STAINLESS STEEL

FASTENERS –
A SYSTEMATIC
APPROACH TO
THEIR SELECTION
A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES
NO 9003

Produced by Distributed by
AMERICAN IRON NICKEL
AND STEEL INSTITUTE INSTITUTE
STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS –
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
TO THEIR SELECTION

A DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK SERIES

NO 9003

Originally, this handbook was published in 1976 by the Committee

of Stainless Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute.
The Nickel Institute republished the handbook in 2020. Despite the
age of this publication the information herein is considered to be
generally valid.
Material presented in the handbook has been prepared for the
general information of the reader and should not be used or relied
on for specific applications without first securing competent advice.
The Nickel Institute, the American Iron and Steel Institute, their
members, staff and consultants do not represent or warrant its
suitability for any general or specific use and assume no liability or
responsibility of any kind in connection with the information herein.

Nickel Institute
communications@nickelinstitute.org
www.nickelinstitute.org
CONTENTS
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fastener Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Stainless Steels Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Choosing the Right Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Stainless Steel Fastener Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Tensile & Yield Strength
Shear Strength

High- and Low-Temperature Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Magnetic and Electrical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Electrical conductivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Manufacture of Stainless Steel Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Plated Coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Effective Utilization of Stainless Steel Fasteners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Designing for Optimum Corrosion Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Types of corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Availability of Stainless Steel Fasteners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
 ROUND FLAT PLAIN

Preface A systematic The designer should consider a

fastener as a system, and regard
There was a time when the approach to the assembled joint as a critical
and integral portion of the design
periodic repair of mechanical and
electrical components was taken stainless steel -not as an afterthought-because
the joint is normally an area under
for granted. Today, with labor costs
at record levels and going up, fastener selection highest stress and often the place
where failure is most likely to occur.
greater consideration at the design Selecting the optimum fastener A designer should start with the
level is being given to the reduction
can be an awesome task for any optimum fastener and design the
-or even elimination-of main­
designer. There is a staggering joint around that, rather than start­
tenance. In cases where a joint
diversity of fastener types available ing with the joint and then looking
must be taken apart and reassem­ (over 500,000 standard items), and for the fastener that seems most
bled, the corrosion resistance of for any one type there can be a adequate.
the fastener is particularly important large number of sizes from which
so that corrosion will in no way
hamper or prevent its removal. The
to choose. For example, one of the
smallest standard fasteners has a
Fastener materials
cost of removing rusty bolts, and head of 0.01 inch (.254mm); the
replacing them with new ones, is Fasteners have been made of a
largest has a head 4 feet (1.219m) vast number of materials for one
more expensive than using cor­ in diameter. To further complicate
rosion resistant fasteners to reason or another. The designer
the problem of fastener selection,
begin with. there are special designs, which
Other costs resulting from are not considered to be "off-the­
fastener failure, such as downtime shelf" items, and a wide variety of
and lost production, make an even different materials.
stronger case for stainless steel
Stainless steel is one of these
fasteners.
fastener materials, and it is used
extensively throughout industry for
both original equipment manufac­
ture as well as for replacement.
The purpose of this publication is
to help designers trace an orderly
path through the fastener complex­
ity to arrive at a stainless steel
fastener system that best fills
the need.

•
0 .
.

3
 CID ◊
i ' i I
0 D

FLAT HEAD
CAP SCREW OR HEX HEAD SQUARE HEAD
MACHINE BOLT WASHER BOLT T BOLT

can specify anything from hard oak CARBON STEELS (AISI Type): They are not hardenable by
to lnvar, a low coefficient-of­ 1008, 1010, 1015 are low-carbon heat treatment but are hard­
expansion material. There are steels used for the great enable by cold working, such
indeed many cases wherein an majority of machine screws, as by heading and thread
exotic material must be used wood screws, etc. Sometimes rolling. They are nonmagnetic
because of design requirements. called mild steel, they have a in the annealed condition and
However, the common materials tensile strength of about 55 ksi only slightly magnetic in the
used to produce both standard and (379MPa), which cannot be cold worked condition.
special fasteners should be con­ increased by heat treatment. 384 is a stainless steel that has
sidered first. The common materials 1018, 1020, 1022 are medium lower work-hardening char­
are a first choice because of the low-carbon steels that can be acteristics than Type 305. It is
ease in manufacturing fasteners heat treated for strength to a in the 18-8 family of stainless
from these materials, because they minor degree (except 1018), steels and is included in most
provide adequate physical charac­ and they can be case hardened AN and MS specifications.
teristics at more economical cost, to form an outer layer of hard, 316 stainless steel has the
and because they are readily tough, but brittle carburized highest degree of corrosion
available from suppliers throughout steel. They are used for sheet resistance of the commonly­
the United States and Canada. The metal screws, thread-cutting used 18-8 stainless steels.
brief outline which follows identifies screws, and for grade 2 410, 416, 430 are magnetic
some different common fastener (bright) hexhead cap screws. stainless steels having less
materials. About 59 ksi (407MPa) is the corrosion resistance than the
usual tensile strength for 300 Series types. Types 410
these materials. and 416 are hardenable by
1035, 1038 are high-carbon, heat treatment to 125-180 ksi
medium alloy steels that can tensile (862-1241MPa).
be heat treated to 120 ksi Designers also have choices to
(827MPa) tensile strength. Cap make from among a large group of
screws are a typical use. nonferrous fasteners, and fasteners
ALLOY STEELS (AISI Type): that have been plated either for
4037, 4137 are molybdenum alloy purposes of corrosion protection or
steels that can be heat treated for appearance.
to 150 ksi tensile (1034MPa) This publication is concerned
and above. Typical uses only with stainless steels; however,
include hex socket and cap some comments will be made
screws and for spline concerning the other materials
fasteners.
FREE-CUTTING STEELS
(AISI Type):

-
1110, 1112, 1113 are low-carbon,
free-machining steels used
for low-strength nuts that are
used in all but critical
applications.
STAINLESS STEELS (AISI Type):
303, 304, S30430 (UNS), 305 are
in the "18-8" family of stain­
less steels that have tensile
strengths in the 80 ksi
(552MPa) and up range.
4
 fied by the new Unified Numbering
System (UNS), which encompasses
all commercial metals and rare
earths. For example, Type 304 is
Type S30400 in UNS. Special
analysis and proprietary stainless
steels are identified by trade
names, some of which may
resemble AISI numbers.
The terms austenitic, martensitic,
terrific and precipitation hardening
serve to identify categories of
stainless steels on the basis of
their metallurgical structure. De­
signers should recognize these
terms and understand what they
mean, because stainless steels so
classified tend to have similar
characteristics with respect to
corrosion resistance, hardenability,
and fabricability.
Austenitic stainless steels are
chromium-nickel-manganese
and chromium-nickel composi­
tions identified by 200 and 300
Series numbers, respectively.
They are hardenable only by
cold working and are non­
magnetic in the annealed con­
because an evaluation requires a the American Iron and Steel Institute dition. Typical of the austenitic
comparison of available materials. as standard compositions. A com­ group is Type 304, which con­
plete listing of all AISI stainless tains nominally 18% chromium
Stainless steels steels and a description of each
are contained in the AISI publica­
and 8% nickel, hence the
18-8 name.
Stainless steel is a family of tion, "Steel Products Manual Ferritic stainless steels are
iron-base alloys containing about -Stainless and Heat-Resisting straight-chromium steels in the
10.5% chromium or more, plus Steels, December 1974.1'' 400 Series that are not harden­
other alloying elements such as In addition to the standard AISI able by heat treatment and only
nickel, manganese, molybdenum, types, many special analysis and slightly hardenable by cold
sulfur, selenium, titanium, etc. The proprietary stainless steels are working. All are magnetic. Type
chromium is chiefly responsible for produced in the United States 430 is typical of this group.
corrosion and heat resistance; the and Canada. Martensitic stainless steels are
other alloying elements are present straight-chromium, 400 Series
in stainless steel to enhance
corrosion resistance and to impart
Identification that can be hardened by heat
treatment only. All are magnetic.
certain characteristics with respect Most AISI stainless steels are Type 410 is typical of this group.
to strength and fabricability. identified by a system of numbers Precipitation hardening stainless
A total of 57 commercial stain­ that are in either 200, 300, or 400 steels are hardenable by a
less steel types are designated by Series. In addition, all are identi- combination of a low-temperature
5
 FASTENER BASICS

Driving Head Shoulder Shank

w•
Recess Styles Form Types

§
SLOTTED
q;p
HEX
�
SQUARE
SQUARE RIBBED

� �

H
ROUND (BUTTON) PAN

©
PHILLIPS

ft
FULL SIZE

w
BINDING FILLISTER FIN NECK ROUND
HEX SOCKET

V
@
M
TRUSS FLAT

8
POZIDRIV COUNTERSUNK

�
OVAL
9
ROUND WASHER OVAL UNDERSIZE
CLUTCH

9
HEX WASHER
�
FREARSON
6
 An analysis of standard fasteners,
Thread Point such as bolts and screws,
Form Styles reveals that all have certain
characteristics in common.
Further, their differences can be

D 0
classified as shown here. Each
bolt and screw is, in effect, made
up of a series of component
parts; thus, the fasteners may
OVAL SPHERICAL have some or all of these: (a) a
head; (b) a driving recess;

D
WHITWORTH BUTTRESS METRIC (c) a shoulder ; (d) an unthreaded
shank ; (e) a threaded shank; and
(f) a point.
PILOT CHAMFER
Certain combinations of these

D
CONE CUP
components, because of usage
are considered standard. Others
are non-standard, but nearly any
combination can be readily
produced.

AMERICAN
UNIFIED
WOOD
SCREW
TAPPING D
FLAT NEEDLE
This analysis of fastener parts is
presented in the hope that it will
assist the user in understanding
and specifying bolts and sc rews.
STANDARD Source: ITT Harper

NAIL GIMLET

ACME BRITISH
HEADER SPECIAL
7
 <s>
I I I
CAP NUT SQUARE MACHINE
CASTLE NUT (ACORN NUT) WING NUT SCREW NUT

aging treatment and cold working. tions, most organic chemicals and siderably higher sulfur content that
The AISI types are identified by dyestuffs, and a wide variety of enhances machining character­
UNS numbers only (such as Type inorganic chemicals. It resists nitric istics. If a fastener is made by
S17400), although many are acid well, the sulfur acids mod­ machining, such as large bolts or
referred to in literature by propri­ erately, and the halogen acids specials that cannot be cold headed,
etary trade names such as poorly. It is used for cryogenic ap­ more than likely it will be Type 303.
17-4PH. The precipitation hard­ plications, and is easily fabricated. On the other hand, Types UNS­
ening stainless steels are especi­ Types 303, UNS-S30430, 305, S30430, 305, and 384 were
ally useful because fabrication and 384 are variations of Type 304 developed specifically for cold­
can be completed in an annealed that were developed to meet spe­ forming operations. Type UNS­
condition and uniform harden­ cific manufacturing requirements. S30430 contains copper and is
ing achieved without a high­ For instance, Type 303 has a con- used for cold headed fasteners.
temperature treatment that can Regardless of the diversity in
result in distortion and scaling. numbering, the above-mentioned
stainless steels are essentially 18-8
materials in that their composition
Choosing the right is very close to the nominal com­

stainless steel
position of Type 304, which is 18%
chromium and 8% nickel. Because
they have similar corrosion resis­
The stainless steels used most tance properties, these 18-8 ma­
frequently as fasteners are Types terials are usually interchanged in
303, 304, UNS-S30430, 305, 384, fastener applications. If an applica­
316, 410, 416, and 430. Selection tion calls for Type 304, the designer
of the right type for a fastener can generally specify an 18-8
application is greatly simplified fastener material.
when they are classified according However, it should be recognized
to metallurgical categories de­ that while the 18-8 stainless steels
scribed on page 5. are considered to have similar
Austenitic -Types 303, 304, corrosion-resistance properties,
UNS-S30430, 305, they are not identical. The sulfur in
384, and 316 Type 303, for example, causes it to
Ferritic -Type 430 have somewhat lower corrosion
Martensitic-Types 410 and 416 resist?nce than Type 304, especially
The selection process is further when in direct and continuous
simplified when the designer contact with water or some chem­
understands the characteristics of ical solution. Accordingly, a
each category and the relationship designer should specify Type 304
of alloys to one another in that when it is known that Type 303 is
group. not suitable for the application.
The austenitic stainless steels are When in doubt, the designer should
characterized as having excellent consult with a corrosion engineer.
corrosion resistance, with the If an application calls for a
higher alloyed materials accordingly material with corrosion resistant
having superior resistance. For properties better than that of Type
example, Type 304 is the most 304, Type 316 is tlie next logical
widely used material that withstands candidate. Type 316 stainless steel
ordinary rusting. It is virtually im­ is a higher alloyed material contain­
mune to foodstuffs, sterilizing solu- ing 2-3% molybdenum, which gives
8
it corrosion-resistant properties alloyed types, in which case the cameras, vending machines,
superior to Type 304, especially in designer can consider one of the counters, appliances, showcases,
environments containing chlorides. straight-chromium types, some of and a host of other products that
It has wide application in pulp and which may be lower in cost. For need dressing up or "eye appeal"
paper mills, for example, because it example, Type 430 stainless steel to increase their salability.
is more resistant to sulfurous acid contains about 18% chromium, but On the other hand, there is Type
compounds. It is also widely used no nickel. Although it has lower 410, which contains 11.5-13.5%
in phosphoric and acetic acids that corrosion-resistance properties chromium, and accordingly has
tend to cause pitting corrosion in than the 18-8 types, it has wide ap­ lower resistance to corrosion than
the 18-8 types. plication for decorative trim because Type 430 or the 18-8 materials. It
Many fastener applications do not when it is buffed it closely will resist corrosion in mild atmo­
require the high degree of corro­ resembles a material that has been spheres, fresh water, mine water,
sion resistance offered by the 18-8 chromium plated. Typical applica­ steam, carbonic acid, crude oil,
stainless steels or the higher tions include trim on automobiles, gasoline, blood, alcohol, ammonia,

TABLE 1-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION LIMITS OF RAW MATERIAL (IFl-104)

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS 1
DESCRIPTION COVERING CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, % MAX
GRADE OF RAW MATERIALS (UNLESS SHOWN AS MIN OR MAX/ MIN LIMITS GIVEN)
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
..l..
STAINLESS STEEL
C Mn p s Si Cu Mo Ni Cr Other

±
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 303 8.00 17.00 See
303 Stainless QQ-S-764 Class 303 0.15 2 00 0.20 0.15 1.00 0.60 3 to to Note
Steel AISI 303 min 10.00 19.00 ( 3)
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 304 8.00 18.00
304 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 304 0.08 2 00 0,045 0.030 1.00 to to
Steel AISI 304 12.00 20.00
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 305 10.00 17.00
305 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 305 0.12 2 00 0.045 0.030 1.00 - to to
Steel AISI 305 13.00 19.00
Austenitic ASTM A276 Type 316 2.00 1000 16.00
316 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0 030 1.00 to to to
Steel AISI 316 3.00 14.00 18.00
Austenitic 3.0 8.00 17.00
XM7* Stainless ASTM A493 Type XM7 0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to to
Steel 4.0 1000 19.00
Austenitic 17.00 15.00
384 Stainless AISI 384 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 to to
Steel 19.00 17.00
Martensitic ASTM A276 Type 410 11.50
410 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 41O 0.15 1 00 0040 0.030 1.00 - - to
Steel AISI 410 �� 13.50
Martensitic ASTM A276 Type 416 12.00
416 Stainless QQ-S-764 Class 416 0.15 1.25 0.06 0.15 1.00 0.602 to

I I
Steel AISI 416 min 14.00
Ferritic ASTM A276 Type 430 14.00
430 Stainless QQ-S-763 Class 430 0.12 1.00 0.040 0 030 1.00 - to
Steel AISI 430 18.00
NOTES TO TABLE 1
1. Legend of specification designations - 2. May be added at manufacturer's option. * Type S30430
ASTM-American Society for Testing and Materials 3. ASTM A276 permits addition of molybdenum, and also
AISI-American Iron and Steel Institute 0.12/0.30% lead at manufacturer's option. AISI requires
QQ-X-XXX-Federal Government the addition of molybdenum but permits no lead.

9
 • -
,,
aa.ra ..........

WASHER HEX WASHER OVAL

SLOTTED

TABLE 2-MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STAINLESS STEEL BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS AND NUTS (IFl-104)

GENERAL FULL SIZE SOLTS,

MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
BOLTS, SCREWS AND STUDS
MACHINED TEST SPECIMENS OF
NUTS 1
GRADE 1
SCREWS, STUDS SOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS PROOF
DESCRIPTION HARDNESS HARDNESS
LOAD
YIELD 2 TENSILE YIELD 2 TENSILE ELONG- ROCKWELL ROCKWELL
STRESS
STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH ATION 3

min ksi min ksi min ksi min ksi % Min Min ksi Min
Austenitic
303-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 B75 75 875
Sol. Annealed
ustenitic
304-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 B75 75 875
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic

r
304 Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 B85 90 885
Cold Worked
Austenitic

t 1
See See See See See C20
304-SH Stainless Steel- 15 C25 Note 6
Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 Note 6
Strain Hardened

i
Austenitic
305-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 870 75 870
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
305 Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 885 90 885
Cold Worked
Austenitic See
See See See See

t t
305-SH Stainless Steel- 15 C25 C20
Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 Note 6
Strain Hardened

i r
Austenitic
316-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 870 75 870
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
316 Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 885 90 B85
Cold Worked
Austenitic See See
See See See 15 C25 C20
316-SH Stainless Steel- Note 6 Note 6 Note 6 Note 6
Note 6
Strain Hardened
Austenitic
XM7-A* Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 870 75 870
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
XM7* Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 B85 90 B85
Cold Worked
Austenitic
384-A Stainless Steel- 30 75 30 75 20 B70 75 B70
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
384 Stainless Steel- 50 90 45 85 20 885 90 B85
Cold Worked
Martensitic
410-H Stainless Steel- 125 95 125 20 C22 125 C22
95
Hardened and
Tempered
Martensitic
Stainless Steel 180 135 180 12 C36 180 C36
410-HT 135
Hardened and
Tempered
Martensitic
Stainless Steel- 95 125 95 125 20 C22 125 C22
416-H Hardened and
Tem(2ered
Martensitic
Stainless Steel- 135 180 135 180 12 C36 180 C36
416-HT Hardened and
Tern ered
Ferritic 40 70 40 70 20 875 70 875
430 Stainless Steel-

10
NOTES TO TABLE 2
1. Legend of grade desig nations: - 4. Loads at minimum yie ld strength and minimum ultimate tensile
A-solution an nealed st rength for full size produc ts may be computed by mul tiplying the
SH- strain hardened yield strength and tensile strength stresses as given in Table 2 by
H-h ardened and tempered at 1100 F min. the stress area for the product size and thread series as give n in
HT- hardened and tempered at 525 F ± 50 F Table 2a. below.
2. Yield strength is the stress at which an offset of 0.2% of gauge 5. Proof loads of nuts in pound s may be computed by mu lti ply ing the
length occurs for all stainless stee ls. proof load stress as given in Table 2 by the stress area for the nut
3. Elongation is determined using a gauge length ol 2 in. or 4 diameters size and thread series given in Tab le 2a.
of test specimen in accordance with Federal Standard 151, Method 6. Austenitic stainless steel, strai n hardened bolts , screws, studs and
211. nuts shall have the fo llow ing strength properties.

BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS NUTS

TESTED FULL SIZE MACHINED TEST

-
PRODUCT SPECIMENS
SIZE
- YIELD TENSILE YIELD TENSI LE
- PROOF
LOAD
STRESS
STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH

- to%
in .

in.
min ksi

100
min ksi

125
min ksi

90
---
min ksi

115
ksi

125
-
ove r% to 1 in. 70 105 65 100 105
over 1 to 1½ in . 50 90 45 85 90

TABLE 2a-TENSILE STRESS AREAS AND THREADS PER INCH

COARSE THREAD FINE THREAD

PRODUCT SIZE
DIA. in. STRESS AREA, THREADS STRESS AREA, THREADS
sq in. per in. sq in. per in.

6 0.00909 32 0.0 1015 40

8 0.0140 32 0.01474 36
10 0.0175 24 0.0200 32
12 0.0242 24 0.0258 28

¼ 0.03 18 20 0.0364 28
5/16 0 .0524 18 0.0580 24
þÿ!\ 0.0775 16 0.0878 24
7/1616 0.1063 14 0.1187 20
½ 0.1419 13 0.1599 20

9/16 0 .1820 12 0.2030 18

þÿ!] 0.2260 11 0.2560 18
¾ 0.3340 10 0.3730 16
þÿ!^ 0.4620 9 0.5090 14
0.6060 8 0.6630 12

þÿ1![ 0.7630 7 0 .8560 12

1¼ 0.9690 7 1.0730 12
þÿ1!\ 1.1550 6 1.3150 12
1½ 1.4050 6 1.5810 12

Ten si le stress areas are comput ed usin g the following formula : Where A,= tensile stress area in square inches • Type 30430
9 43 2 D = nominal size (basic major diameter) in inches
A, = 0.7854 [ D - O : ) n = numb er of threads per inch

11
 [1
CLOSED EYE BOLT
r
U BOLT , J BOLT
RIGH T ANGLE BOLT
DOUBLE END
STUD
SQUARE HEAD
SET SCREWS
I
TREADED
ROD

determin ation , however , should be used for we lded fabricat ions that
FIGURE 1. YIELD STRENGTH- based on tests conducted under wi ll be exposed to ac id environ -
DETERMINED BY OFFSET
actua l working conditions. If this ments. Other stainless stee ls are
is not practical for a des igner , he espec ially suited for high-temper-
should consult with a corrosion ature environments , suc h as Types
engineer having experienc e w ith 309 , 3 10, 3 14, 32 1, 347 , 348 , 436 ,
40 stai nless steel s. Assistance can be 442 , and 446.
obta ined throu gh the companies Anothe r group of stain less steels
listed on th e back cover of this has improved mechanical prop-
I 0.2% OFFSET pub Iication. erties, suc h as high strength and
UJ
a:
The sta inl ess steels desc ribed so hardness. Included in this group
PARALLEL LINES
far represent only the common ones are Types 304 N, 3 16N, 422 , 431 ,
cove red by fastener industr y speci - 440A , 440B, and 440 C, plus the
fic ation s.' Other stainless steel types precipitation hardening grades-
.005 .010
are available to meet specif ic re- Types UNS-S1 3800, UNS-S155 00 ,
STRAIN In /in
requ irements of fabr ication or end UNS-S 17400 , and UNS-S17700 .
use , many of which are used in Nearly all of the sta inl ess stee ls
To convert to metric: 1000 psi= approx. 6 .9 MPa fastener form . For exam ple , there can be made into fasteners ,
1 in. = 25 .4 MM
are var iati ons of the 18-8 grou p althoug h special arrangements with
having lower-carbon contents. suc h a fastener manufacturer may be
mercury , soap, sugar so lut ions and as Types 304L and 316L. These are nec essary in some cases.
other reagents. It also has good
sca ling and oxidat ion resistanc e up FIGURE 2. TENSILE STRENGTH OF NINE FASTENER ALLOYS
to 1200 F (649C), whic h is dis-
cussed in g reater detail beginn ing
on page 16 . Type 416 is a free-
180
machining variat ion of Type 410
and has simil ar characteristics. 110
To review briefly , the relative 100
resista nce to corros ion among the
90
co mmon stainless steel fastener
80
materials is as follows
Corrosion 70

Category Type Resistance 60

Austeni tic 316 Superior 50

(18-8) Excellent 40
Ferr itic 430 Good
Marte nsitic 410 Fair
The cor ros ion Data Survey pub-
lish ed in 1968 by the National
Ass ociation of Corrosion Engineers
(NACE) contains data on the use of
these materia ls in various chemica l
environme nts, with specific info r-
mation on temperatures and con-
ce ntrations. These data can be
ve ry helpful in narrowing dow n the
cho ice of mater ials for any g iven Source : ITT Harper
co rrosive enviro nment. The fin al

12
 Tensile
and
yieldstrengths
Tensile or ultimate strength is
that property of a material which
determines how muc h load it can
w ithstand unti l fai lure. Yie ld strength

0 is a measure of the resistance of

a material to plastic deformation;
that is, to taking of a permanent set
under load. For stainless steels, the
stainless steels used for bolts , yield strength is calcula ted on a
Stainless
steel screws , studs, and nuts up to and stress-strain diagram, (Figure 1)

fastener
properties diameter.
including 1½ inch (38.1 mm ) in
The specification is
and it is a point at which a line
drawn parallel to and offset 0.2%
Once the design engineer has especially useful because it is from the straight line portion of the
determ ined cand id ate fastener based entirely on the properties of curve intersects the curve.
mate rials on the basis of their full -size finished fasteners , which It can be seen from the data in
corrosion-resistant propert ies , his in many cases are different from Table 2 that there is a considerable
next concern probably will be the the proper ti es of the bar or wire spread between the tensile and
mec hanical and physical propert ies from which they are made. Tables yield strength values , which is
of these materia ls. Once aga in , the 1 and 2 present some of the data characteristic of stainless steels.
fam ily of stainless steels covers a conta ined in the IFl-104 specifica - Yield strength is used in design
wide cho ice. The choice , however , tion.
should not be a diff icu lt one to
make if the designer uses the TABLE 3-STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT RATIO
guide lines ava ilable to him , such as Typica l Strength-to-
Dens ity
the specificat ions published by the Material Tensile Strength
Lbs. / Cu . In.
Weight Ratio
ksi Inches x 102
Industrial Fasteners Institute.
Martensitic Stainless
Many an enginee r who has Steel (410 , 416)
180 .280 6.4
attempted to design a product
using stainless steel fasteners has Aluminum (2024-T4) 60 .098 6.1
learned that meaningful data on Austenitic Stainless
fastener properties are sometimes Steel (18-8) 125 .290 4.3
Strain hardened
difficult to find. In many situations ,
the des igner has had to rely on Titanium
50 163 3.1
technical data based on the Commercially pure
mechan ical properties of the Nyl on 12 .041 2.9
mater ials from which the fasteners
are made. All too often these Austenitic Stainless 2.8
80 .290
Steel (18 -8) , annealed
properties vary considerably from
the actual properties of the Mone! 400 80 .319 2.5
manufactured fasteners . .308 2.4
Silicon Bronze 75
The Industrial Fasteners Institute
(IFI), however , has a specifica- Brass 60 .308 2.0
tion-lFl - 104-that covers the
Mild Stee l 50 .282 1.8
mechanica l, metallurgical , and
quality requirements of the common Source: ITT Harper

13
 HELICAL SPRING FLAT WASHER EXTERNAL TOOTH INTERNAL TOOTH COUNTERSUNK
LOCK WASHER LOCK WASHER LOCK WASHER FINISHING WASHER

ca lcu lations , however , because it

TABLE 5-
stands to reason that if the yield CREEP STRENGTHS OF TYPICAL STAINLESS STEEL FASTENER MATERIALS
strengt h is exceeded , defor mation
will occ ur in the fastener . LOAD FOR 1 % ELONGATION IN 10,000 Hr, ksi
AISI
In looking at the data in Table 2, TYPE
it is noted that three different sets 1000 F 1100F 1200 F 1300 F 1500 F

of properties are g iven for Types

303 16.5 11 .5 6.5 3.5 0.7
304, 305, and 316, and two sets of

+
proper tie s for Types S30430 and 304 20 12 7.5 4 1.5
384. The reaso n is th at 300 Series
stainle ss steels increa se in strength 305 19 12.5 8 4 .5 2
as a result of cold working.
For examp le, full size bo lts of
18-8 stainles s steel in the annealed
co ndition wi ll have a minimum yield
stre ngth of 30 ksi (207 MPa) . If the
bolt is cold worked 15-20%, its
309

310

316
16.5

33

25
12.5

23

17.4
+ 10

15

11 .6
6

10

7.5
3

2.4

yield strength level will increase to 321 18 17 9 5 1.5

50 ksi (345MPa) minimum. Cold
347 32 23 16 10 2
wo rked from 35 to 40%-indicated
in Table 2 as "strain hardened"-
430 8.5 4.7 2 .6 1.4
the minimum yield strength level is
as high as 100 ksi (690MP a), de - 446 6.4 2.9 1.4 0 .6 0.4
pending upon size of the fasten er.
In the 400 Serie s, only the 4 10 11.5 4.3 2 1.5
martensitic stainless steels are
416 11 4.6 2 1.2
hardenable , and that is by therma l
tre atme nt. Two sets of values are Source: Ind ustry Data

TABLE 4-ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESS FOR STAINLESS STEEL BOLTS4

Allowable Shear
Minimum Tensile Requ irements
Stress (ksi)
Diameter
Condition
Type Finish d No Threads Threads
and Specification 0 2% Yield Tensile Strengt h
(In) in
I Shear in Shear
Strength (ksi) (ksi) Plane
I
I
Plane
--
Condition A (Anneale d)
302**
in ASTM A276- 71
304 Hot Finish ed all 30.0 75.0 15.0 10.5
Class 1 (sol ution treated)
316
in ASTM A193-71

302
Condition A (Annea led)
304 Cold Finishe d
in ASTM A276- 71
~½ 45.0 90.0 18.0 12.6
316

Condition B (cold -worked)

302* * in ASTM A276- 71
304 Co ld Finished Class 2 (solu tion treated ~ ¾ 100.0 125.0 25.0 17.5
316 and strain hardened)

I in ASTM A193-7 1 * I I I

• For Class 2: B8M in ASTM A 193, the allowable shear shear plane, or 15.0 ksi when threads are in the shear plane.
stress is 22.0 ksi when threading is excluded from the * * ASTM A276- 71 on ly.

14
given in Table 2 for Types 410 and TABLE 6-
416, representing two levels of THERMAL EXPANSION OF CORROSION-RESISTANT FASTENER ALLOYS
hardening and tempering. Type 430

J
Mean Coefficient of
is not hardenable. Alloy Temperature Range ° F Thermal Expansion
Figure 2 is a relative comparison In./ In. / ° F (10 6)
of strength va lues between stainless
Type 304 Stainless Steel 32 to 212 9.6
steels and other corrosion resistant 32 to 572 9.9
fastener materials. 32 to 1112 10.4

In selecting a stainless steel on

Type 316 Stainless Steel 32 to 212 8.9
the basis of mechanica l and 32 to 572 9.0
physica l properties, designers 32 to 1112 10.3
should keep in mind the following
considerat ions: Type 41 0 Stainless Steel 32 to 212 6.1
32 to 1000 7.2
Thread Strength Thread forms on
Brass 68 to 572 11.3

Naval Bronze 68 to 572 10.0

Silicon Bronze 68 to 572 11.8

Monel 68 to 212 7.8

Titanium 32 to 68 4.7
32 to 1600 5.6

Aluminum (2024) -76 to 68 21.4

68 to 212 22.8
68 to 392 23.9

Source: ITT Harper

in (1) more accurate, more uniform given in Tab le 3. Of part icul ar

thread dimensions , giving a better interest is the sim ilari ty between
fit between threaded parts and Type 410 stain less stee l and alum-
fewer concentrated loads at points inum , and the fact that Type 410
of misfit; (2) smoother thread sur- has a higher strength-to-weigh t
faces and , thus , fewer scratches ratio than aluminum 2024-T4.
and other markings to initiate Shear Strength
cracks, or ga lling; and (3) higher Shear is transverse rupture. It is
yie ld , tensile , and shear properties caused by a push ing or pulling
to better w ithstand service loads. force at 90 ° from the axis of a part.
Strength-To-Weight Ratio In appli - Thus , a rivet used as a pulley axle
cations where weight is an im- will shear if the load on the pu lley
portant consideration, designers exceeds the shear value of the
look to strength-to-weight ratios for rivet. Shear strength is defined as
fasteners are manufactured by an indication of the most efficient the load in pounds to cause rupture ,
cutting, ro lling, or grinding. The materia l to use. The strength-to- divided by the cross-sectional area
best qual ity highest-strength thread, weight ratio is defined as the ratio in square inches of the part along
however, is achieved by thread of tensile strength to density. Some the rupture plane.
rol ling. This is because the plastic typical properties of corrosion- The allowab le shear stresses for
deformation-or cold working- resistant fastener materials, includ- stainless steel bolts are given in
involved in rolling threads results ing strength-to-weight ratios, are Table 4, which is based on the AIS I

15
 -- ..
PAN BINDING TRUSS

publication, "Stainless Steel Cold­

TABLE 7-SCALING (OXIDATION) RESISTANCE OF
Formed Structural Design Manual, TYPICAL STAINLESS STEEL FASTENER MATERIALS
1974 Edition.•" The allowable shear
MAX. CONTINUOUS MAX. INTERMITTENT
-
AISI
stress for bolts with no threads in TYPE SERVICE, AIR, °F SERVICE, AIR, °F
the shear plane was taken as 60%
303 1650 1400

-
of the minimum tensile strength
divided by a safety factor of 3.0. 304 1650
--- 1550
-
This allowable shear stress provides 305 1650
a minimum safety factor of about 309 1950 1850
1.2 against shear yielding of the
bolt material. When threads are in­
310 2050
- 1900

cluded in the shear plane, 70% of 316 -- 1650 1550

-- ·----
·->--
the nominal allowable shear stress 321 1650 1550
is used due to the fact that the 347 1650 1550
actual shear stress in bolts is to be 1650
430 1550
calculated on the basis of the gross
446 1950 2050
cross-sectional area or nominal -
area, and that the ratios of stress 410 - 1300 1450 �
area to nominal area range from 416 1250 1400
0.65 to 0.76 for diameters of bolts
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

varying from ¼to¾ inch (6.3-

FIGURE 3. EFFECT OF CHROMIUM CONTENT ON SCALING RESISTANCE
OF CHROMIUM-IRON ALLOYS (At 1 S00"F or 982° C) 19.1 mm).
This practice is comparable to
that for high-strength carbon steel
structural bolts. However, it is
slightly more liberal because of the
45 generally shorter joint lengths in
cold-formed stainless steel con­
40 struction. For bolts not listed in
Table 4, the allowable shear stress
35 can be determind in the same
.2 manner
30
'ii
25 High-and
.,,I low-�emperature
service
20
.5

15
The selection of stainless steel
10 fasteners for high-temperature
service is complex because of the
5 many factors involved. Mechanical
and physical properties have to be
considered together with corrosion
2 4 6 8 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
10 resistance.
% Chromium In all bolted joints, the fasteners
Source: Industry Data
are tightened to some initial elastic
16
TABLE 8-CRVOGENIC PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEE LS

Test Yield Strength Tens ile Elongation

% lzod-lmpact
AISI Temperature 0.2% Offset Strength %
Reduction
TYPE in 2"
°F °C ksi kg/ mm 2 ksi kg/ mm 2 (5.08 cm)
of Area
It-lb kg-m

304 -40
-80
t -40
-62
34.0
34.0
24.0
24.0
155 .0
170.0
109.0
120.0
47.0
39.0
64.0
63.0
110
110
15.2
15.2
-320 -196 39.0 27.0 221.0 155.0 40.0 55.0 110 15.2
-423 -252 50.0 35.0 243.0 171.0 40.0 50.0 110 15.2
316 -40 I -40 41.0 29.0 104.0 73.0 59.0 75.0 110 15.2
-80 -62 44.0 31.0 118.0 83.0 57.0 73.0 110 15.2
-320 - 196 75.0 53.0 185.0 130.0 59.0 76.0 Not Available
- 423 -252 84.0 59.0 210.0 148.0 52.0 60.0 Not Available

430 -40 -40 41.0 29.0 76 .0 53.0 36.0 72.0 10 1.4

-80 -62 44.0 31.0 81.0 57.0 36.0 70.0 8 1.1
-320 -196 88.0 62.0 92.0 65.0 2.0 4.0 2 0.3

410 -40 -40 90.0 63.0 122.0 86.0 23.0 64.0 25 3.5
-80 -62 94.0 66.0 128.0 90.0 22.0 60.0 25 3.5
--320 -196 148.0 104 .0 158.0 111.0 10.0 11.0 5 0.7

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

FIGURE 4. WHEN COLD WORKING IS EMPLOYED, FIGURE 5. MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY OF AUSTENITIC ALLOYS
SOME NORMALLY NON-MAGNETIC AUSTENITIC SUBJECTED TO COLD WORKING CAN ALSO BE EXPRESSED
STEELS BECOME SUBSTANTIALLY MAGNETIC AS A FUNCTION OF TENSILE STRENGTH

10. 10.
302 304
304
/.
2.0 2.0

0 0
0
0
0
0
305
1 .1 305 C\J 1.1

#/
E E

1.01

---------- 316 1.01

----- --
-- 316

1.001 1.001
0 20 40 60 80 100 75 100 125 150 175 200 225

Cold reduction , per cent Tensile strength , psi x 1000 Increasing cold work

17
 i
GD @ 0

I I I
FLAT 100 DEGREE
HEAD MACHINE
FLAT TRIM HEAD
MACHINE SCREW
•

HEX.HEAD
MACHIN� _SCREW THUMB SCREW

stress and corresponding strain. At

FIGURE 6. MACHINING
elevated temperatures, creep
occurs in which some of the elastic
strain is transformed to plastic
strain with a corresponding reduc­
tion in stress. This behavior is
termed relaxation. When bolts relax
they no longer maintain a tight joint.
Resistance to creep, or relaxa­
tion, is an important consideration
Illustrated above is the same part produced by machining from a large
for fastener systems at elevated
diameter bar or wire, shown to the right. Grain or metal flow lines are broken
temperature. Table 5 shows creep
through the head and washer sectjon, which creates planes of weakness.
values for several widely used
stainless steels, some of which are
readily available as "off-the-shelf" FIGURE 7. COLD-HEADING

•
fasteners.
Other considerations for
elevated-temperature service in­
clude thermal expansion character­ t-,
istics and oxidation resistance.
The thermal expansion of a
►
fastener should match the expan­
sion characteristics of the materials
being fastened, with a logical Illustrated above is a cold headed part formed from the diameter of wire
conclusion that stainless steel shown to the right. Unbroken metal flow lines (grain) greatly increase fatigue
life and enhance load-carrying ability.
fasteners are best for stainless steel
base metal joints; otherwise, there constant temperature condition is, Of primary importance to the
can be overstressing and possible for the most part, related to chrom­ development of the world's natural
failure, or a rapid loss in clamping ium content, as illustrated in Figure gas supplies is the handling and
stress. Table 6 shows the thermal 3. In Table 7, scale resistance is storage of liquid natural gas (LNG).
expansion characteristics of several expressed as temperature at maxi­ Fasteners have a role in LNG
corrosion resistant fastener materials. mum continuous service in air or processing for piping and heat
The oxidation or scaling resis­ maximum intermittent service (in exchanger flanges, pumps, and
tance of stainless steels under which temperature cycling occurs). various related equipment.
As the high-temperature environ­ Austenitic stainless steels are the
ment becomes contaminated by most widely used materials in
compounds of sulfur, carbon, cryogenic applications, especially
hydrogen, and the halogens, the Type 304, because it does not
problem of materials selection be­ become brittle as it is chilled. Not
comes even more complex. Never­ only does Type 304 remain tough
theless, stainless steels are widely and ductile at LNG temperature­
used in these environments. A fairly minus 260F ( -162C)-but it retains
comprehensive discussion of their excellent properties with liquid
application is found in a publication hydrogen ( -423F or -253C) and
by The International Nickel Com­ liquid helium at -452F ( -268C).
pany, "Corrosion Resistance of the Table 8 shows low-temperature
Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stain­ mechanical properties of several
less Steels in High-Temperature stainless steels used in cryogenic
Environments. 5" service.
18
 is show n in Figure 4. Th e magnetic
Magneticand permeabi lity of the sa me group , but
expressed as a function of tensile I
electrical
properties strength, is show n in Figure 5.
The straight -chrom ium , 400
Magnetism , for purposes of this Ser ies stainless stee ls are always
discussion , is the ability of a par t strongl y mag neti c . Th e degree of
to be attracted by a magne t and magnetic permeability, howev er , is
not th e part 's abili ty to fu nction as affected by chemical composition
a magnet It is mor e accurate ly and heat tr eatm ent. For highest
expressed as magnetic perme- initial permeability , the carbon con-
ability , and it can be an important te nt should be kept low; Types 416
design considera tion . One reason and 430 shou ld be fully annealed
is the need to have a magnetic for the bes t magnetic behavior.
mater ial for automatic assembly Durin g annealing , a dry hydroge n
operations On the ot he r hand , atmosphere should be used to keep
some highly sophist ica ted elec- surfaces bright and free of con-
tron ic equipment may req uir e ma- tamination, such as carbo n or
terials with very low or nil magnetic nitrog en co ntamin at ion wh ich can
permeability Stainless stee ls can dec rease permeability.
Chemical c lea nin g (pass ivat ion),
which removes iron partic les from
the surface , may also improve
permeabili ty.

Electrical
conductivity
The conduct ivity of a fastener
material may be important , althou gh
good design se ldom calls for a
fas tener to be a current-carry ing
member . Following are some con-
ductivity va lues expressed as a
•
percent of the Interna ti onal
Anneal ed Copper Sta nd ard at Manufacture
of
satis fy eith er requireme nt 68F (20C)
Low si licon bronze
stainless
steel
The austen it ic group of stainless
steels have essentia lly low magnet ic (col d-formed fasteners) 12% fasteners
permeabi lity in the annealed con - High sil icon bronze
dition ; i e , they w ill not be attracted (hot-formed and machined) 7% While designers seldom get in-
by a magnet Some of the austenitic Naval bronze 26% volved in the manufacture of
materials , however , are weakly Brass (cold formed) 27% fasteners, it ca n be useful to know
attracted by a magnet after severe Brass (machined) 26% something abou t the processes
co ld working. The effect of cold Electrolytic copper 101 % involved. Thi s can be especially true
working on magne tic prope rti es fo r Stainl ess Stee l (18-8) 5% if th e pr oduct requires a fastener
a few common 18-8 sta inless stee ls Aluminum (2024- T4) 30 % of spec ial design, such as th e many

19
 ©) @ @
o:::D (Ill
COJ a::o IT:Tl
REGULAR HEX NUT FINISHED HI:)( NUT HEX SLOTTED
FULL AND JAM FULL AND JAM NUT

"specials" illustrated in the photo­

TABLE 9-TORQUE GUIDE
graphs throughout this booklet.
There are two basic methods for
- BOLT SIZE
2-56
TYPE 304 ST. ST.
2.5
_... TYPE 316 ST. ST.
2.6
-
-
producing fasteners-machining
2-64 3.0 3.2
and cold heading-both of which 3-48 3.9 4.0
are applicable to stainless steels. 3-56 4.4 4.6
4-40 5.2 5.5
Machining is the oldest method 4-48 6.6 6.9
for fastener production, and it is still 5-40 7.7 8.1
specified for very large diameters 5-44 9.4 9.8
6-32 9.6 10.1
and for small production runs.

-
6-40 12.1 12.7
Machining, however, has a signifi­ 8-32 19.8 20.7
cant disadvantage, as illustrated in
- -
8-36 22.0 23.0
10-24 22.8 23.8

-
Figure 6. It disrupts metal grain .__

-
10-32 31.7 33.1
flow and creates planes of weak­
ness in the critical head-to-shank -
-
)-�0
¼"-28
- 75.2
94.0
78.8
99.0
138
-

-
fillet area. The result is some loss in
¾',"-18 -- 132
U,"-24 -- 142 147
load-carrying ability and a drastic
reduction in fatigue resistance. 6 -
-
%"-16
�"-24
¾'.''-14 -- 376
236
259
- -- 247
271
393

- --
Cold heading is a method of ?<,"-20 -- 400 418
forming wire into various shapes by
causing it to plastically flow into die -
---
½"-13
-
-- 517
-- 541
542
565

-
_l"2"-20
and punch cavities without pre­
�i/'-12 -- 682 713
-- 752 787

-
Yi/'-18
heating the material (Figure 7). --
---
%"-11 1110 1160
Bolts, screws, nails and rivets have ¾"-18 -- 1244 13C,1

F
- --
-
1530 1582

-
¾"-10
long been made by cold heading, ¾"-16 1490 1558

-
....___
but recent developments in this 2430

-
!/8"-9 2328

---
2420

__
field have expanded the market for ½"-14 2318
1"-8 3440 3595

- ---·-
special fasteners. 3250

-
1 "- 14 3110 ._
Cold heading has many important -- 413 432

-
1½"-7
--
-
1½"-12 390 4(J3
advantages in both quality and 546
1¼"-7 -- 523
economy. Production rates, for 1¼_"-12 -- 480 �04
example, can exceed 12,000 parts 1½"-6 -i -- 888 930
1½"-12 703 732
per hour. Cold heading also cold
works stainless steels, which results Source: ITT Harper
in significant increases in strength Suggested Max Torquing Values-a guide based upon industry tests on dry products wiped
clean. Values thru 1" diameter are stated in inch pounds; over 1" diameter, in foot pounds.
for the 300 Series types.
The ¾" diameter and under metal products were roll-threaded and, where size range
Following heading, the blank is permitted, were made on Bolt Maker equipment.
ready for threading, which is fre­
quently done by roll threading,
another cold forming technique that Plated coatings match, it is far more desirable to
use a fastener in which corrosion
preserves grain flow patterns. Some designers may be inclined protection is inherent within the
There are other operations in­ to think of plated fasteners as a material itself and not just added to
volved in fastener production, such low-cost solution to corrosion. the surface.
as head slotting, shank slotting (for While plated fasteners do serve a Stainless steels do not need any
thread-cutting screws), head drill­ useful purpose in some applica­ form of protective coating for resis­
ing, etc. But the making o,= and tions, such as when a plated tance to corrosion, in contrast with
threading the blank are the two coating is added for purposes of plain steel and some nonferrous
major processes. creating a special finish or color fastener materials. While plated or

20
 FIGURE 8. FASTENER LUBRICATION

2000
DRY

LUBRICATED
1111111
1600

I 1200
z
0
z
w
I-
800
0

400

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

TORQUE (lb .-in.)
Effect ot lubrication on torque-tension to 1250 lb. tension range .
relationships is shown by the chart which Torque values are affected in various
is based on results obtained with 9/16-18 ways by different types of lubricants . Wax
steel bolt driven into aluminum. For a non- on either the bolt or nut, or both, also acts
lubricated bolt, torques of 115 to 125 lb.-in. to reduce the torque requirements.
were required to develop tensions of 800
to 1400 lb. For a lubricated bolt, torque
values ranged from 65 to 75 lb.-in. for 1000 Source: Skidmore-Wilhelm Mfg. Co.

galvanized steel fasteners are ade- failure . Such discontinuities result

quate where corrosive conditions from wrench or driver damage ,
are not severe , many designers poor plating practices , or simp ly
conside r the extr a cost of stainle ss from the turning action of thr ead
stee l fasteners as inexpensive . agai nst thread.
insurance against possib le fai lure Furth ermo re, w hile the cos t of
or loss of eye appeal. When the sta inless stee l fasteners may be
cost of failure is considered , in more than plated fasteners, the
conjunction with the ease in which overa ll cost of the finished product
damage can occur to a protective (from a small app liance to a large
coating , it makes good sense to plant) wil l genera lly be affected
specify a fastener made of a ma- only by an insignificant amount.
terial which is inh erent ly corrosion Interestingly , plated coat ings are
resist ing. Often, a minute discon- applied to stainle ss stee ls for
tinuity in a plated surface is all that purposes of chang ing appearance.
is needed to lead to corrosive For instance , the de signer may
21
 (])

PAN HEAD BINDING HEAD FILLI STER HEAD

MACHINE SCREW MACHINE SCREW MACH I NE SCREW

how the fasteners wil l be installed. can be adjusted to speci fic torque
With any product, effective values. The most tro uble occu rs
utilizat ion requires knowledge of when replacement is being mad e
the product's characteristics as well under co ndit ions wher e tor q ue
as its proper use. Failure to fol low tools are not available. There are
accepted practices can lead to some gu idelines for these
difficulties, such as seizing and ci rcums tances:

• ga lling , which can be encoun tered

wit h fasteners made of any materia l
includin g stainless steels. There are
several courses of action open to
1) Tighten the nut fing er ti ght-
abou t one fo ot-p ound of
torque or less.
2) Tighten the nut one additional
designers that will minimize or turn , 360 deg rees, for proper
el imin ate such difficulties. torque. This is an arbitrary
Faste ners made in accordance figu re that applies primarily to
wi th nationally recognized stan- 300 Series fasteners . For
dards , such as pub lished by the
Ame ric an Nationa l Standa rds In-
stitute , Inc ., (ANSI), wi ll assure that
nuts and bolt s are uniformly
thr eade d. One of the common
ca uses for ga llin g is mismatched
thr eads, or threads that are not
uniform f rom shank or shoulder to
po int. Standards provide for product
uniformity supported by quality
contr ol practices.
Reaso nabl e care should be
exe rcis ed in the handling of fas-
teners to keep threads c lean and
free of dirt , espec ial ly coarse grime
or sand. If threads are tightened
down on sand, the chance of gall-
ing or seizing-in any fastener
want a black fastener , or a highly mater ial-increases sign ificant ly.
reflective chrome plated fastener to Torque , another consideration
match the surfaces being joined. in a proper ly fastened jo int , is the
Such requirements can be accom- twisting force appl ied to a fastener.
modate d in stainless steel. Tab le 9 offers some suggested
max imu m torque values for stain-

Effective
utilization less steel fastene rs. Th is table is a
gu ide based on industry tests that
ofstainless
steel provide maximum clamping values
with minimum risk of seizing. The
fasteners values are based on fasteners that
are dry-free of any lubricant-
In order to have an effective and wiped c lean of chips and
fastener system , the designer foreign matter.
should also be concerned with Most prod uct ion lines are
proper utili zation, espec ially as to equ ipp ed with assembly tools that

22
 cants have different effects also .
FIGURE 9. GALVANIC SERIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS Wax , for example , on either the bolt
or nut, or both , acts to reduce the
torque requirements .
Magnesium If a lubricant is going to be used ,
Magnesium Alloys
Zinc tests should be conducted to de-
Aluminum 1100 termine torque requirements and to
Cadmium Anodic
More Likely to Be evaluate the compatibility of the
Aluminum 2024-T4 Attacked lubricant to the environment-such
Steel
Iron as high temperature. Among the
Cast Iron
popular lubricants are those which
Lead-Tin Solders
Lead contain substantial amounts of
Tin
molybdenum disulfide , graphite,
Brasses
Copper mica, talc, copper or zinc fines , or
Bronzes zinc oxide. However , the zinc-
Copper-N ickel All oys
More Noble bearing lubricants are not recom-
Stainless Type 430 (Passive)
Stainless Typ e 304 (Passive) Cathodic
Stainless Type 316 (Passive )
mended for use with stainless steel
Silver at elevated temperatures .
Graphite
Gold
Platinum

Source: ITT Harper

hardened and tempered 400 can prevent this from happening

Series fasteners , this may be Some engineers are of the opin-
too high. In any event , a trial ion that the only way to avoid seiz-
test should be conducted with ing and galling is to lubricate the
a torque wrench for best threaded joint before it's assembled.
results. Adding a lubricant can affect the
In service at elevated temper- torque-tension relationships , as
ature , the buildup of oxides or shown in Figure 8. A lubricated
scale on fastener surfaces may
"fuse" threaded surfaces together.
fastener requires less torque to
achieve the same degree of tension
Designingfor
Regular loosening and retightening or clamping force. Different lubri- optimum corrosion
resistance
The best approach in effectively
combatting the destructiveness of
corrosion in a fastener system is
p revent ion.
Since corrosion resistance is an
important aspect of product reli-
abilit y, inherent in any attempt to
prevent corrosion is the careful
selection of fastener materials. A
common practice in industry is to
use fasteners made of metals or
allo ys that are more corrosion

23
 COMMON NAIL .
BOAT NAIL, AND COTTER PIN TAPER PIN
ESCUTCHEON PIN

resistant than the materials the y

join. Thi s practice is justified be-
cause the fasteners may have to
withstand higher loads with greater
unit stress than the parts they hold
together. Also , corrosion-weakened
fasteners may lead to a more im-
mediate failure with more serious
consequences than the same
amount of corrosive attack else-
where in the assembly.

Typesofcorrosion
Corrosion protection for a fas-
tened jo int encompasses much
mo re than a consideration of the
corrosion resistance of the fastener
itself. Actually required is an
analysis of the entire assembled
joint as a system. This system in-
cludes structural design , materials , When two different metals are in located nearest each other. Con -
stresses , product life expectancy contact , in po lluted water for versely , the chance of serious
and environmental conditions. example , in effect a batter y is corrosion effect is gr eater the
Because of the variety of special created , current flo ws, and one of further apart the metal s are loc ated
environmenta l conditions possible, the metals corrodes. In considering in the series. For example, one of
the subject of corrosion is very a bimetallic couple, it is important the worst galvanic joints would
complex. To simplify the subject, to know which of the two metals is consist of magnesium and Type
however, this discussion will at- more anodic (least noble). A guide 316 stainless steel.
tempt to put some of the more to this is the arrangement of metals A very important factor to con-
important factors in perspective . in the galvanic series chart shown sider in evaluating the potent ial for
Corrosion is the wearing away or in Figure 9. Any metal in this series galvanic corrosion problems is the
alteration of a metal either by direct will tend to have corrosion accel- relative surface area of the two
chemical attack or by electro- erated when it is coupled , in the different metals that are in direct
chemical reaction. There are several presence of an electrolyte , with a (electrical) contact in an assembly.
basic types of corrosion that may metal in a lower position. The For example , steel is located above
occur singly or in combination. The corrosion of this lower metal will stainless steel in the galvanic series
most prevalent form of attack in tend to be reduced . and is accordingl y subject to
fasteners, however , is electro- Some of the metals in the gal - accelerated corrosion when a
chemical in nature and can best be vanic series , it will be noted , are in galvanic couple is established. But
understood by a discussion of g roups . Under ordinary circum - the extent of this galvanic acti on
galvanic corrosion. stances no serious galvanic action depends on the relative area of
Galvanic Corrosion can occur will result from the coupling of each material. For instance , if small
when dissimilar metals are in con- metals within the same group . As is steel fasteners , such as rivets , are
tact in the presence of an electro- the case with the series as a whole , used to join stainless steel plate s.
lyte , which may be nothing more the safest galvanic combinations and the assembly is immersed in
than a wet industrial atmosphere. are those produced by metal s water , the steel rivets will cor rode

24
 will provide the needed corrosion
resistance. Stainless steels have
resistance to a broad range of
aggressive environments.
Concentration Cell Corrosion takes
place where metals are in close
proximity and , unlike galvanic cor-
rosion, does not require dissimilar
metals. When two or more areas
on the surface of a metal are ex-
posed to different concentrations of
the same solution , such as under
dirt or in crevices , a difference in
electrical potential results , and
corrosion takes place To avoid
such corrosion , keep surfaces
smooth and minimize or eliminate
lap joints, crevices, and seams.
Surfaces should be clean of organic
material and dirt. Bolts and nuts
should have smooth surfaces ,
especially in the seating areas .
Flush-head bolts should be used
when possible.
quickly. If, on the other hand, stain- A general rule to remember is to Fretting corrosive attack may occur
less steel rivets are used to join use the more-noble metal for the between contacting , high-loaded
steel plates in water, both rivets and part with the smaller surface area. metal surfaces subjected to very
plates will suffer negligible galvanic This makes a good case for using slight vibratory motion. It is most
attack, even in the immediate stainless steel fasteners for joining likely to occur in high tensile , high-
vicinity of the rivets. Aircraft de- metals that are less corrosion frequency dynamically loaded ap -
signers , for instance , who specify resistant. Table 10 provides guide- plications , and it can be prevented
stainless steel fasteners in alum- lines for the selection of fasteners by specify ing fasteners with high
inum structures depend upon this for various base metals . If the hardness and requiring maximum
area-relationship principle. The potential is high for galvanic cor- preloading of the fastened joint. A
greater the relative area of the rosion in a fastened joint , it is higher clamping force results in a
anodic metal (the metal that cor- possible to insulate the fastener. more rigid joint with less move-
rodes} , the less severe the Other types of corrosion of con- ment.
corrosion. cern to the designer are direct Oxidation is the reaction with oxy-
The area relationship depends attack, concentration cell corrosion gen , or other gases , at high
not only on the relative area of the or crevice attack, fretting , oxidation , temperatures . Some stainless steels
materials in the structure , but also stress-corrosion cracking , and have good oxidation resistance at
on the number of fasteners . Some- corrosion fatigue . high temperature. (See discussion
times an acceptable balance of Direct Attack is the most common of stainless steels for high-temper-
incompatible metals may be form of corrosion affecting all ature service on page 16.)
achieved by adjusting the number metals and structures . It is a direct Stress-Corrosion Cracking is be-
of fasteners used , or by relocating and general chemical reaction of lieved to be caused by the com -
the fasteners to distribute them the metal with a corrosive environ- bined and mutually accelerating
more uniformly to avoid a local ment-liquid , gas, or even a solid. effects of a tensile stress and a
condition of low relative area . Usually a material can be found that corrosive environment-such as

25
 HEX WASHER
- -
Fl LUSTER HEXAGON

.?

l ll
with copper-base alloys in a sulfur be purchased. With the name and tenitic Chromium-N ick el Stainless
environment or with some stainless address of each company is a list Steels in High-Tem perature En-
steels in chloride environments at of the fastener types available from vironments ," The Internat ional
elevated temperature Methods of that company. There are 62 fastener Nickel Compan y , 1963 .
combatting stress-corrosion crack- types listed , including bolts, nuts , 6. Varrese, F. R., "A User 's Guide
ing include relieving the stress , screws, staples, washers, rivets, to Fastener Reliabil ity," METAL
removing the critical environment, lock nuts, nails, studs, threaded PROGRESS , Decembe r 1974.
or selecting a more corrosion- rod, pins , cap screws, hooks , hose
resistant stainless steel or a stain-
less steel (straight-chromium 400
clamps, and specials.
Acknowledgement
series or proprietary grade) that is
not subject to this phenomenon. References The Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers acknowledges the data
Corrosion Fatigue is accelerated 1. " Steel Products Manual-Stain- and materials that were received
fatigue failure occuring in a cor- less and Heat-Resisting Steels," from the following:
rosive medium. It differs from American Iron and Steel Institute , Accurate Threaded Fasteners,
stress-corrosion cracking in that December 1974. Inc.
dynamic alternating stress is the 2 "Compi lation of Trade Names, Adjustable Bushing Corp.
contributing factor. Factors extend- Specifications , and Producers of Ajax Hard ware Corporation
ing fatigue performance are ap- Stainless Alloys and Super- Avibank Mfg. Inc.
plication and maintenance of a high alloys," ASTM Data Series OS Clendenin Bros. Inc.
preload , and proper alignment to 45, American Society for Testing Dzus Fastener Co., Inc.
avoid bending stresses. and Materials. Harvey Hubbell, Inc.
3. " Mechanical and Quality Re- Hi-Shear Corporation
Availability quirements for Stainless Steel
and Nonferrous Bolts , Screws ,
Huck Manufacturing Company
Lamson & Sessions
of stainless
steel Studs, and Nuts," IFl-104, a Maclean-Fogg Lock Nut Co.
standard published by the Indus- Mid-West Fabricating Co.
fasteners trial Fasteners Institute of Cleve- West Bent Bolt Division
A booklet, "Stainless Steel land, Ohio. Rosan , Inc.
Fasteners Suggested Source List ," 4. "Sta inless Steel Cold-Formed Standard Pressed Steel Co.
published by the Committee of Structural Design Manual, 1974 Stillwater Assoc.
Stainless Steel Producers in 1975, Edition," American Iron and Townsend Division of
identifies over 300 companies Steel Institute. Textron Inc.
where stainless steel fasteners can 5. "Corrosion Resistance of Aus-

26
TABLE 10 – GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF FASTENERS BASED ON GALVANIC ACTION

Fastener Metal

Brasses, Austenitic
Zinc & Aluminum & Copper, Martensitic Stainless
Galvanized Aluminum Steel & Cast Bronzes, Stainless Types 302/304
Base Metal Steel Alloys Iron Monel Type 416 303, 305

Zinc & A B C C C C
Galvanized Steel

Aluminum & A A B C Not B

Aluminum Alloys Recommended

Steel & Cast Iron AD A A C C B

Terne (Lead-Tin) ADE AE AE C C B

Plated Steel Sheets

Brasses, Copper, ADE AE AE A A B

Bronzes, Monel

Ferritic Stainless ADE AE AE A A A

(Type 430)

Austenitic Stainless ADE AE AE AE A A

(Type 302/304)

Key: A. The corrosion of base metal is not increased by D. The

 plating on the fastener is rapidly consumed,
the fastener. leaving the bare fastener metal.
B. The corrosion of the base metal is marginally E. The corrosion on the fastener is increased by the
increased by the fastener. base metal.
C. The corrosion of the base metal may be markedly NOTE: S urface treatment and environment can
increased by the fastener material. change activity.