE - require special methods
the liquid content
of handling (use of indirect waste piping and
➢ Vents
receptors, corrosion resistant piping, sand,
- Vents are pipes that introduce sufficient air
oil or grease interceptors, condensers or
into the drainage system to reduce air
other pre-treatment facilities
turbulence (from siphoning or back
➢ 3 major difficulties:
pressure) and to release sewer gases to the
1 Trap Seal Loss – inadequate ventilation of the outside.
trap/subsequent (-) and (+) pressures • Fixture Branch- Each plumbing fixture is
connected horizontally to the sanitary
2 Retardation of Flow in Drainage System - improper drainage system by a drain line called a
atmospheric conditions due to insufficient fixture branch. Drainage pipes shall be run
ventilation, or incorrect installation of fittings in practical alignment & at a uniform slope

Leonoras, MJ
 between manholes of not less than Vent Pipe Grades & Connections: Vent
20mm/m or 2% toward the point of disposal pipe must be graded slightly so that no
• Stacks - The fixture branches feed into a water may accumulate in it. (Chapter 9
vertical pipe referred to as a stack. Sec. 905 Vent Pipe Grades and
Connections, NPCP
Two Principal Classifications of Vents ➢ Types of Vents
1. MAIN SOIL AND WASTE VENT (STACK VENT): • Individual Vent: back vent-serves a
used to ventilate the soil and waste pipes single trap
portion of the soil-pipe stack above the highest • Unit Vent- ventilates two fixture
installed fixture branch extending through the traps;discharge into a sanitary cross
roof the terminal for the many main vents size: 2 with deflectors
– 5” Ф • Circuit or Loop Ventilation- ventilates 2
or more fixture traps that discharge
2. MAIN VENT (VENT STACK): “relief” and into a horizontal soil or waste branch
“yoke” vents; tributary; collecting vent line; extended at slight grade
relieves any back-pressure; terminates in the • Relief Ventilation-eliminates minus and
soil-pipe stack, at least 3’ above the highest plus pressures in the drainage system;
installed fixture branch size: 2 – 5” on long vertical pipes, a relief vent,
• VENT SYSTEM - provide flow of air to or often referred to as yoke or by-pass
from a drainage system; provide a vent maybe installed at 3 – 5 floor
circulation of air to protect traps seals intervals
from siphonage and backpressure • Wet Ventilation- vent pipe through
• MAIN VENT (VENT STACK) - principal which wastes flow
artery • Looped Vent- used on fixtures located
• VENT STACK - vertical vent pipe in the room away from partitions that
might be utilized to conceal the waste
• STACK VENT - the extension of a soil or
and vent.
waste stack above the highest
horizontal drain connected to the stack • Local Vent- a conduit/pipe shaft used
(SVTR) to convey foul odours from a fixture or
room; used to some extent in
• VENT PIPE - a pipe or opening used for
connection with water closets;
ensuring the circulation of air in a
terminates at the roof
plumbing system; for reducing the
pressure exerted on trap seals • Utility Vent- used for underground
public restrooms
• COMBINATION WASTE AND VENT
➢ BACKVENT PIPE - connects directly with
SYSTEM - horizontal wet venting of one
an individual trap underneath/behind
or more sinks/floor drains by a
the fixture (INDIVIDUAL VENT/REVENT
common horizontal waste and vent
PIPE)
pipe
➢ INDIVIDUAL VENT - (BACK VENT PIPE)
• CONTINUOUS WASTE - drain
➢ REVENT PIPE - (BACK VENT PIPE)
connecting the compartments of a set
➢ COMMON VENT - (UNIT VENT/DUAL
of fixtures to a trap or connecting other
VENT)
permitted fixtures to a common trap
➢ DUAL VENT - (UNIT VENT)
• OTHER VENTS:
➢ UNIT VENT - an arrangement of venting
Materials Used: (Chapter 9 Sec. 903
so installed that one vent pipe will
Materials, NPCP) Required Sizes of
serve two traps
Vents: (Chapter 9 Sec. 904 Size of Vents,
➢ BRANCH VENT - a horizontal vent pipe
NPCP)
connecting from a branch of the

Leonoras, MJ
 drainage system to a vent stack or stack Principle 2: Maximum requirements: Layout of a
vent drain, soil waste, and vent pipe installation
➢ GROUP VENT - a branch vent
➢ DRY VENT - a vent that does not carry • All fixtures are trapped
water or water borne waste • Each trap is vented except the floor drain
➢ WET VENT - portion of a vent pipe (supplied with water from the laundry tub)
through which liquid waste flow • 4”-line installed from the floor drain
➢ LOCAL VENT - a pipe or shaft serving to intersection to the wall to accommodate 4”
convey foul air from a plumbing fixture C.O.
or a room to the outer air • Pipe size is reduced above 4” Y
➢ CIRCUIT VENT - group vent from in • 2” soil line extended up to the Sink
front of the last fixture/connects to • 1 ½” vent extends through the roof
vent stack (LOOP VENT) • Laundry vent intersects at a point 3 ½’
➢ RELIEF VENT - acts as auxiliary vent above sink floor line
(“yoke vent”) • WC, LAV and Bath served with 4” soil pipe;
➢ LOOP OR CIRCUIT VENT - (extension is 2” soil laterals
usually vertical immediately beyond its
Principle 3: Individual Ventilation: Layout consisting
connection to the soil or waste pipe);
of a WC, LAV, & Sink on first floor; WC, LAV & BT on
connected to the stack vent
2nd floor; LT located in basement
➢ YOKE VENT - pipe connecting upward
from a soil or waste stack below the • House drain/soil pipe same as Principles 1 &
floor and below horizontal connection 2
to a adjacent vent stack • LAV (1st Flr): 1 ¼” waste pipe into the closet
➢ SOIL, WASTE AND VENT PRINCIPLES bend
Principle 1: Minimum requirement for a waste and • WC individually vented with 2” pipe
vent pipe installation: Installation consisting of a extended to a point in the soil pipe 3’ above
WC, LAV, SINK, a BT on first floor, and LT in the closet connection
basement with a drain, soil waste, and vent pipe • LAV & Bt fixture traps are individually
arrangement ventilated with 1 ¾” and 1 ½” Ф pipe
• LT and Sink waste and vent (same as
• Cleanouts extended at least 1” above floor Principle 1)
line
• House drain: 3” – 4” Ф Principle 4: Plumbing for a duplex: WC, LAV, (2) LT in
• Basements/public washrooms: provide floor basement, toilet on 1st and 2nd Flr - WC, LAV and
BT are installed. Sink provided in each kitchen
drain; should be vented (but not required if
drain is not more than 5’ away) • Soil Pipe is 4” Ф; has toiletroom branch
• Waste pipe not less than 1 ½” for Bathroom, connections on 3 levels installed in the
BT & LAV partition directly in back of WC
• Waste stack serving the LT and Sink is with a • Basement toilet with 2” wet vent into which
1 ½” Ф pipe the basin is wasted.
• Branch of the drain is extended 4” above • Main vent: extended from basement
floor level toiletroom vertically to a point 3’ above the
• 4 x 2” tapped cross for laundry tub 2nd Flr toiletroom branch
connection • BT waste (1st Flr toiletroom) with 1 ½” pipe
• Sink waste discharged to a 4 x 2” reducer in increased at LAV branch to 2” pipe then
the top opening of the tee discharged to closet bend
• Vent for Sink: 1 ½” Ф; connected to main
soil pipe

Leonoras, MJ
 • Bathroom group is wet vented through LAV • Soil-pipe stack accommodates 4 complete
waste increased to 2” pipe, reconnected bathrooms (WC, LAV, BT)  WCs connected
into the main vent to 4” sanitary cross, top opening serving as
• 2 nd Flr bathroom identical with 1st except vent
that a 1 ½” LAV waste is ample • WCs traps ventilated with 2” unit vent
• LTs connected to unit waste of 2” Ф, vented • LAV and BT wastes discharged to 2” Ф
by the unit method with 1 ½” pipe common waste pipe
connected to the waste vent of sink stack  • Both groups are connected into the waste
Both sinks discharge into a common waste by 90 º drainage cross, top opening serving
pipe increased to 2” at 1st Flr sink as unit vent.
connection, each individually vented • LAV and BT traps ventilated with 1 ½” Ф
pipe.
Principle 5: Typical installation of a soil and waste
• Vents from 1st Flr extended with 2” pipe to
stack in a 3 storey apartment building: wet
a point 3’ above topmost branch of soil
ventilation of the bathroom groups is employed
pipe, where main vent is increased to 2 ½”
• Main vent of the soil-pipe installation Ф accommodating 2nd Flr bathroom
increased to 2 ½” Ф, reconnected full size • Sinks are with independent 2” Ф vertical
into the base of the soil pipe to relieve waste pipe, fixtures are unit vented
backpressure
Principle 8: Installation common to multi-storey
• Sink waste stack increased to accommodate
apartment and hotel buildings
number of fixture units it serves  Each
fixture is individually vented with 1 ½” pipe, • Bathroom waste and vent pipe connections
reconnected to a main vent , extended typical to small residence
through the roof • Main vent with 3” pipe based on number of
• Roof terminal has been increased to 4” Ф fixture units served
• Provided with a 3’ yoke or by-pass vent
Principle 6: Fixtures discharging into sanitary
between 4th and 5th Flr
crosses wasted and vented: Installation consists of a
soil pipe serving 4 complete bathrooms and a sink Principle 9: Waste and vent pipe installation for
waste on which 4 sinks are installed for two-storey small toiletroom on each floor of a 2-storey
apartment buildings industrial building; lower floor men’s toiletroom (5
WCs 2 LAVs, 2 URs located on common partition;
• Soil pipe is 4” Ф pipe provided with (2)
upper floor – ladies’ toiletroom (5 WCs, 4 LAVs)
sanitary crosses for WC connections  1 st
located on one partition
Flr bath waste increased to 2” Ф (ventilation
of WC essential) • WCs (1st Flr) with 4” branch, circuit-vented
• 1 st Flr toiletrooms with wet vent method with 3” Ф pipe extended to a point in the
through LAV waste, also increased to 2” soil pipe above the highest fixture branch,
• Main vent increased to 2 ½” Ф as per increased to 4” Ф
number of fixture units served, reconnected • URs and LAVs connected to 2 ½” common
into base of the soil pipe. waste line
• Sinks discharged into a unit waste pipe and • LAVs are unit vented
ventilated • URs with circuit vent
• 2 nd Flr toiletroom typical of first (with 4
Principle 7: Unit waste and vent applied to
LAVs); LAV branch ventilated by a 1 ½”
bathroom fixture groups on opposite sides of a
circuit vent
partition typical of hotel and apartment house
layouts

Leonoras, MJ
Principle 10: Common to buildings of larger design: Table 3 shows how to size the soil or waste stack.
Women’s toiletroom (2nd Flr), Men’s toiletroom Determine number of fixture units by Table 1 and
(1st Flr) fixtures located on opposite partitions find the proper size of stack in 3. No stack into which
a water closet discharges should be less than 3" in
• Toilet groups ventilated by circuit vent and diameter. The "branch interval" used in Table 3
relief vent means a vertical length of stack of not less than 8
• Branch for the LAVs and URs (1st Flr) is feet, within which branches are connected. The total
taken from the soil branch between 1st and fixture units on all branches connected to a stack
2nd WC, extended with 1 ½” pipe to serve within any 8-foot length should not exceed the
UR group maximum permitted by the table in one branch
• URs ventilated with 1 ½” pipe, increased to interval.
2” joining the vent pipe of the LAV group
• LAVs are circuit vented • MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETERS AND
• Upper floor branch serving the LAVs in DRAINAGE FIXTURE UNIT VALUES (NPCP
women toiletroom is of 2” pipe 1995 ed.
• LAVs are divided into 3, reconnected into
the main soil and waste vent
➢ Sizing For Plumbing

Determine the size of the pipe to arrive at a basic

discharge figure, use Tables I and 2 to calculate
individual setup.

By totaling the number of units which can be

discharged you can determine the minimum size of
pipe for that branch, i.e. if two units - 1 ½”; if nine
units, water closet not included - 2" pipe; for up to
35 units, water closet included, 3" or 4“; one water
closet, 3" pipe; two or more water closets, 4"

➢ Sizing House Drain

Size is determined by the number of units drained by

it. Proper Ф are: 2 units, 1 1/2"; 9 units, 2"; 25 units,
2 1/2". The size of stack, house drain, or sewer must
be at least the size of the largest branch connected
to it. The minimum size of a house drain receiving
discharge from a WC should be 4" Ф, and should
continue full size to the vertical stacks receiving the
discharge of water closets. The drainage system
should have one 3" Ф stack extended full size
through the roof (w/o any WC)

➢ Sizing Vent Pipe

The proper size for vent stack is determined by the

total fixture units of the soil/waste stack it serves. A
branch vent is sized by the number of units

Leonoras, MJ
connected to it and the length of the pipe itself. No temperature rise, which means that the
vent pipe should be less than 1 1/4" Ф, nor should a water temperature is increased 100°F. For
vent stack's Ф be less than half the Ф of the soil stack example, if a burner can take 40 gallons of
it serves. For a 4" soil stack, vents cannot be less 40°F (4.4°C) water and raise its temperature
than 2" pipe. To determine the length of vent piping, to 140°F (60°C) in one hour, that
regard length of stack and branches as being burner/heater has a 40 gal recovery rate.
continuous • In sizing a storage tank-type water heater,
the FHR of a water heater must meet or
➢ SOIL PIPE – portion of the plumbing
exceed the peak hot water demand.
system which receives the discharge of
water closets Table 13.18 is a guide to selecting the minimum
➢ WASTE PIPE – part of the drainage recommended gas-fired storage tank water heater
system which conveys the discharge of size, in gal.
fixtures other than water closets, such
as sinks, lavatories, urinals, bathtubs;
usually smaller in Ф than soil pipe.

❖ Determining Water Heater Size

➢ Design Load Table 13.19 provides specifications for selected
- is the maximum amount of something a storage tank water heaters.
system is designed to handle or the
maximum amount of something that the ➢ Sizing Instantaneous Water Heaters
system can produce - Instantaneous water heaters are selected
- Water heating system must be designed to based on the amount of hot water needed
have sufficient capacity to provide hot to meet the design load (peak
water during periods of peak use. instantaneous demand), in gpm or L/min, at
- An accepted method of determining the a specific water temperature rise and other
maximum demand on a water heater is to criteria. Table 13.20 provides typical
determine peak usage during a particular specifications for a selected residential gas-
time of day. fired instantaneous (tankless) water heater.
➢ Sizing Storage Tank Water Heaters - The design load (the flow rate of the
- Residential water heaters are typically sized instantaneous water heater) is determined
based on their first hour rating (FHR). by adding flow rates of fixtures used
➢ First Hour Rating (FHR) simultaneously. To determine the required
- The FHR relates to the gallons of hot water temperature rise needed, subtract the
available for one hour of peak demand. It is incoming water temperature from the
the maximum output of the water heater desired output temperature.
over an hour, in gallons of hot water in a
Table 13.21 provides test results of a single
100°F temperature rise. The FHR is the sum instantaneous water heater
of the “standby” hot water found in the
tank plus the capacity of the heater to heat
water during that first hour.
- FHR (in gallons) =70% of tank capacity
(gallons) + recovery rate (gallons per hour)
➢ Recovery Rate
- is the quantity of water that the burner or
element can heat to a 100°F (38°C) increase
in one hour. This is referred to as a 100°

Leonoras, MJ
 of DUs served by the water heating system.
See Table 13.23

➢ Sizing a Large Multifamily Water

Heating System Minimum storage tank capacity, in gal,
- An approximation method used to STC = DU . gal/DU
determine hot water demand in large
multifamily buildings (10 or more dwelling Table 13.22 provides capacities of cylindrical storage
units) is based on the demand unit (DU). tanks
See Table 13.22

❖ Water Supply Design Concern

➢ Water Velocity
- If pipe diameters are small, cost is low but
noise, erosion (from high velocities), and
pumping costs (from high-pressure losses)
are high.
- Large diameter pipes reduce noise erosion
- For apartments or condominiums, a DU is and pumping costs, but result in high
counted for each bathroom and clothes installation costs. An intermediate pipe
washing machines served by the water diameter is desirable.
heating system. For apartments or - Maximum water velocities in plumbing
condominiums with 10 or more units: water supply piping are usually limited to a
range of 5 to 10 ft/s (1.5 to 3 m/s).
Maximum probable demand (MPD) of hot water, in
- Maximum velocities of up to 15 ft/s (4.5
gal/hr,
m/s) are allowed for equipment feed lines in
MPD = 350 + 11 (DU) mechanical rooms (e.g., boiler feed lines)
where noise is less of a concern.
This expression assumes 11 gal/hr for each demand
- The maximum safe velocity for
unit plus a 350 gal/hr reserve capacity
thermoplastic pipe is about 5 ft/s (1.5 m/s).
- A hot water boiler is typically sized to heat ➢ Cavitation
water for buildings containing 10 or more - A physical phenomenon that occurs in a
dwelling units. It is customary to include a liquid when it experiences a drastic drop in
storage tank with the boiler to act as a pressure that causes the liquid to vaporize
reserve for times when instantaneous into small vapor bubbles.
demand exceeds boiler capacity. Size of the - As the low pressure returns to normal
storage tank is again based on the number pressure levels, the bubbles implode as the

Leonoras, MJ
 vapor changes phase back to a liquid and or gate valve installed at each end for
thus drastically decreases its volume. isolation and testing.
- The implosion causes noise and high levels ➢ Water Hammer
of erosion where the imploding contact the - The sudden closing of a valve that will cause
walls of a pipe, fitting, pump, or valve. Over fastflowing water to stop quickly, resulting
time, this eventually manifests as pinhole in a large increase in pressure.
leaking. - Produces a force that makes pipes rattle
➢ The Cross Connection Threat with banging or thumping sounds as they
- An unsatisfactory connection or expand and contract from exposure to an
arrangement of piping that can cause non- increase in water pressure
potable water to enter the potable water ➢ Air Chamber
system. A cross-connection can cause used - Air chambers or water hammer arrestors,
or contaminated water to mix with the used in the supply branches serving each
water supply. fixture and uses trapped air to cushion the
- An air gap is the vertical distance through hydraulic shock
open air between an opening in a fixture or - Air chambers, installed vertically above the
faucet conveying potable water to the flood fixture water connection and are concealed
level rim of a tank or fixture. in the wall. The trapped air is compressible,
➢ Backflow which cushions the pressure surge as the
- A type of cross-connection that occurs valve is closed and absorbs the hydraulic
when contaminated liquid or substance shock.
unintentionally flows backwards into - Water hammer arrestors are patented
distribution pipes containing potable water. devices that absorb hydraulic shock. Such
- Backpressure or back siphoning is backflow devices, when installed, must be accessible
caused by a negative pressure (vacuum) in a for maintenance. One type should be placed
potable water system. at the end of the branch line between the
- Vacuum breaker, a device or plumbing last two fixtures served. Additional arrestors
assembly that when properly installed in a should be placed at the midpoint of a run
plumbing system prevents backflow. longer than 20 ft
➢ Vacuum Breaker ➢ Thermal Expansion
• Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker - Occurs no matter what type of piping
- Atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB), the material is used in the water system.
most common type, consists of a body, a Expansion must be considered in the design
check valve-like member, and an of the system. Expansion from temperature
atmospheric opening. The AVB is not a increases can push a pipe through a wall or
testable device. cause it to burst. There are two methods in
• Pressure Vacuum Breaker common use for providing for expansion in
- Pressure vacuum breaker (PVB), a type of pipelines: expansion bends and expansion
backflow prevention device used to keep joints.
nonpotable (or contaminated) water from ➢ Pipe Insulation
entering the water supply. Similar to an - In most commercial buildings, heat loss
AVB, except that it contains a springloaded increases the cooling load and the costs of
poppet. air conditioning. Pipe insulation is applied to
• Double Check Assembly the outer walls of piping to reduce heat loss
- Double check assembly (DCA) or double from the pipe or prevent condensation on
check valve is a backflow prevention device the outside pipe walls. Under high humidity
assembly that consists of two check valves conditions it is necessary to insulate cold
assembled in series usually with a ball valve water lines to keep condensation from
forming.

Leonoras, MJ
 ➢ Leaks ➢ Water Demand
- Plumbing leaks contribute significantly to - is defined as the volume of water requested
water consumption in operating plumbing by users to satisfy their needs. Design Load -
systems. A leak of just one drop per second is the maximum probable or peak
will waste about 2700 gal (10 200 L) of instantaneous demand for domestic water
water a year. Leaks not only waste money by a group of fixtures. The design load is
and water, they can cause damage to walls, typically expressed in gpm, L/min or L/s.
flooring, ceilings, furniture, and electrical ➢ Water Pressure
systems. - Water pressure difference is the driving
➢ Viscosity force behind fluid flow. Water pressure
- As water flows through a pipe, its viscosity available at the water service is lost as
(thickness) decreases with temperature water flows through the piping of a
decreases. plumbing system.
- Water at 40°F (4°C) is twice as viscous as ➢ Pressure Difference
water at 90°F (32 °C) and four times as - A pressure difference must exist at a
much at 170 °F (77 °C) plumbing fixture to cause water to flow—
- As a result, pumping energy and cost are that is, water pressure at the fixture must
higher when water temperatures are lower. be at a higher level than atmospheric
➢ Testing pressure for water to flow from the fixture.
1. The water supply system should be tested Pressure difference (ΔP) is the driving force
for leaks before it is covered with finish of fluid flow.
materials to determine if it is watertight. • Maximum specific weight of water is 62.4
2. Tests commonly run on water systems lb/ft3
require that it be watertight under a • So at its maximum weight, a 1 ft by 1 ft by 1
hydrostatic water pressure of 125 psi for a ft cube of water exerts a maximum force of
minimum of 1 hour. 62.4 lb at its base, which equates to a
3. Any leaks that occur should be repaired pressure of 62.4 lb/ft2 or a pressure of
with the joint compound originally used. 0.433 psi at the base of the cube (62.4
➢ Aging lb/ft2 divided by 144 in2/ft2) thus, 0.433
1. Inner walls become increasingly rough as lb/in2
pipes in a plumbing system. • In a plumbing supply system, pressure
2. Buildup from calcium deposits and difference from elevation change or simply
corrosion reduces the inside opening in the static head (ΔPstatic) is found by multiplying
pipe, which restricts flow. the vertical height (Z), in feet, by the factor
3. The effects of aging in a plumbing system of 0.433 psi/ft. By convention, the vertical
are related to piping material, quality of height (Z) is positive if elevation increases
water (e.g., hard versus soft), and water from the station with the known pressure
temperature. (the station is higher than the station with
the known pressure) and negative if
❖ Water Supply Pipe Design Methods elevation decreases.
➢ Flow Rates
- is the volume of a substance that passes a static head, in psi, ΔPstatic= -0.433Z (in English)
point in a system per unit of time. static head, in kPa, ΔPstatic= -9.8Z (in metric)
- varies by type of fixture and water pressure
at the fixture. ➢ APPROXIMATE WATER REQUIREMENTS
➢ Water Consumption FOR SELECTED BUILDINGS (Table 13.6)
- is the portion of water use that is not • Method 1: Simple Empirical Design
returned to the original water source after Method
being withdrawn.

Leonoras, MJ
 - In the empirical design method, piping is Meter and distribution pipe can be sized using the
sized with rules of thumb based on following methods:
observation and experience.
1. Obtain minimum service water pressure for
o For example, the mains that serve
the location of construction. Usually this is
fixture branches can be sized as
available through the municipal water
follows:
department.
• Up to three 1 Ú2 inch branches can be served by a 2. Compute the total WSFUs, including
3 Ú4 inch main proposed and projected future plumbing
fixtures.
• Up to three 3 Ú4 inch branches or up to six 1 Ú2
3. Calculate the maximum developed length of
inch branches can be served by a 1 inch main
water piping: the actual length of pipe
• Up to five 3 Ú4 inch branches or up to ten 1 Ú2 between the source of supply and the most
inch branches can be served by a 1 1 Ú4 inch main remote fixture plus the developed length of
fittings. Developed length can be
- The empirical approach is used in design of approximated by multiplying the actual
plumbing systems for residences and similar length to the most remote fixture by 1.2 to
buildings with simple plumbing systems. compensate for loss of meter and fittings.
o Fixture Units 4. Compute the static head (the pressure loss
- Method developed by Dr. Roy Hunter of the from elevation change) and subtract it from
National Bureau of Standards (now the the service water pressure. Static head
National Institute of Standards and (ΔPstatic) is found by multiplying the
Technology, NIST) vertical height (Z), in feet or meters:
- is an arbitrarily chosen measure that allows
all types of plumbing fixtures to be static head, in psi, ΔPstatic= -0.433Z (in English)
expressed in common terms; that is, a
static head, in kPa, ΔPstatic= -9.8Z (in metric)
fixture having twice the instantaneous flow
rate of a second fixture would have a fixture 5. Use Table 13.10 to determine the meter and
unit value twice as large. distribution pipe sizing based on the total
- The sole purpose of the fixture unit concept demand in WSFUs, maximum developed
is to make it possible to calculate the design length of water piping, and the supply
load on a system composed of different pressure (the available static pressure after
types of fixtures, each having different flow static head loss).
rates. • Method 3: Velocity Design Method
o Water Supply Fixture Unit (WSFU) - The velocity design method entails selecting
- is a probability factor that represents each the smallest pipe diameter without
fixture connected to the water supply exceeding a preestablished maximum
system and used to determine the total use velocity for the design load in the pipe. It is
of water within a given system. typically used accurately in a downfeed
• Method 2: WSFU Design Table Method system and works well in preliminary design
- In residential and small commercial of a plumbing system provided the system
buildings, WSFU design tables can be used layout is reasonably symmetrical. This
to establish meter and distribution pipe size method does require an investigation of
based on the total demand in WSFUs and pressure loss to ensure that residual
the supply pressure (the available static pressure at the most remote fixture is
pressure after static head loss). Table 13.10 adequate.
represents of WSFU tables used to size
building supply and branch lines, and meter
and service lines.

Leonoras, MJ
Procedure: 3. Select a pipe diameter having the desired pressure
drop (including fittings) without exceeding the
1. Sum the total number of WSFUs for hot
velocity limitation requirements.
water and cold water. (See Table 13.7.)
2. Determine maximum probable demand in
gpm. (See Table 13.8 or Table 13.9.)
3. Based on the maximum desired velocity and
design load (Q) , solve for the minimum
required diameter.

In customary units, minimum required diameter (Di-

min) of the pipe, in inches, is based on the maximum
desired velocity (v) of a fluid flowing through a pipe,
in ft/s, and the volumetric flow rate (Q) in gpm:

Di-min = √𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟗 𝑸/𝒗

In SI (metric) units: Q in L/min

Di-min = √𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝑸/𝒗

4. Select a pipe size for the appropriate pipe

material (from design tables such as Tables
12.9 through 12.15, 12.17 through 12.22 in
Chapter 12) with an inside diameter equal
to or greater than the minimum required
diameter, Di-min.
• Method 4: Equal Friction Design Method
- This method is more complex and more
accurate, but usually requires several
iterations before pipe diameters are
selected. Sizing the piping using the equal
friction design method requires several
iterations. Often, it is a matter of trial and
error, even for experienced engineers; the
process involves first selecting a pipe size
for the building main, which runs from the
water system to the riser(s), and then
determining the friction loss for the pipe
used from the charts in Figures 13.6 and
13.7. The chart used will depend on the
type of pipe roughness (material).

To make a pipe selection for a specific condition using

the equal friction design method:

1. Find the volumetric flow rate along the side of the

chart.

2. Move horizontally across the chart to the pipe

diameters and, for specific nominal diameters, note
associated pressure drops and velocities.

Leonoras, MJ