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Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 46-51, January 2016
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0601.06

Self Assessment and Learner Autonomy

Hamid Gholami
Department of Foreign Languages, College of Humanities, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah,
Iran

Abstract—The study was an endeavor to investigate the impact of self and peer assessment on learner
autonomy and its dimensions as well as language proficiency. It also aimed at finding the students attitude
toward practicing the technique. The study enjoyed a quasi-experimental pretest post test design. To meet the
objectives, 49 intermediate participants were assigned to a control (25 participants) and an experimental
group (24 participants). Students proficiencies were investigated in both pretest and post test using the same
versions of PET. Students’ level of autonomy was also studied in both pre-test and post-test utilizing a
multidimensional learner autonomy questionnaire. Self-assessment was utilized over a three-month period in
25 sessions. T-test analysis of the results of the post test proficiency test revealed no impact of the technique on
language proficiency. Although the t-tests run to analyze the different dimensions of the questionnaire showed
the improvement in just three dimensions of learner autonomy, an improvement in learner autonomy in
general was indicated. To study the participants’ attitudes toward self assessing themselves, the researcher
asked the participants to write about their experience. The content analysis of the participants written experts
indicated their positive attitudes toward using the technique.

Index Terms—self assessment, learner autonomy, attitude

I. INTRODUCTION
In some educational systems, self-access and autonomy practice is rarely of any concern and the practice of learner
autonomy seems to be more applicable in western cultures where the whole idea originated. It is generally agreed today
that learner autonomy is strange to learners in non-western cultures. There is convincing evidence, however, to assume
learner autonomy as a psychological phenomenon that can go beyond cultural difference, though learning behavior is
inevitably under culture influence (Aoki & Smith, 1999). Interestingly, in systems where self-access and autonomous
learning is not embedded in a syllabus, the teacher can provide learners with some kind of advisory service: learner
counseling, for example, is central to the self-access literature (Lit Karlsson, Kjisik, & Nordlund, 1997). There are also
some other ways of cultivating learner autonomy such as; strategy training, self assessment, journals, distance learning
and learning diaries which can be used in any context to empower the learners and develop their self-access and
independency.
Traditionally, curricula have tended to focus on imparting knowledge and skills rather than the teaching of how to
learn. In language teaching, we have focused on teaching linguistic forms by presenting the language items in carefully
graded steps, at the expense of teaching people how to learn the language (Olivareas, 2002). However, the main issue is
that the differences between students are not because of their studying specific books, having the same teachers,
employing identical learning styles, or experiences, but because of the ways they have find out about how to learn a
language more economically and productively. In fact, the most successful learners are the ones who take the
responsibility of their own learning.

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

According to Benson (2009), the idea of autonomy is not original to language teaching and learning. Rather, it is an
imported and non-linguistic concept that has been brought into language teaching, via psychology and educational
theory, from the field of philosophy. For much of the 20th century, however, language teaching theories and
methodologies were largely grounded in theoretical and applied linguistics. It was only in the 1960s that theories with a
greater focus on learners and learning came into the field and a concept like learner autonomy started to attract the
attention of the researchers in the field.
Gremmo (1995, p. 152) also identifies some factors which contribute to the boost given to learner autonomy
including minority rights movements, a reaction against behaviorism in medicine, politics, music, and so on, the
emergence of "autonomy” as an educational goal, technology development, the rise internationalism since the second
World War, adult learners and different learning needs, commercialization of much language provisions, growing
school and university populations, and the development of new educational systems to dealing with large numbers of
learners (Finch, 2002).
Interest in the idea of autonomy has grown largely since then and it has been associated with various forms of
practice including individualized learning, self-instruction, self-access, computer-assisted language learning, distance
learning, learner training and strategy training, collaborative learning, project work and the process or negotiated

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THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 47

syllabus that is, practices viewed as being supportive of the goal of autonomy and closely connected to the
deconstruction of the traditional language classroom in the 1970s and 1980s. More recently, however, autonomy has
been presented as a more general goal equally applicable to more conventional classroom situations.
Several arguments have been used for substantiating the merits of developing language learners’ autonomy: Benson
(2001) sees it as a human right, Naiman et. al. (1978) asserts that autonomous learning is more productive than other
approaches to learning, and Waite (1994) argues that learners need to take the responsibility of their own learning
endeavor so that they can make the most of available resources, especially outside the context of classroom. Learner
autonomy is mostly seen as a significant educational goal, and the link between learner autonomy and effective learning
has led to various pedagogical attempts in a wide variety of contexts to foster learner autonomy (Jones, 1995).
Although many have advocated learner autonomy for many years, dealing with the idea poses two major problems.
The first of these concerns the definition of autonomy, or perhaps more accurately the meanings that are currently being
attached to it. Little (1991, p. 4) argues that autonomy in learners can “take numerous different forms, depending on
their age, how far they have progressed with their learning, what they perceive their immediate learning needs to be,
and so on. Nation (2001, p. 394) defines autonomy by stating that “autonomous learners take control and responsibility
for their own learning”. According to Van Lier (1996) autonomous learners need to make significant decisions about
what, how, and when to learn.” Benson (2001) sees autonomy as “a multidimensional capacity that will take different
forms for different individuals, and even for the same individual in different contexts or at different times” (Benson
2001, p. 47)
According to Lap (2005, p. 23), learners’ cognitive ability or capacity, affective factors like attitudes, willingness,
readiness, self-confidence, meta-cognitive strategies such as setting goals, selecting materials, planning learning
activities, assessing self- progress, and social factors like willingness to work in co-operation with others are central to
learner autonomy.
Accepting responsibility of one's own learning is not only a gradual development of metacognitive mastery of the
learning process. Autonomy has another dimension namely self-management. The Council of Europe, for example, has
used an English Language Portfolio which reflects the Council of Europe’s concern with “the development of the
language learner”. Another tool that can be used to enhance the learners autonomy is self-assessment which Tholin
(2008) defines as a natural element of autonomous learning sine it gives the learners a sense of consciousness of the
learning. Gardner and Miller (1999) consider self assessment as a self monitoring device which provides learners with
immediate feedback on their language proficiency and learning strategies. He even sees self assessment as tool that can
increase motivation and also set some rules for the teacher in this process like raising awareness among the learners of
the benefits of self assessment, providing guidance how to self assess and helping learners to understand the results. To
make the learners capable of self-assessment, the teacher can take different approaches like allowing the students to
work in groups in which they give and receive criticism or letting the students together evaluate some texts that they
have written; the diaries that the students write in regard to what they have done while being in the class.
Traditionally, however, curricula have tended to focus on imparting knowledge and skills rather than the teaching of
how to learn. However, the main issue is that the differences between students are not because of their studying specific
books, having the same teachers, employing identical learning styles, or experiences, but because of the ways they have
find out about how to learn a language more economically and productively. In fact, the most successful learners are
the ones who take the responsibility of their own learning. And this, consequently, calls for implementing some
techniques into the curriculum to enhance this feeling of responsibility in the process of language learning.

III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Since the study aimed at finding out the impact of practicing self-assessment technique on learner autonomy and
consequently language proficiency, the following research questions will be investigated:
RQ1: Does the incorporation of self-assessment accompanied by peer-assessment improve learners’ autonomy?
RQ2: Does the incorporation of self-assessment accompanied by peer-assessment improve learners’ English
language proficiency?

IV. METHODOLOGY
The study was a quasi- experimental one with a pretest-posttest design. Self/peer assessment was independent
variables and learners’ autonomy and learners’ English language proficiency were the dependent variables. This study
included one experimental group and a control one. The participants were 49 adult English learners, both male and
female, all intermediate enrolling for the classes without knowing about the study and with an age range of 18-35. To
have an appropriate sample two classes were considered as one group so that each group had 28-36 students. After
administering the homogeneity test, i.e. PET, the students above and below 1.2 SD were selected. None of the
candidates knew that they were part of a research project to ensure the validity of the results. The study started in the
fall, 2012 and took 3 months or one semester.
The students' proficiency was measured using PET both as a homogeneity test and a post test. A learner autonomy
questionnaire was also used as both a pretest and post test to measure the students’ autonomy. The questionnaire

© 2016 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

48 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES

included 44 statements based on nine dimensions related to language learning (see Appendix A). The items in these
nine dimensions show whether learners display a greater degree of control in a particular aspect of their learning. Table
1 below displays the nine areas to be investigated in the autonomy learner questionnaire.
The LAQ was adopted in this study because it was the most comprehensive one in terms of the number of the
dimensions and therefore in terms content validity as compared to the other questionnaires available in the area of
learner autonomy as confirmed by many researchers in the field (Tilfarlioglu & Ciftci, 2011; Gömleksiz, & Bozpolat,
2012; Karagöl, 2008). To tailor the questionnaire to the Iranian context, after piloting the test to 20 students, and based
on the experts ideas, some items were modified or replaced. Some questionnaires administered in Iranian EFL context
was also examined to find items suitable for replacing the inappropriate items (Moini & Asadi Sajed, 2012; Hashemian
& Soureshjani, 2011; Nematipour, 2012; Rahnama & Zafarghandi, 2013; Maftoon, Daftarifard & Lavasani, 2011).
TABLE 1
NINE DIMENSIONS IN THE MODIFIED LEARNER AUTONOMY QUESTIONNAIRE
Section Number of items Focus Questions
Readiness for Self-direction What are the learners’ beliefs relating to self-directed learning
Dimension 1 6 items
in general?
Independent Work in Language What are the learners’ beliefs about independent work in
Dimension 2 6 items
Learning language learning?
Importance of Class/ Teacher How important do learners see the class/ the teacher in their
Dimension 3 8 items
language learning?
Role of Teacher: What importance do learners give to teacher explanation and
Dimension 4 5 items
Explanation/Supervision supervision?
Language Learning Activities In relation to particular language learning activities, what are
Dimension 5 4 items
Outside the Class the learners’ attitudes?
Selecting Content What are the learners’ attitudes relating to the selection of
Dimension 6 3 items
content for language learning?
Dimension 7 3 items Intrinsic motivation How confident do learners feel about defining objectives?
Assessment/ Motivation How important is external assessment in motivating the
Dimension 8 5 items
learners’ work?
Interest inmOther Cultures What are the learners’ attitudes relating to the culture of other
Dimension 9 4 items
countries?

To collect the data on autonomy, the Autonomy Learner Questionnaire was administered in class with a thirty-minute
allotted time period prior to the study as a pre-test and after the implementation period at the end of the twelfth week as
a post-test.
The School invited all the students who have passed Top Notch Book 2B and ready to enter the Top Notch Book 3A
classes (Level 7) to participate in a Preliminary English Test (PET) to ensure the homogeneity of the groups. Of course,
the outliners were out of statistical considerations. Since there were 2 intermediate groups (4 classes) with 28-36
students in each group were available in the school, one of these groups served as the experimental groups and the other
on as the control group and among those 28-36 students 23-25 were considered in statistical analyses since some of
them were outliers and some others were absent on the exam.
Participants in the experimental group were asked to self-asses themselves and their classmates every session based
on a 0-2 scale. The criteria for this self assessment were taught to ensure students knowing of how to evaluate their
performance (including doing the homework, workbook and being active during the class). The teacher also evaluated
the learners' performance on the same scale and since each term consists of 25 sessions, the mean of the sum of the
students and teachers' given scores consist 50 of 100 scores of the whole term (To see a sample assessment form see
Appendix C)
At the end of the course, the same autonomy questionnaires were given to the students to determine the possible
changes. The students were also given an open-ended questionnaire about their experience practicing self assessment.

V. DATA ANALYSIS
The first Null hypothesis dealt with the impact of self assessment on learner autonomy and is stated as follows:
H04: Self Assessment does not foster learner autonomy.
As assessment is one of the dimensions of learner autonomy, a comprehensive analysis of the dimensions seems to be
more appropriate here to see whether its practice has any impacts on the dimensions other than assessment dimension.

© 2016 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 49

TABLE 2
THE IMPACT OF SELF ASSESSMENT ON DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF LEARNER AUTONOMY
Dimensions N Mean Std. Deviation T Df Sig. (2-tailed)
Control 25 20.16 2.37
D1 .812 47 .425
SA 24 20.70 2.34
Control 25 18.32 1.81
D2 .165 47 .870
SA 24 18.46 2.26
Control 25 21.24 2.58
D3 2.35 47 .023
SA 24 22.95 2.51
Control 25 14.40 1.75
D4 2.33 47 .024
SA 24 15.62 1.90
Control 25 09.08 2.08
D5 .348 47 .729
SA 24 09.29 2.17
Control 25 07.40 1.52
D6 1.67 47 .101
SA 24 08.08 1.47
Control 25 05.40 1.97
D7 5.04 47 .000
SA 24 07.45 .833
control 25 13.68 2.10
D8 3.30 47 .002
SA 24 15.54 1.84
control 25 09.20 2.06
D9 .823 47 .415
SA 24 09.79 2.57

As indicated in table 2 Self assessment doesn't seem to have any significant impact on some dimensions of learner
autonomy, that is dimensions 1, 2, 5, 6 and 9. One the other hand some dimensions have been developed, examples are
dimensions 3 (Importance of Class/ Teacher), 4 (role of teacher), 7 (objective/evaluation) and 8 (assessment/motivation).
To study the impact of self assessment on learner autonomy in general, another t-test was run and the result is shown
in table 4.11.
TABLE 4.11
STATISTICS FOR LAQ- INDEPENDENCY LEVELS FOR SA
VAR02 N Mean Std. Deviation T Df Sig. (2-tailed)
VAR01 Control 25 118.88 12.18
2.44 47 .019
SA 24 127.87 13.56

As indicated in the above table, the mean of the experimental group is higher than the control group and the Sig.
which is lower than .05 (that is the alpha level) shows the positive impact of self assessment on learner autonomy.
The second hypothesis of the study is concerned with the impact of self assessment on language proficiency.
H02: Self Assessment does not improve on language proficiency
To test the hypothesis PET was administered to 24 intermediate students who had been practicing self assessment for
three months and the result was compared to that of the control group.
TABLE 3
STATISTICS FOR PET AS THE POST TEST IN SA GROUP
VAR02 N Mean Std. Deviation T df Sig. (2-tailed)
VAR01 Control 25 65.64 5.40
.207 47 .837
SA 23 65.28 6.82

As indicated in the table above, sig level is higher than the alpha decision level (.05) and therefore the null hypothesis
can be accepted and it can be concluded that self assessment can not affect language proficiency.

VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Self assessment was the independent variable of the study. As with the other techniques, it developed some
dimensions of learner autonomy like the importance of classroom and teacher, the role of the teacher,
objective/evaluation and assessment/motivation. Of course, the fostering of these last two dimensions seems common
sense, but self assessment has positive effects on the independency of the learners on teacher and classroom. It may
because of the learners’ change of attitude toward the role of themselves as active entities in language learning. The
results of the study go in line with that of Gholami and Biria’s (2014) on the impact of reflective journal writing. In that
study, they found that reflective journal writing can foster some aspects of learner autonomy while not others. As
Gardner and Miller (1999) discuss, self-assessment is an important tool for autonomous language learning. It can be
used both as a testing device and as a device for personal self-evasluation. It provides the learner with a feedback
immediately available to determine language proficiency and to reflect on learning strategies.
Interestingly self-assessment didn’t develop learner’s language proficiency. The findings are in contrast to those of
Abolfazli and Sadeghi (2012) who claimed positive effect of self-, peer-, and teacher- assessment on Iranian
undergraduate EFL students’ course achievement and Vangah (2013) who found positive effects of self-assessment on
reading.

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50 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES

Today a good assessment is not only an assessment of learning, it is also an assessment for learning. This kind of
assessment contributes to the learners’ growing consciousness, and enables them to go on with learning. In this way
there is a clear connection between self-directed learning and assessment, and teachers should play their role by giving
up the assessment to the learners.
Developing learner autonomy, however, is not a matter of one or two techniques; rather it needs a planned approach.
Using the techniques discussed each its own seek although may lead to fostering autonomy but can not develop all the
dimensions. It's the multidimensional model that can develop the autonomy and all its aspects. The multidimensional
model can also affect the learner's proficiency which seems to be the end goal to many language teachers.

APPENDIX A. LEARNER AUTONOMY QUESTIONNAIRE

Name: …………………….. Time of the Class:…………………….
Age: ………………………. Educational background ………………
English Experience (year): ………………………
Direction: Please check the one closest answer to the following questions according to your true cases. Thank you
very much for your help and patience.
5= Always True
4= Mostly True
3= Sometimes True
2= Rarely True
1= Never True
1 2 3 4 5
1 (1) I usually set my own goal for each semester. INDEPENDENT
2(2) I use other English books and resources on my own will. INDEPENDENT
3(1) When I hear someone talking in English, I listen very carefully. INDEPENDENT
4(1) I want to talk in English with my family or friends. INDEPENDENT
5(2) I enjoy learning a grammatical point on my own. INDEPENDENT
6(2) While learning English, I like activities in which I can learn on my own. INDEPENDENT
7(2) I like trying new things while I am learning English. INDEPENDENT
8)3) I am afraid that I won’t learn a topic if the teacher doesn’t explain it in the English class. DEPENDENT
9(4) I learn better when the teacher explains something on the board. DEPENDENT
10(2) I use my own methods to learn vocabulary in English. INDEPENDENT
11(3) I feel confident when the teacher is beside me while I am learning English. DEPENDENT
12(3) I can learn English only with the help of my teacher. DEPENDENT
13(3) My teacher always has to guide me in learning English. DEPENDENT
14(4) While learning English I would like my teacher to repeat grammatical rules. DEPENDENT
15(4) I feel happy when my teacher explains very detail of English. DEPENDENT
16(1) In the future, I would like to continue learning English on my own/without a teacher. INDEPENDENT
17(5) In the English lesson I like projects where I can work with other students. INDEPENDENT
18(3) I can learn the English grammar on my own/ without needing a teacher. INDEPENDENT
19(3) If I cannot learn English in the classroom, I can learn working on my own. INDEPENDENT
20(2) I like learning English words by looking them up in a dictionary. INDEPENDENT
21(4) I like my teacher to correct my errors when I make a mistake. DEPENDENT
22(4) I want the teacher to give us the words that we are to learn. DEPENDENT
23(5) I would like to use cassettes/ video/ CD’s in the foreign language, outside of the classroom. INDEPENDENT
24(5) In fact I like to listen and read in English outside of the classroom. INDEPENDENT
25(6) I would like to select the materials for my foreign language lessons. INDEPENDENT
26(6) I would like to share the responsibility of deciding what to do in the English lesson. INDEPENDENT
27(3) I know how I can learn English the best. INDEPENDENT
28(1) If I haven't learnt something in my English lesson, I am responsible for it. INDEPENDENT
29(6) I would like to choose the content of what is to be taught in the English lesson. INDEPENDENT
30(8) The teacher should give me regular test. DEPENDENT
31(7) I like English because I like it to speak English. INDEPENDENT
32(1) I know my weaknesses and go for it. INDEPENDENT
33(7) I believe that I will reach a good level in the English language. INDEPENDENT
34(8) Every time I have an assignment, the teacher should score or correct it. DEPENDENT
35(2) I think that I learn English better when I work on my own. INDEPENDENT
36(3) My language learning success depends on what I do in classroom. INDEPENDENT
37(5) I find it more useful to work with my friends than working on my own for the English lesson.
INDEPENDENT
38(8) I do the English lesson activities only when my teacher is going to grade me. DEPENDENT
39(8) I have my own ways of testing how much I have learned. INDEPENDENT
40(7) I can be a fluent English speaker in future. DEPENDENT
41(9) I try to understand the jokes and riddles of the foreign language. INDEPENDENT
42(9) I also investigate the culture of the foreign language I am learning. INDEPENDENT
43(9) I also investigate the idioms and sayings of the foreign language I am learning. INDEPENDENT
44(9) I ask people who have lived abroad about the lifestyles of the people living there. INDEPENDENT

© 2016 ACADEMY PUBLICATION

 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES 51

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Hamid Gholami holds a Ph.D. in Teaching English as a Foreign Language from the Islamic Azad University of Isfahan. Right
now, he is a faculty member in Islamic Azad University of Kermanshah and is also working as the Head of Department for M. A.
students of TEFL. In recent years, he has been teaching English at different universities. His research interests and publications relate
to learner autonomy, classroom practices, and teacher training.

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